CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... xi

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1

1-1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

1-2 Significance of the work .............................................................................................. 3

1-3 Objectives of project work ........................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 5

2-1 Background Study on Ammonium Nitrate .................................................................. 5

2-2 Forms in which Ammonium Nitrate is Marketed ........................................................ 7

2-3 Ammonium Nitrate Product Preservation .................................................................... 8

2-4 World Consumption of Ammonium Nitrate ................................................................ 9

2-5 Applications of Ammonium Nitrate .......................................................................... 10

2-6 Impact of Ammonium Nitrate on the Ecosystem ...................................................... 11

2-7 Ammonia.................................................................................................................... 13

2-8 Nitric Acid ................................................................................................................. 14

CHAPTER THREE: PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION ............................... 16

3-1 Process Selection ....................................................................................................... 16

i
 3-2 Process Description .................................................................................................... 18

3-2.1 Process Description for The Production of Ammonia (NH3) ............................. 18

3-2.2 Process Description for The Production of Nitric Acid (HNO3) ........................ 19

3-2.3 Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3) Production ......................................................... 20

CHAPTER 4: MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES ................................................. 23

4-1 Material Balance ........................................................................................................ 23

4-2 Energy Balance .......................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER 5: PUMPS, PIPELINES AND EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION .............. 37

5-1 Pumps specifications .................................................................................................. 37

5-2 Pipeline specifications ............................................................................................... 40

5-3 Equipment specifications ........................................................................................... 45

CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN OF SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT

.............................................................................................................................................. 55

6-1 Design of a Shell and Tube Heat exchanger .............................................................. 55

6-1.1 Problem Statement .............................................................................................. 55

6-1.2 Main objective .................................................................................................... 55

6-1.3 Specific objectives .............................................................................................. 55

6-1.4 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 55

6-1.5 Equipment Selection ........................................................................................... 58

6-1.6 Equipment Justification ...................................................................................... 60

6-1.7 Equipment Description ....................................................................................... 61

ii
 6-1.8 Chemical Engineering Design ............................................................................ 64

6-1.9 Mechanical Engineering Design ......................................................................... 76

6-1.9.10 Design of Gaskets .......................................................................................... 82

6-1.9.11 Bolts ............................................................................................................... 83

6-1.9.12 Flange design ................................................................................................. 85

6-1.9.13 Weight Analysis ............................................................................................. 86

6-1.9.14 Stress Analysis ............................................................................................... 90

6-1.9.15 Vessel Support ............................................................................................... 91

6-2 Design of Absorption Column ................................................................................... 93

6-2.1 Problem Statement .............................................................................................. 93

6-2.2 Objective ............................................................................................................. 93

6-2.3 Background ......................................................................................................... 94

6-2.4 Equipment Description ....................................................................................... 98

6-2.5 Mode of Operation ............................................................................................ 103

6-2.6 Chemical Engineering Design .......................................................................... 105

6-2.6.1 Material Balance on Absorption column ....................................................... 105

6-2.6.2 Superficial gas velocity .................................................................................. 110

6-2.6.3 Diameter of column ....................................................................................... 112

6-2.6.4 Dry packing resistance co-efficient ............................................................... 113

6-2.6.5 Dry gas pressure drop .................................................................................... 115

6-2.6.6 Pressure drop at flooding ............................................................................... 116

iii
 6-2.6.7 Ratio of specific areas .................................................................................... 117

6-2.6.8 Specific liquid holdup .................................................................................... 119

6-2.6.9 Wetting rate .................................................................................................... 120

6-2.6.10 Number of overall gas phase transfer unit ................................................... 120

6-2.6.11 Effective wetted area.................................................................................... 121

6-2.6.12 Gas film mass transfer coefficient ............................................................... 123

6-2.6.13 Liquid film mass transfer coefficient ........................................................... 124

6-2.6.14 Height of overall gas phase transfer............................................................. 125

6-2.6.15 Height of packed bed ................................................................................... 127

6-2.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN .................................................... 129

6-2.7.1 Material of Construction ................................................................................ 129

6-2.7.2 Design Pressure .............................................................................................. 132

6-2.7.3 Design Temperature ....................................................................................... 132

6-2.7.4 Wall Thickness............................................................................................... 132

6-2.7.5 Column Head Design ..................................................................................... 133

6-2.7.6 Total Weight .................................................................................................. 134

6-2.8 Design Stress ..................................................................................................... 137

6-2.9 Vessel Supports ................................................................................................. 139

6-3 Design of an Evaporator .......................................................................................... 144

6-3.1 Problem statement ............................................................................................. 144

6-3.2 Literature review ............................................................................................... 144

iv
 6-3.3 Equipment Selection ......................................................................................... 149

6-3.4 Equipment Description ..................................................................................... 150

6-3.5 Cascade Control for Multi-Effect Evaporator................................................... 152

6-3.6 Chemical Engineering Design .......................................................................... 153

6-4 Design of a Reactor .................................................................................................. 163

6-4.1 Reactors............................................................................................................. 163

6-4.2 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 164

6-4.3 Objectives ......................................................................................................... 165

6-4.4 Equipment Justification .................................................................................... 165

6-4.5 Description of A Fixed Bed Catalytic Multi-Tubular Reactor ......................... 166

6-4.6 Mode of operation ............................................................................................. 169

6-4.7 Chemical Engineering Design ...................................................................... 171

6-4.8 Mechanical Engineering Design ....................................................................... 184

CHAPTER 7: PLANT LOCATION .................................................................................. 199

7-1 Site Selection ........................................................................................................... 199

7-2 Availability of Land ................................................................................................. 199

7-3 Availability of Raw Material ................................................................................... 199

7-4 Availability of labour ............................................................................................... 200

7-5 Availability of utilities ............................................................................................. 200

7-6 Transport facilities ................................................................................................... 201

7-7 Government influence .............................................................................................. 202

v
CHAPTER 8: SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL ................................................ 203

8-1 Introduction to safety ............................................................................................... 203

8-2 Safety Analysis ........................................................................................................ 203

8-3 Pollution control....................................................................................................... 207

CHAPTER 9: INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL .............................. 211

9-1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 211

9-2 Process Variables ..................................................................................................... 212

CHAPTER 10: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ........................................................................ 220

10-1 Basis of Economic Analysis .................................................................................. 220

10-2 Total Capital Investment ........................................................................................ 221

10-2.1 Purchased Equipment Costs............................................................................ 221

10-2.2 Direct Cost Estimation .................................................................................... 223

10-2.3 Indirect Cost Estimation ................................................................................. 225

10-2.5 Working Capital .............................................................................................. 227

10-2.6 Total Capital Investment ................................................................................. 227

10-3 Total Product Cost Estimation ............................................................................... 227

10-3.1 Manufacturing Costs ....................................................................................... 227

10-3.2 General Expenses ............................................................................................ 233

10-4 Annual Cash Flow.................................................................................................. 234

10-5 Profitability Analysis ............................................................................................. 236

10-5.1 Turn-Over Ratio (TOR) .................................................................................. 236

vi
 10-5.2 Rate of Return (ROR) ..................................................................................... 237

10-5.3 Internal Rate of Return (IROR) ...................................................................... 237

10-6 Sensitivity Analysis ............................................................................................... 243

CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................ 246

11-1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 246

11-2 Recommendation ................................................................................................... 247

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 248

APPENDIX A SAMPLE MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATIONS .......................... 254

APPENDIX B SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ON ENERGY BALANCE ........................ 258

APPENDIX C SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ON ECONOMIC ANALYSIS .................. 260

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1.1: General Properties of Ammonium Nitrate ......................................................... 6

Table 2-7.1 Chemical Properties of Ammonia..................................................................... 14

Table 4-1.1 Summary of Data for Material Balance ............................................................ 24

Table 4-2.1 Latent Heat of Vaporization of Materials ......................................................... 31

Table 4-2.2 Heat of Vaporization of Materials .................................................................... 32

Table 5-1 summary of the pump specifications ................................................................... 39

Table 5-2 Summary of pipeline specifications ..................................................................... 41

vii
Table 5-3 Equipment Specification ...................................................................................... 45

Table 6-1.4.1 Summary of types of heat exchangers designs .............................................. 56

Table 6-1.8.1 Physical property of superheated steam shell side......................................... 64

Table 6-1.8.2: Physical property of stream at tube side. ...................................................... 64

Table 6-1.8.3: Symbols and their respective meanings ........................................................ 65

Table 6-1.8.4 Heat load in shell and tube ............................................................................. 67

Table 6-1.8.5 Type and dimension ....................................................................................... 68

Table 6-1.8.5 Heat transfer area ........................................................................................... 68

Table 6-1.8.6 Layout and tube size ...................................................................................... 69

Table 6-1.8.7 Tube calculations ........................................................................................... 69

Table 6-1.8.8 Bundle and shell diameter.............................................................................. 70

Table 6-1.8.9 Tube side heat transfer coefficient ................................................................. 70

Table 6-1.8.10 Shell side heat transfer coefficient ............................................................... 71

Table 6-1.8.11 Overall coefficient ....................................................................................... 73

Table 6-1.8.12 Tube side pressure ....................................................................................... 74

Table 6-1.8.13 Shell side pressure drop ............................................................................... 74

Table 6-1.8.14 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design ................................................ 75

Table 6-1.9.15.1 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design .......................................... 92

Table 6-2.1 Hydraulic and mass-transfer parameters of four selected packing materials . 102

Table 6-2.1 Sensor description ........................................................................................... 104

Table 6-2-3 Calculation of average viscosity of flue gas ................................................... 109

Table 6-2-4 The critical surface tension of some materials ............................................... 122

Table 6-2-5 Summary of Chemical Design Calculations................................................... 128

Table 6-2-6 Relative cost of metals in July, 2006 .............................................................. 131

viii
Table 6-2. 7 Summary of Mechanical Design Calculations............................................... 143

Table 6-3.1 Components of feed to evaporator .................................................................. 154

Table 6-3.2 Components of Ammonium Nitrate Melt from evaporator ............................ 154

Table 6-3.3 Summary of overall material balance ............................................................. 158

Table 6-3.4 Summary of Known Data and calculated values ............................................ 163

Table 6-4.1 Data for feed entering the reactor ................................................................... 171

Table 6-4.2 Data for effluent .............................................................................................. 171

Table 6-4.3Summary of chemical engineering calculation ................................................ 183

Table 6-4.4Summary of Mechanical Design Calculations................................................. 197

Table 8-1.1 Summary of Safety Analysis .......................................................................... 205

Table 9-2.1 Summary of temperature control .................................................................... 212

Table 9-2.2 Summary of pressure control .......................................................................... 213

Table 9-2.3 Summary on flow control ............................................................................... 215

Table 9-2.4 Summary on level control ............................................................................... 217

Table 9-2.5 Summary of composition control ................................................................... 218

Table 10-2.1 Purchase Cost Equipment Summary............................................................. 221

Table 10-2.2 Purchase cost of equipment .......................................................................... 222

Table 10-2.3 Direct Cost Equipment Summary ................................................................. 225

Table 10-2.3.1 Indirect Cost Summary .............................................................................. 226

Table 10-3.1 Total Raw Material Cost ............................................................................... 228

Table 10-3.2 Summary of Direct Labour Cost ................................................................... 229

Table 10-3.3 Summary of Indirect Labour Cost ................................................................ 229

Table 10-3.4 Summary of Direct Production Cost ............................................................. 231

Table 10-3.5 Summary of Fixed Charges .......................................................................... 232

ix
Table 10-3.5.1 Summary of Manufacturing Cost .............................................................. 233

Table 10-3.2.1 Summary of General expenses .................................................................. 233

Table 10-4.1 Summary of selling price of products ........................................................... 234

Table 10-4.2 Summary of Annual Cash flow for first year ............................................... 235

Table 10-5.2 Amount to pay banks .................................................................................... 237

Table 10-5.2 Summary of Annual Cumulative Cash Flow ................................................ 238

Table 10-5.3 Summary of DCFRR .................................................................................... 241

Table 10-6.1 Cases for Sensitivity Analysis ...................................................................... 244

Table 10-6.2 Summary of estimates from Sensitivity Analysis ......................................... 244

x
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1.1 The General Ammonium Nitrate Manufacturing Processes ............................. 6

Figure 2-1.2 International AN Consumer Statistics ............................................................. 10

Figure 6-2.1 A schematic drawing of a perforated plate ...................................................... 96

Figure 6-2. 1 A picture of a bubble cap plate ....................................................................... 96

Figure 6-2. 2 A schematic diagram of a valve cap .............................................................. 97

Figure 6-2. 3 Parts of an absorption column ........................................................................ 99

Figure 6-2. 4 Pictures of different packing materials ......................................................... 101

Figure 6-2. 5 Control loop for the absorption column ....................................................... 103

Figure 6-2.7 A diagram of the head of the column ............................................................ 133

Figure 6-2. 8 A diagram of a conical skirt support ............................................................ 140

Figure 6-3.1 Backward feeding of a Triple effect evaporator ............................................ 151

Figure 6-3.2 Block schematic diagram of Cascade control (IJLEMR, 2018) .................... 152

Figure 6-3.3 Block schematic of the cascade control of Triple-effect evaporator ............. 153

Figure 6-4.1 Multi-tubular fixed bed reactor ..................................................................... 167

Figure 6-4.2 Tube filled with catalyst ................................................................................ 169

Figure 6-4.3 A fixed bed catalytic multi-tubular reactor mode of operation ..................... 170

Figure 7-6.1 A map showing Sub-Metro Areas and Major Roads..................................... 201

Figure 10-6 the cases for the sensitivity analysis ............................................................... 244

xi
ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to design a chemical process plant for the production of low density

Ammonium Nitrate prills for use as fertilizer and explosives. The main raw materials for this

process are Ammonia and Nitric acid. The ammonia and nitric acid are combined to undergo

a neutralization reaction to obtain a salt solution of Ammonium nitrate. Ammonium Nitrate

of purity 97.5% is produced at 205.48 tonnes per day which translates to 75,000 tonnes/year.

Plant attainment is 91.78% as plant will be operated for 330 days per year. The production

process is carried out in three main stages. Neutralization of Ammonia and Nitric acid,

evaporation to produce 96% AN melt and prill formation. A comprehensive material and

energy balance on unit operations were generated using Microsoft Excel. The Total Capital

Investment (TCI) needed is $ 30, 310, 814.09. The annual Rate of Return and Internal Rate

of Return are 11. 2% and 6%. The plant is estimated to have a plant life of 35 years with a

payback period of approximately 8.9 years. The Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return is

15.2%.

xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

 AN – Ammonium Nitrate

 US EPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency

 MT – Metric Tonnes

 CPAN – Chemically Pure Ammonium Nitrate

 SSAN – Security Sensitive Ammonium Nitrate

 UN Number – United Nations Number

 ANFO – Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil

 IPNI – International Plant Nutrition Institute

 AIChE – American Institute of Chemical Engineers

 NO – Nitric Oxide/ Nitric Monoxide

 ANR – Ammonium Nitrate Recycle Stream

 NA – Nitric Acid

 AM - Ammonia

 ANS1 – Ammonium Nitrate Solution One

 ST1 – Steam Stream One

 MNS – Magnesium Nitrate Stream

 E-NA – Excess Nitric Acid

 ANS2 – Ammonium Nitrate Solution 2

 ST2 – Steam Stream 2

 ANMT – Ammonium Nitrate Melt

 EFF1 – Effluent Stream 1

xiii
 ANPS – Ammonium Nitrate Prill Stream

 DHA – Dehumidified Air

 EFF2 – Effluent Stream 2

 ANFP – Ammonium Nitrate Final Products

 S-NA – Scrubber Nitric Acid

 EFF3 – Effluent Stream 3

 MTPA – Metric Tonnes Per Annum

 TPD – Tonnes Per Day

 LDAN – Low Density Ammonium Nitrate

 ROR- Rate of Return

 IROR- Internal Rate of Return

 PBT- Payback time

 TOR- Turn Over Ratio

 DCFRR- Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return

xiv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1-1 Introduction

Ammonium Nitrate is one of the commonest nitric acid-based fertilizers produced worldwide

with 34% nitrogen content (Kirova-Yordanova, 2014). In the year 1991, about 9 million tons

of Ammonium Nitrate was produced by 58 plants in 22 American states (US EPA, 2019). By

the year 2011, worldwide total production of Ammonium Nitrate became 45 million metric

tons. Ammonium Nitrate is used as fertilizer worldwide, but is especially appropriate for the

temperate zone climate and soils as it contains nitrogen in both ammonium (slow) and nitrate

(quick) active forms. Greater quantities of Ammonium Nitrate are being produced and

consumed in the northern hemisphere, but Latin America’s consumption and production has

recently increased rapidly (Kirova-Yordanova, 2014). Ammonium Nitrate compound has

adopted interesting names since its inception. These other names include Nitric acid

ammonium salt, Chemically Pure Ammonium Nitrate (CPAN), Security Sensitive

Ammonium Nitrate (SSAN), Nitram and Nitropril (IXOM Operations, 2016).

Ammonium Nitrate is produced by neutralizing liquid nitric acid with ammonia in its gaseous

state. The resultant Ammonium Nitrate may be stored and sold as solution or formed into

solid Ammonium Nitrate grains, crystals, prills or granules. AN may be mixed with a solid

filler; the most common of which is calcium carbonate in the form of ground limestone or

dolomite. This results in a product which is known in the industry as Calcium Ammonium

Nitrate (US EPA, 2019). For Ammonium Nitrate prills, they can either be high density or

low density prills. High density prills, granules, and crystals are used as fertilizers, grains are

used solely in explosives, and low density prills can be used as either (US EPA, 2019). Apart

from the main applications of Ammonium Nitrate, some additional uses are as ingredient in

1
rust inhibitors, for freezing mixtures, as slow-burning propellant for missiles, as a component

of insecticides, and for pyrotechnics.

Close to 20 percent Ammonium Nitrates produced are used for explosives and the other 80

percent for fertilizer (US EPA, 2019). Ammonium Nitrate is a very powerful explosive

used in the mining industry. The deadliest industrial accident in the history of United States

of America was in the port of Texas City, Texas, in 1947, when a carelessly tossed cigarette

started a fire aboard a ship carrying about 2,300 tons (2,086,000 kg) of Ammonium Nitrate

packed in paper sacks. When the chemical exploded, it caused a blast powerful enough to

knock people to the ground 10 miles (16 km) away. An estimated 581 people were killed in

the explosion. (Lallanila, 2013)

Disasters involving Ammonium Nitrate have not always been accidents; some terrorists use

the chemical as a weapon of mass destruction. For this reason, Ammonium Nitrate has been

banned in some countries, and in others, very strict codes and standards concerning the

handling and storage of Ammonium Nitrate have been implemented. Terrorists by names,

Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols packed the chemical into a rented truck to bomb the

Alfred P. Murrah federal building in Oklahoma City. 168 people in 1995 were killed as a

result of the terrorist attack. Again, in 2002, the chemical was used again in bombing Bali

that killed 202 people. Later in 2011, it was discovered that Anders Behring Breivk used

Ammonium Nitrate to bomb Oslo and it killed 8 people. (Lallanila, 2013). This implies that

Ammonium Nitrate in the hands of the wrong people will cost the end of lives.

It is a known fact that there is no primary production of AN based fertilizers in Ghana. Ghana

imports a chunk of its fertilizers. Three of the major companies involved in fertilizer imports

in Ghana are Yara Ghana, Chemical Limited and Louis Dreyfus Commodities Ghana situated

2
in the port city of Tema and Kpong. Most of the Ammonium Nitrate which Ghana imports

are used by the mining industries as explosives. In 2015, Ghana imported 357,829 MT of

fertilizers and 66,112 MT out of the quantity was Ammonium Nitrate. Ghana made no

exports in relation to Ammonium Nitrate although there are exports of other fertilizer types

that were imported. The highest fertilizer exports from Ghana recorded was 7,520MT in

2014. Most of Ghana’s exports are to Burkina Faso, the neighboring country to the north of

Ghana. Therefore, there is a pressing need for an Ammonium Nitrate plant in Ghana and this

process design project will be the first of its kind when the plant finally starts operating.

1-2 Significance of the work

Currently, as stated earlier, Ghana imports large quantities of fertilizers. Ghana’s Ammonium

Nitrate imports in 2012 was 93,322MT and increased to 99,322MT in 2013. In 2017, Ghana

imported 71,555.67MT of AN which amounted to $33,649,740.00 and exported 1120MT

which also amounted to $1,036,730. The statistics show that about 98% of the Ammonium

Nitrate imported was used by the country. This statistic clearly indicates a considerable

demand for Ammonium Nitrate in the country especially in the mining sector (where its

essence is most harnessed)

The production of low density AN prills (which serve a dual purpose as both fertilizer and

explosive) would really go a good way to support the country’s demand for Ammonium

Nitrate, especially the mining sector.

1-3 Objectives of project work

1-3.1 Main Objective

To design a plant for the production of low density Ammonium Nitrate prills.

3
1-3.2 Specific Objectives

Although there is one main objective to the project, the following are the precise objectives;

1. To conduct a survey on existing literature on the production of Ammonium Nitrate.

2. To identify the relevance, significance, scope and objectives of project.

3. To select and describe the best available technique for producing Ammonium Nitrate.

4. To calculate material and energy balances for the process selected.

5. To obtain specifications of all equipment in the plant.

6. To design selected equipment for the unit operations in the plant.

7. To determine where best the plant should be situated.

8. To model possible arrangements of facilities in the factory.

9. To discuss the safety and pollution aspects of the plant as well as propose means of

control.

10. To select necessary instrumentation and process controls for the plant.

11. To evaluate economic viability of the plant based on cost cash flow, profits and return

on investments.

4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2-1 Background Study on Ammonium Nitrate

2-1.1 Historical Background

Ammonium Nitrate (AN) was first made artificially in 1659 by the German chemist Johann

Rudolf Glauber. It is a whitish, crystalline compound which is so soluble that it is washed

out of the soil by rain and surface water, therefore it does not exist naturally. Ammonium

Nitrate has explosive characteristics especially when it is heated above 200℃ (390℉).

However, at lower temperatures the Ammonium Nitrate compound is stable. In 2004, it

ranked fourteenth among all chemicals manufactured in the united states; merely over six

million metric tons of the compound were produced in 2004. Ammonium Nitrate is also

called German saltpeter, Norway saltpeter or ammonium salt. (Encyclopedia.com, 2019).

All Ammonium Nitrate plants produce an aqueous Ammonium Nitrate solution through the

reaction of ammonia and nitric acid in a neutralizer according to the following equation

(Speight, 2017):

NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3

The process involves several unit process operations including:

1. Solution formation and concentration

2. Solids formation

3. Finishing

4. Screening and coating

5. Product Bagging and/or bulk shipping

These general operations are illustrated in the block diagram (Figure 2-1) below

5
Figure 2-1.1 The General Ammonium Nitrate Manufacturing Processes

Source: US EPA (1993)

2-1.2 Properties of Ammonium Nitrate

Some general properties of AN are given in Table 2-1 below:

Table 2-1.1: General Properties of Ammonium Nitrate

CATEGORY PROPERTY

Appearance Colourless crystal and white solid

Formula NH4NO3

Nitrogen content 35%

U.N. Number 1942

Molecular weight 80.04 g/mol

6
 Density 1.72 g/cm3

187 @ 20°C
Solubility g/100 g water
843 @ 100°C

Specific gravity 1.725 @ 20 °C

Specific heat capacity 0.422 kcal/kg°C @ 20°C

Heat of fusion 16.75 – 18.3 kcal/kg

Melting point 169.6°C

Source: (Kiiski, 2009)

2-2 Forms in which Ammonium Nitrate is Marketed

Ammonium Nitrate may exist in various forms depending upon its use; it may be liquid or

solid. Over 50% of Ammonium Nitrate produced worldwide is produced the solid form, the

balance is in the liquid product form. To produce Ammonium Nitrate in the solid form, the

Ammonium Nitrate solution is concentrated in an evaporator or concentrator. The resulting

"melt" contains about 95 to 99.8 percent Ammonium Nitrate at about 149⁰C (300F),

depending on the desired final product density. This melt is used to produce solid Ammonium

Nitrate. Prilling and granulation are the most used processes in the production of solid

Ammonium Nitrate. In AN prill production, the concentrated melt is sprayed into the top of

a prill tower; in the tower, Ammonium Nitrate droplets fall counter-current to a rising stream

of air, that cools and solidifies the falling droplets into spherical prills. Density of the prills

can be varied by using different concentrations of AN melt. (Arora et al ,2019)

7
2-2.1 Low Density and High Density Ammonium Nitrate Prills

Low-density AN prills, with approximately 1.29 specific gravity, are formed from a melt of

concentration between 95 to 97.5 percent Ammonium Nitrate, and high-density AN prills,

with specific gravity of about 1.65 specific gravity, are formed from a melt of 99.5 to 99.8

percent Ammonium Nitrate. Low-density prills are more porous than high-density prills; they

have a higher moisture content owing to their lower melt concentration. As such, they require

drying in rotary drums or fluidized beds before cooling. High-density prills are commonly

used in fertilizer applications, whereas low-density prills are additionally used for making

explosives, because they will absorb oil. (US EPA,1993).

2-2.2 Ammonium Nitrate Granules

Ammonium Nitrate granules are produced in rotary drum granulators by spraying a melt

(99.0 to 99.8 percent) onto small (seed) particles of AN in a long rotating cylindrical drum.

As the seed particles rotate in the drum, successive layers of Ammonium Nitrate melt are

added to the particles, forming granules. The granules are withdrawn from the granulator and

screened. Off-size granules are crushed and recycled to the granulator as additional seed

particles or are dissolved and recycled to the solution formation process. Granulation may be

done with pan granulators; they operate on the same principle as drum granulators, except

the solids are formed in a large, rotating circular pan. Pan granulators produce a solid

Ammonium Nitrate products with physical properties close to those from drum granules. (US

EPA,1993).

2-3 Ammonium Nitrate Product Preservation

Magnesium Nitrate or Magnesium Oxide may be injected directly into the melt stream as an

additive; this serves three purposes: it raises the crystalline transition temperature of the final

8
AN solid product; it acts as a desiccant - drawing water into the final product to reduce

caking; it allows the of AN solidification to occur at a low temperature - by lowering the

freezing point of the AN melt. The temperature of the Ammonium Nitrate product exiting

the solids formation process is conventionally around 66 to 124C (150 to 255F). Cooling in

a Rotary drum or fluidized bed prevents deterioration and agglomeration of solids before

storage or shipping. Since the solids are produced in a wide variety of sizes, the cooled prills

are screened so as to achieve size-consistency. Off-size prills are normally dissolved and

recycled to the solution concentration process. Granules are usually screened before cooling.

Undersize particles are recycled directly to the granulator and oversize granules may be either

crushed and returned to the granulator or recycled back to the solution concentration process.

Following screening, products may be coated in a rotary drum to prevent agglomeration

during storage or shipment. The common coating materials are clays and diatomaceous earth.

However, the injection of additives into the melt stream before solidification, as described

above, may preclude any further coating. Solid Ammonium Nitrate is usually stored and

shipped in either bulk or bags. In certain applications, AN solutions may be blended for

marketing as liquid fertilizers. (US EPA,1993).

2-4 World Consumption of Ammonium Nitrate

There is continuous pressure around the world to regulate the use and trade of Ammonium

Nitrate and this is because of its potential for misuse. Ammonium Nitrate may be used as an

explosive by terrorists or may detonate accidentally when its production is not regulated.

There are several countries that have banned the sale of Ammonium Nitrate, even as a

fertilizer. Some of these countries are Afghanistan, China, Colombia, the Philippines and

Turkey. On the global level, the consumption growth of Ammonium Nitrate has depreciated.

Since India reclassified the compound as an explosive, some countries such as Australia,

9
Germany, Ireland, Pakistan and the United Kingdom have banned the sale of pure

Ammonium Nitrate. There are very stringent regulations related to handling and storage of

the compound (Deguzman and Kong-Ling, 2019). In accordance with (Figure 2-1.2) below,

Europe is currently the leading consumer of Ammonium Nitrate followed by the United

States of America, in that order. (IHS.Markit, 2019).

Figure 2-1.2 International AN Consumer Statistics

Source: IHS.Markit, (2019).

2-5 Applications of Ammonium Nitrate

2-5.1 Application as a Fertilizer

Fertilizer companies utilize ammonia nitrate as an interim product to manufacture complex

fertilizer which accelerates growth in plant cultivation. Ammonium nitrate is a popular

fertilizer since it provides half of the nitrogen in the nitrate form and half in the ammonia

form. Ammonia nitrate are used by many farmers since it is easy to handle, readily absorbs

in the land and has very little impurities. Its smaller specific surface area and the bulk density

also contributes to its convenience for use, storage and transportation. Ammonia nitrate prills

10
are less prone to vitalization loses than other fertilizers when left on the soil surface hence its

use for pasture. (IPNI, 2007).

2-5.2 Application as an Explosive

Ammonium nitrate is used as a predominant component in the production of explosives.

Ammonia nitrate by itself is not an explosive. It forms explosives mixtures without

reluctance. Ammonia nitrate has changing characteristics when merged with primary

explosives like azides or with fuels such as aluminum powder or fuel oil. Ammonia nitrate

is the principal constituents of an explosive called ammonia nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) which is

a mixture of 94% ammonia nitrate and 6% of fuel oil. The mixture serves as an oxidizing

agent for fuel. The explosives produced using ammonia nitrates are used in many industries

including mining companies because of its low cost and relative availability. (Garcia, 2008)

2-5.3 Application as a Nitrous Oxide

Ammonia nitrate is used in the production of nitrous oxides. Ammonia nitrates is heated

gently with the temperature of about 250 C to obtain the nitrous oxides. It is also known as

the’ laughing gas’ which is often used for anesthesia purposes in hospital. Nitrous oxide is a

quick acting inhaled sedative medicine that reduces discomfort and anxiety.

(Helmenstine, 2019)

2-6 Impact of Ammonium Nitrate on the Ecosystem

2-6.1 Health Implications of Ammonium Nitrate

Ammonium Nitrate is an odorless, colorless, and white to gray crystalline flake, bead or

granule. Ammonium Nitrate can affect living organisms (particularly human beings) when it

comes to contact with the organism by inhalation or by direct contact with the skin. Inhalation

11
of AN can cause irritations in the nose, throat, and lungs. Some more specific consequences

of contact with Ammonium Nitrate are outlined:

 Methemoglobinemia; Nitrate is known to cause methemoglobinemia in children and

this has been a principal health concern of regulators around the globe. (Ewg, 19996)

 Cancer; Nitrate is converted to nitrite after ingestion and this nitrite reacts with both

natural and synthetic organic compounds to produce N-nitroso in the stomach of

humans. Many of these compounds are carcinogenic and numerous researches and

written literature suggest that the high levels of nitrate in drinking water may increase

cancer risks. (Ewg, 1996)

 Birth defects; This exposure was first observed in animal studies. At least five studies

have indicated a possible link between the exposure to nitrate, nitrite and N-Nitroso

compounds and birth defects. (Ewg, 1996)

 Disruption of thyroid function; An important study by Danish researchers found that

individuals exposed to Nitrate contaminated water exhibited a dose-related increase

in hypertrophy, a condition marked by the enlargement of the thyroid, the gland

responsible for endocrine and hormonal functions. (Ewg, 1996)

2-6.2 Environmental Implication of Ammonium Nitrate

Ammonium nitrate in recent years has contributed to the environmental problems in the

society. These problems include the pollution of water with nitrate and the pollution of the

atmosphere with nitrous oxide, other oxides of nitrogen and ammonia. These gases have

contributed potentially to the global heating or greenhouse effect due to the rise of their

concentration in the atmosphere. This has led the stratospheric ozone layer which protects

the earth from ultra violet radiation to destroy.

12
Although ammonium nitrate aids in the growth of plants, some other plants end up dying

causing the decline of native species. This is because these plants need small quantity of

nitrogen. Also, too much ammonium creates an imbalance of nutrients in the soil that deplete

other efficient minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Nitrogen-polluted air

which is caused by nitrates resulting in the acidification of the soil due to the acid rainfall.

Due to the reduction of the important minerals in the soil, toxic element such as aluminum

increase rapidly causing harm to plants and fishes in the water bodies.

2-7 Ammonia

Ammonia is a colorless gas with a pungent-sharp odor in small concentrations. In higher

concentrations of ammonia, it produces a smothering sensation when inhaled. Ammonia is

polar and hence is soluble in water to form a strongly alkaline solution of ammonium

hydroxide. Ammonia also burns with greenish yellow flame (Speight, 2002).

In 1913, ammonia synthesis was done on large scale for the first time as a result of the

development of the Haber process. Ammonia was produced by the direct reaction between

two elements; nitrogen and hydrogen, in the presence of a catalyst (iron oxide with small

quantities of cerium and chromium). The reaction takes place at a relatively high temperature

(550°C) and under a pressure of about 20.3 MPa (Speight, 2002).

Since 1913, ammonia has been produced commercially in different countries. Ammonia has

very peculiar properties. In tables, 1-6, the chemical and physical properties of ammonia have

been outlined.

13
 Table 2-7.1 Chemical Properties of Ammonia

Property Value

Molecular weight 17.03 g/mol

Color Colorless

Physical State Gas at room temperature

Melting point -77.7℃

Boiling point -33.35℃

Specific gravity, 25℃ 0.747 g/L

Source: (Madhavan et al. 1987)

2-8 Nitric Acid

Nitric acid, also known as aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and toxic strong

acid that can cause severe burns. When pure, nitric acid is colorless but older samples tend

to acquire a yellow cast due to the accumulation of oxides of nitrogen.

Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of inorganic and organic nitrates nitro compounds for

fertilizers, dye, intermediates, explosives and many different organic chemicals.

Pure anhydrous nitric acid (100%) is a colorless liquid with a density of 1522 kg/m³ which

solidifies at -42 °C to form white crystals and boils at 83 °C. When nitric acid comes into

contact with light, even at room temperature, there is a partial decomposition with the

formation of nitrogen dioxide following the reaction. Malek (2010, citing Sherman et al,

2007).

4 HNO3 → 2 H2O + 4 NO2 + O2

14
Nitric Acid Synthesis

Ammonia 𝑁𝐻3 , produced by the Haber process that is not used directly as fertilizer is burned

in oxygen to generate nitrogen oxide in the reaction below Malek (2010, citing Dean, 1992).

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)

Nitrogen oxide also known as nitric oxide, is a colorless gas that reacts rapidly with oxygen

to produce nitrogen dioxide, which is a dark brown gas.

2 NO(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO2(g)

Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in water to give nitric acid and NO, which can be captured and

recycled.

3 NO2(g) + H2O(l) → 2 HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

Thus, by a three-step process developed by Friedrich Ostwald in 1908, ammonia can be

converted into nitric acid.

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g)→ 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)

2 NO(g) + O2(g) →2 NO2(g)

3 NO2(g) + H2O(l) →2 HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

15
CHAPTER THREE: PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION

3-1 Process Selection

3-1.1 Ammonia

Ammonia is produced by various processes; before world war 1, ammonia was produced by

the dry distillation of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products, by the reduction of nitrous

acid and nitrites with hydrogen and by the decomposition of ammonia salts by alkaline

hydroxides (quicklime). Another process, the cyanimide process which was used to produce

significant quantities of ammonia in the 20th Century, was developed by Walther Nernst. He

developed a process to make ammonia by passing Nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas across an

iron catalyst at 1000℃ and 75barg. The Haber process, developed by a German chemist, Fritz

Haber which is currently the most employed process as it is more cost and energy efficient

than the other methods proposed earlier. (Pattabathula et al 2016)

3-1.2 Nitric Acid

Apart from the Ostwald process, nitric acid is produced with the Birkeland-eydei process too.

Carbon dioxide and dust free air is heated in an arc furnace at 3000℃. Nitric oxide is formed

after the reaction. Gases coming out from the furnace are cooled to 1000℃ by passing

through a cooler, then gases are passed in a boiler and cooled to 150℃. Process water is

circulated around the boiler to cool the gases. Gaseous mixture is now passed through

aluminium tubes. The temperature of the gas mixture becomes 50℃. Nitric oxide in the

gaseous mixture is oxidized into nitrogen dioxide, 𝑁𝑂2. Nitrogen dioxide, 𝑁𝑂2 is absorbed

in water and then dilute nitric acid is obtained. Nitric acid is no longer produced by this

process because it is energy demanding to maintain temperature at 3000℃ only to produce

1% of the acid. (Bhatia, 2016)

16
3-1.3 Ammonium Nitrate

There are a few processes that are used in the production of ammonium nitrate; The Odd’s

(Nitro phosphate), the Stengel’s process and the method of using anhydrous ammonium and

concentrated nitric acid. In the Stengel’s process, ammonium nitrate is produced by the

reaction of ammonia gas and nitric acid. Ammonia vapor is preheated to a temperature range

of 140-150℃ in a single stage heat exchanger while 60% Nitric acid, HNO3 is preheated first

to 95℃ in a stainless steel unit and then to 160℃ in a tantalum unit to avoid high temperature

HNO3 corrosion. The molten ammonium nitrate and water vapor at 200℃ are passed through

the tangential entry of a cyclone separator where air aids in removal of steam from the molten

salt. The molten ammonium nitrate is removed and the bottom and then solidified. Here, the

ammonium nitrate melt formed may find difficulty in forming crystals during solidification

and it will affect the physical appearance of the end product. (Dorsey, 1955)

The Odd’s method involves the reaction between calcium phosphate and nitric oxide to

produce phosphoric acid and calcium nitrate. The calcium nitrate is reacted ammonium to

obtain ammonium nitrate and calcium oxide. Chemical reactions for the Odd’s process;

Ca3 (PO4 )2 + 6HNO3 → 2H3 PO4 + 3Ca(NO3 )2

Ca(NO3 )2 + NH4 → NH4 NO3 + CaO

However, the Odd’s method is used only on pilot scale. The calcium phosphate that is the

main raw material for the process is also not readily available in Ghana. The method of using

anhydrous ammonium and concentrated nitric acid, however, is the most industrially used

because of availability of ammonia and nitric acid in Ghana. The process also may be

manipulated to suit preferred requirements. Furthermore, the process has been developed for

17
years now and by that more information regarding the process is accessible and credible.

(Chemical Technology, 2011)

3-2 Process Description

3-2.1 Process Description for The Production of Ammonia (NH3)

3-2.1.1 Ammonia Gas Synthesis

The Haber process is used in the manufacturing of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen.

The process combines nitrogen and hydrogen derived mainly from natural gas (methane).

The hydrogen and nitrogen gases are stored in high pressure gas storage tanks GS-101 and

GS-102. The reaction takes place in R-100 at about 205 bara. R-100 is supplied with to heat

up the reaction to a temperature range of 400-450 oC as well as Iron Catalyst beds which

serve as catalytic surfaces to facilitate the reaction. The reaction is given by:

N2+3H2 ⇆2NH3 ΔHof = - 92.4 kJ.mol-1NH3

3-2.1.2 Product Gas Condensation

The exit gases (NH3, H2 and N2) are cooled in a condenser, CD-108 to about 20 oC at a

pressure of 10 bara; the ammonia liquefies and the hydrogen and nitrogen remain gases under

these conditions. The liquid ammonia and gas mixture are separated using a separator, S-109.

The liquid ammonia settles at the bottom of the separator while the unreacted gases remain

at the top of the separator; the gases are recycled into the reactor, R-100.

3-2.1.3 Product (Liquefied Ammonia) Storage

Liquefied ammonia is stored in a fully refrigerated tank, T-112 at a temperature of -32oC, to

prevent the liquid from evaporating back into gas.

18
The yield under these condition before recycling is 10-20% and the overall yield after the

recycling of gases is about 98%.

3-2.2 Process Description for The Production of Nitric Acid (HNO3)

3-2.2.1 Preparation of Raw Materials

The Ostwald process is used in the production of Nitric Acid; In this process, anhydrous

ammonia is oxidized to nitric oxide, in the presence of compressed air (O2); this occurs over

a platinum-rhodium gauze catalyst. Liquid Ammonia from the storage tank, T-112 is filtered

in the filter, F-203 to ensure the purity of the ammonia that is fed into the process. The

ammonia is then vaporized in the evaporator, EV-204 into its gaseous form. Atmospheric air

is filtered in the filter, F-206 and then compressed in the compressor CP-207 to a pressure

range of 4.1 - 10.1 bara after which it is preheated to a temperature of about 300oC in heat

exchanger E-208. The compressed air is then filtered a second time in the filter, F-209. The

vaporized ammonia and the compressed high purity air are fed into the reactor, R-200 for the

reaction to commence.

3-2.2.2 Catalytic Oxidation

In the reactor, R-200 there is a Platinum-Rhodium gauze (about 95%Pt) catalyst to speed up

the reaction; the reaction takes place within a temperature range of 800 – 850oC and at

pressures ranging between 4.1 – 10.1 bara. The reaction is given by:

4NH3 (g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) ∆H = -905.2kJ

3-2.2.3 Second-Stage Oxidation (NO Oxidation)

The NO formed is cooled in the heat exchanger, E-212 to a temperature of about 300oC and

further cooled in the condenser, CD-213 to a temperature of about 50oC. In the condenser,

19
there are chambers to allow for the non-catalytic oxidation of NO to NO2. The reaction that

takes place is:

2NO + O2 → 2NO2 ∆H = -112.55 kJ

3-2.2.4 Absorption of NO2

The NO2 is absorbed in a packed column, A-300 using deionized water as absorbent; the

nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is introduced at the bottom of the column and deionized water from

storage tank T-305 enters from the top of the column. The nitric acid, HNO3 is collected at

the bottom of the column. The reaction is given by:

3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO ∆H = -135.98kJ

3-2.2.5 Tail Gas Removal

The tail gases from the absorption column include N2, O2, water vapor, NO and NO2; they

are still under pressure and are further cooled in condenser CD-213. The gases are then

introduced into the scrubber, SB-308 where the effluent gases are diluted and then discharged

through the stack tower, SK-309. The waste water (used for the scrubbing) is routed to the

process waste stream.

3-2.3 Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3) Production

3-2.3.1 Pre-heating of raw materials

The liquid ammonia is vaporized in EV-209 to a temperature of about 150℃ and the nitric

acid is pre-heated with process steam in heat exchanger E-403 to a temperature of about 80℃.

3-2.3.2 Neutralization

20
The first neutralizer, R-300, a pressure reactor with external forced circulation, operates to

obtain a pH of 5.5-6.0 after which excess ammonia base is produced. The neutralization

occurs at a temperature range of 178 - 185℃ and pressure, 3 – 5 bara. In the second

neutralizer, R-400, which is a pipe reactor with pressure flash separator, excess nitric acid is

added to the product to obtain a PH of 4.5-5.5.

NH3 (g) + HNO3(l) → NH4NO3(g) + 6H2O(g) ∆H = -145.1

3-2.3.3 Steam purification

Process steam produced from neutralizer, R-300 is used to preheat the nitric acid in E-403,

after which it is purified in the packed column scrubber, SB-508. Nitric acid is used to

neutralize any free ammonia and to optimize its removal.

3-2.3.4 Evaporation

An evaporator EV-506 is used to remove 96% of the water from the ammonium nitrate

solution to form the melt for prilling.

3-2.3.5 Prilling

The allowable percentage of water for the feed (ammonium nitrate) melt to the prilling plant

is 1-5%. A static system of fixed orifices (a shower head) forms droplets of AN melt which

then fall down the prill tower, PT-600. Compressed air from the compressor, CP-207 is made

to flow through a dehumidifier DH-610 up the tower counter-current to the prills and the

droplets cool and solidify. The product is conveyed into a pre-hopper, PH-602 and then sent

to a rotary drum RD-603.

3-2.3.6 Drying of Prills

21
After prilling, the prills are dried using a rotary drum dryer, RD-603 to reduce the water

content to about 0.4%.

3-2.3.7 Cooling

The prills, after drying are further cooled in a fluid bed cooler, C-604 to about 30oC Cooling

prevents agglomeration of prills before bagging and storage or shipping.

3-2.3.8 Screening

The cooled prills are passed through a screen aperture of size range 5-8 mm and the undersize

are collected and bagged into B-605 and the oversize are bagged into bag, B-608.

3-2.3.9 Conditioning

Ammonium nitrate prills are prone to caking during storage and so are conditioned to prevent

caking. Magnesium Oxide is used as an anti-caking agent in the second reactor to prevent

caking. The additive also prevents dust formation and moisture pick-up during storage.

3-2.3.10 Bulk Storage/ Shipping

From the cooler, C-604 the low-density AN prills are conveyed in a screw conveyor, CN-

606 and CN-607 to the bagging unit. Ammonium nitrate prills are stored in bags weighing

25 kg per bag and are conveyed to the finished products ware house for storage.

22
CHAPTER 4: MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES

4-1 Material Balance

The material balance was performed on processes in the ammonium nitrate plant, ranging

from the reactor, R-3 to the scrubber, S-2. Balances performed were performed within the

confines of the fundamental chemical engineering principles, especially with regard to

performing material balances. Relevant properties of materials (used while performing the

balances) are provided in Table 4-1.1 below. As well, sample calculations have been attached

to the Appendix section.

4-1.1 Assumptions for the Material Balance

 Steady-State Operation (Input – Output + Generation – Consumption = 0)

4-1.2 Basis for the Material Balance

 The overall balance equation applies i.e.:

(𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) + (𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 Flowrates are considered on hourly basis with units, kg/h

 Plant Attainment:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 × 24 335 × 24

= × 100 = × 100 = 91.78
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 × 24 365 × 24

 Production Rate = 75,000 MTPA

 Production Capacity (in TPD) = 205.48 TPD

 Production Capacity (in TPH) = 8.56 TPH

 Production Capacity (in kg/h) = 8561.6 kg/h

 One bag of LDAN prills = 25 kg

 Number of bags produced per day = 82,192 bags per day

23
4-1.3 Data for the Material Balance Calculations

Table 4-1.1 Summary of Data for Material Balance

Description Value

Required sizes of prills 5-8 mm

Emission limit for neutralizer 0.22 kg AN/Mg of Product

Emission limit for low density prill towers 0.26 kg AN/Mg of Product

Emission limit for low density prill dryers 0.26 kg AN/Mg of Product

Molar Mass of Ammonium Nitrate 80.05 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Ammonia 17.03 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Nitric Acid 63.02 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Water 18 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Magnesium Nitrate 148.3 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Magnesium Nitrate 166.3 kg/kmol

Dihydrate

Molar Mass of Nitrogen Oxide 30.01 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Nitrogen Dioxide 46.01 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Hydrogen 2.00 kg/kmol

Molar Mass of Air 28.96 kg/kmol

Sources: (Perry and Green, 2008; EFMA, 2014)

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
4-2 Energy Balance

The energy balance was performed on selected units in the ammonium nitrate plant, ranging

from the preheaters (E-3 and EV-2) to the evaporator, S-2. Balances performed were

performed within the confines of the fundamental chemical engineering principles, especially

with regard to performing energy balances. Relevant properties of materials (used while

performing the balances) are provided in Table 4-2.1 below. As well, sample calculations

have been attached to the Appendix section.

4-2.1 Basis for the Energy Balance

 Specific heat capacities and enthalpies are considered at reference temperature 25oC

and pressure, 101.325 kPa.

 The general heat balance equation used for calculations is

𝑄̇ = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 ℎ𝑖 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 ℎ𝑖 + 𝜉̇ ∆ 𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 + 𝑚̇𝐿𝑣

𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

Where necessary, cancellations of irrelevant terms were made.

4-2.2 Data for the Energy Balance Calculations

Table 4-2.1 Latent Heat of Vaporization of Materials

Ammonia (NH3) Water (H2O) Nitric Acid (HNO3)

Temperature (°C) 30 100 120

Pressure (kPa) 1182.67 101.325 101.325

Latent Heat of 1126 2256 613

Vaporization
(kJ/kg)

31
 Table 4-2.2 Heat of Vaporization of Materials

Material Temperature (°C) Pressure (kPa) Specific Heat

Capacity (kJ/kg

°C)

-33.4 101.325 2.031

-35 101.325 1.996

90 101.325 2.239

124 101.325 2.280

Ammonia gas (NH3)
150 101.325 2.329

185 101.325 2.340

198 101.325 2.420

300 101.325 2.645

50 101.325 4.181

80 101.325 4.196

Water (H2O) 90 101.325 4.205

185 101.325 4.428

198 101.325 4.500

Nitric Acid (HNO3) 80 101.325 0.931

32
 90 101.325 0.946

124 101.325 0.999

185 101.325 1.071

198 101.325 1.100

90 101.325 1.690

124 101.325 1.725

Ammonium Nitrate
185 101.325 1.741
(NH4NO3)
198 101.325 1.770

800 101.325 1.146

33
34
35
36
CHAPTER 5: PUMPS, PIPELINES AND EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION

5-1 Pumps specifications

The pump is the main source of mechanical energy for the movement of fluid throughout the plant (unless unnecessary). Pump

sizing is very critical both to the operation of the plant and the economics of the process as a whole. An oversized pump will waste

large amounts of energy (which can be converted to capital); an undersized pump also reduces the overall efficiency of the process,

amongst other more specific issues.

A pump that is not operating as its optimum efficiency will consume a lot of energy and not deliver the corresponding work - the

pump is to be designed to operate at its optimum efficiency, wherein it closely matches to the pressure and flow characteristics of

the pipes it is connected to (both on the suction and discharge ends). The variables specified are; pump type, pump efficiency,

power required and the NPSH required. Relevant relations used in calculations are:

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃𝑓
𝑊 = 𝑔∆𝑧 + −
𝜌 𝜌

𝜌𝑢2
∆𝑃𝑓 = 8𝑓 (𝐿⁄𝑑 )
𝑖 2

𝑄 𝑚̇
𝑢= =
𝐴 𝜌𝐴

37
 𝜋𝑑𝑖 2
𝐴=
4

𝑚̇𝑊
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 =
𝜂

Where W = Pump Work

g = Acceleration due to gravity

Δz = Difference in elevation between suction and discharge ends

ΔP = Pressure difference between suction and discharge ends

ΔPf = Friction losses in the pipe

ρ = Density of the fluid

f = Friction factor

L = Total pipe length

di = Internal diameter of pipe

u = Velocity

38
 Q = Volumetric flow rate

𝑚̇ = Mass flow rate

𝜂 = Pump efficiency

Table 5-1 summary of the pump specifications

Pump Pump Location Pump Type Fluid Pump Pump Power NPSH
Number Capacity Efficiency Required Required
(kg/s) (%) (kW) (m)
P-101 Between Separator (S-101) and Centrifugal Liquid 1.94 75 2.95 6
AM Storage Tank (T-101) Ammonia
P-201 Between AM Storage Tank (T- Centrifugal Liquid 1.35 75 0.10 3
101) and Filter (F-201) Ammonia
P-301 Between DIW Storage Tank Centrifugal Water 0.48 70 0.12 3
(T-301) and Absorption
Column (A-300)
P-303 Between Absorption Column Centrifugal Nitric Acid 3.33 80 0.28 7
(A-300) and NA Storage Tank
(T-306)
P-401 Between NA Storage Tank (T- Centrifugal Nitric Acid 3.10 80 0.12 7
306) and Heat Exchanger(E-
307)
P-402 Between AM Storage Tank (T- Centrifugal Liquid 0.55 70 0.07 3
101) and Evaporator (EV-2) Ammonia

39
 P-405 Between Reactor (R-400) and Centrifugal Ammonium 2.79 80 2.01 6
Reactor (R-500) Nitrate
Solution
P-502 Between MN Storage Tank (T- Centrifugal Magnesium 0.025 70 6.97 3
504) and Reactor (R-500) Nitrate
Solution
P-501 Between Reactor (R-500) and Centrifugal Ammonium 3.95 80 19.55 7
Evaporator (EV-506) Nitrate
Solution
PD-601 Between Evaporator (EV-506) Positive Ammonium 2.64 80 0.80 6
and Prill Tower (PT-600) Nitrate Melt
Displacement

5-2 Pipeline specifications

Pipelines serve as conduits for transport of fluids around a fluid processing plant; the pipe size selected should be selected to give

the least total annualized cost. The economic pipe diameter (optimum pipe diameter), which is the pipe diameter that gives the

lowest annualized cost can be estimated using the relation (valid for 304 Stainless Steel Pipes):

𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 0.550𝐺 0.49 𝜌−0.35 (Towler and Sinnot, 2008)

Where G = fluid flow rate, kg/s

ρ = fluid density, kg/m3

40
Pipes are manufactured in standard sizes designated by nominal pipe sizes (NPS) and schedule numbers. For pipe sizes ranging

from 1/8 – 12 inches, the NPS refers to the inside diameter of the pipe. The schedule number describes the pipe wall thickness; for

this work, 304 stainless steel schedule 40S is preferred (where S is conventionally used to indicate stainless steel) – this is identical

to the normal schedule 40 pipe and is the most common type of stainless steel pipe, with a wide range of application. The variables

specified for the pipes are; the nominal pipe size (NPS), the optimum pipe diameter (Dopt), the schedule number, the wall thickness

(δ), and the outer diameter (Do).

Table 5-2 Summary of pipeline specifications

41
Pipeline Pipeline Fluid Mass Density Dopt NPS Do Pipe Schedule
Name Location Flow Thickness, Number
Rate (kg/m3) (mm) (mm) (mm) δ
(kg/s) (mm)
PL-28 Between Liquid 0.55 648 42.5 38.1 45.3 3.68 40S
Ammonia Tank Ammonia
(T-112) and
Evaporator
(EV-407)
PL-32 Between Nitric Aqueous 3.06 1304.3 77.3 76.2 87.2 5.49 40S
Acid Tank (T- Nitric Acid
306) and Heat
Exchanger (E-
403)
PL-54 Between First Reaction 0.78 888.7 45.2 50.8 58.6 3.91 40S
Reactor (R-400) Steam
and Scrubber
(SB-508)
PL-55 Between Ammonium 1.07 937.2 51.8 50.8 58.6 3.91 40S
Scrubber (SB- Nitrate
508) and First Recycle
Reactor (R-400)

42
PL-51 Between Magnesium 0.024 1270 7.2 6.35 14.2 2.31 40S
Magnesium Nitrate
Nitrate Tank Solution
(T-504) and
Second Reactor
(R-500)
PL-54 Between Heat Aqueous 1.12 1304.3 47.2 50.8 58.6 3.91 40S
Exchanger (E- Nitric Acid
403) and
Second Reactor
(R-500)
PL-35 Between First Ammonium 2.79 1117.2 77.9 76.2 87.2 5.49 40S
Reactor (R-400) Nitrate
and Second Solution
Reactor (R-500)
PL-25 Between Nitric Aqueous 0.04 1420 8.95 9.525 14.15 2.31 40S
Acid Tank (T- Nitric Acid
306) and
Absorber (A-
300)
PL-36 Between Ammonium 3.95 1213 89.8 88.9 100.4 5.74 40S
Second Reactor Nitrate
(R-500) and Solution

43
 Evaporator
(EV-506)
PL-56 Between Water 1.05 1002.5 50.2 50.8 58.6 3.91 40S
Scrubber (SB- Vapor and
508) and Tail Gases
Condenser
(CD-509)
PL-39 Between Water 1.31 883 58.4 63.5 73.8 5.16 40S
Evaporator Vapor
(EV-506) and
Scrubber (SB-
508)
PL-40 Between Ammonium 2.64 1317.9 71.6 76.2 87.2 5.49 40S
Evaporator Nitrate
(EV-506) and Melt
Prill Tower
(PT-600)
PL-34 Between Heat Aqueous 1.94 1304.3 61.8 63.5 73.8 5.16 40S
Exchanger (E- Nitric Acid
403) and First
Reactor (R-400)

44
5-3 Equipment specifications

Table 5-3 Equipment Specification

EQUIPM DUTY TYPE PRESSURE,MPa VOLUME, m3 MATERIAL OF

ENT TEMPERATU CONSTRUCTION
RE, oC
Storage Stores Refrigera -30 Atmospheric pressure 100 Stainless Steel
Tank ammonia ted tank
for
ammonia
storage
Stores Fixed Ambient Atmospheric pressure 75 Stainless Steel
nitric roof temperature
acid storage
tank

Stores Fixed Ambient Atmospheric pressure 15 Stainless Steel

magnesiu roof temperature
m nitrate storage
tank

Stores Fixed Ambient Atmospheric pressure 300 Carbon Steel

de- roof temperature
ionized storage
water tank

Gas Stores Medium 40 52 0.24 Inner vessel: stainless

storage nitrogen pressure steel
tank gas nitrogen Outer vessel: carbon
tank steel

45
 Stores High 30 154 0.70 Inner vessel: polymer
hydrogen pressure liner
gas hydrogen Outer vessel: Carbon
tank steel

EQUIPM DUTY TYPE DESIGN DESIGN DIAMET HEIGH VOLUME, MATERIAL

ENT TEMPERATU PRESSURE ER,m T,m m3 OF
RE, ℃ , MPa CONSTRUC
TION
Reactor Catalytic Fixed bed 450 22.55 1.5 6.0 31.80 304L Stainless
reactor reactor Steel
for
ammonia
synthesis
Catalytic Fixed bed 850 0.8 1.16 19.20 20.21 Stainless Steel
reactor reactor
for the
oxidation
of
Ammoni
a to
produce
nitrogen
oxide for
Nitric
acid
synthesis.
For the CSTR 185 85.39 1.0 2.72 3.0 304L Stainless
neutraliza Steel
tion of
nitric
acid and
ammonia
to yield

46
 ammoniu
m nitrate.
Second CSTR 205 0.55 1.13 3.4 3.5 304L Stainless
neutralize Steel
r for
ammoniu
m nitrate
in order
to
improve
alkalinity
.
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE TEMPERATU PRESSURE DIAMET HEIGH MATERIAL OF
ENT RE ,MPa ER,m T,m CONSTRUCTION
Vertical To dilute Wet 250 0.80 3.04 11.5 Stainless Steel
Column the scrubber
effluent
gases
from the
nitric
acid
productio
n.
To Wet 250 0.80 3.04 11.5 Stainless Steel
remove scrubber
and
neutralize
contamin
ated
steam
and water
vapor
containin
g
ammonia
47
and nitric
acid from
the first
neutraliza
tion
reaction.
To Gas- 20 0.80 1.8 3.04 Stainless Steel
separate liquid
the liquid separator
ammonia
from the
nitrogen,
hydrogen
gas
mixture
using
their
densities.
To Packed- 40 0.11 3.6 15.5 Stainless Steel
provide bed
the absorptio
surface n column
for the
absorptio
n of
nitrogen
dioxide
into de-
ionized
water to
produce
nitric
acid.

48
Prill Tower Solidifica Spray 195 1 2.31 13.86 Stainless Steel
tion of prill
the AN tower
melt
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE TEMPERATU CAPACITY POWER,KW EFFICIEN MATERIAL
ENT RE, ℃ ,m3/h CY, % OF
CONSTRUC
TION
Compresso Increasin Centrifug 25 135234 51 82.4 Stainless Steel
r g the al
pressure compress
of or
filtered
atmosphe
ric air to a
range of
4.1 to
10.1
pressure
bar
absolute.
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE TEMPERATU PRESSURE FEED SIZE,mm MESH MATERIAL
ENT RE, ℃ SIZE, OF
inches CONSTRUC
TION
Screen To Vibrating 30 Ambient 5-8 0.4 Stainless Steel
classify Screen
the prills
into
oversize
and
undersize

49
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE TEMPERATU PRESSURE HEAT TRANSFER MATERIAL OF
ENT RE, ℃ ,MPa AREA, m2 CONSTRUCTION

Heat To Fixed 300 1.1 48.43 Tube: Stainless Steel

Exchanger preheat tube sheet Shell: Carbon Steel
the air heat
from exchange
25℃ to r
about
300℃.
To cool Fixed 300 1.1 48.43 Tube: Stainless Steel
the tube sheet Shell: Carbon Steel
nitrogen heat
oxide exchange
stream r
from
about
800℃ to
300℃.
To Fixed 80 0.9 45.21 Tube: Stainless Steel
preheat tube sheet Shell: Carbon Steel
the heat
aqueous exchange
nitric r
acid from
25℃ to
80℃

50
Condenser To Water 20 0.1 13.4058 Tube: Stainless Steel
condense cooled Shell: Carbon Steel
the exit condense
gases r
formed in
the
reaction
of
hydrogen
and
nitrogen
gases.
To Air 50 0.1 13.4058 Tube: Stainless Steel
further cooled Shell: Carbon Steel
condense condense
the r
nitrogen
oxide
from
300℃ to
50℃ and
allows
non-
catalytic
oxidation
of NO to
NO2.

51
 To Water 25 0.1 13.4058 Tube: Stainless Steel
condense cooled Shell: Carbon Steel
vapour condens
from er
scrubber
2 from
150℃ to
35℃.

Evaporator To Plate type 50 0.1 16.15 316 Stainless Steel

vaporize evaporato
ammonia r
from
25℃ to
50℃
To Falling 150 0.1 17 316 Stainless Steel
vaporize film
the evaporato
ammonia r
from
25℃ to
150℃
To Falling 200 0.1 35 316 Stainless Steel
concentra film
te the evaporato
ammoniu r
m nitrate
from
64% to
about
96%
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE DESIGN DIAMETE LENGTH, m MATERIAL OF
ENT TEMPERATU R, m CONSTRUCTION
RE,℃

52
Rotary Reduces Rotary 130 2 10 Stainless Steel
Drum the water drum
content dryer
of AN
prills to
about
0.4%
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE DESIGN REMOVAL NET CLOTH AREA, MATERIAL OF
ENT TEMPERATU EFFICIEN m2 CONSTRUCTION
RE,℃ CY,%

Filter Filters Bag- Ambient 85 3252 Stainless steel

ammonia house temperature
filter
Filters air Air filter Ambient 88 567 Mild steel
temperature

Filters Air filter Ambient 88 567 Mild steel

compress temperature
ed air
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE OUTLET INLET MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
ENT DIAMETER, DIAMETE
m R, m

Pre-hopper Holds Cone 0.05 1.0 Carbon steel

prills hopper
temporari
ly before
drying
EQUIPM DUTY TYPE ANGLE OF SPEED OF DIAMETER OF MATERIAL OF
ENT REPOSE SHAFT, SHAFT, m CONSTRUCTION
RPM

53
Conveyor Conveys Screw 22 degrees 158 0.045 Stainless Steel
AN prills conveyor
formed to
the pre-
.hopper
Conveys Screw 22 degrees 158 0.045 Stainless Steel
the conveyor
oversize
to bag 1.

Conveys Screw 22 degrees 158 0.045 Stainless Steel

the conveyor
undersize
to bag2.

EQUIPM DUTY CAPACI BAG BAG BAG WEIGHT,KG INLINER

ENT TY, KG LENGTH, m WIDTH, m

Bags To 25 0.78 0.5 25.05 50 gram/piece

package
prills for
distributi
on and
storage

54
CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN OF SPECIFIC

EQUIPMENT

6-1 Design of a Shell and Tube Heat exchanger

6-1.1 Problem Statement

The aim of this work is to design a heat exchanger to cool the nitrogen oxide stream at 800℃

to a temperature of 300℃ using superheated steam at a temperature and pressure of 130℃

and 0.80kPa.

6-1.2 Main objective

To design a heat exchanger to cool the nitrogen oxide stream at 800℃ to a temperature of

300℃.

6-1.3 Specific objectives

1. To distinguish between the various types of heat exchangers.

2. To select and justify the most suitable type of heat exchanger to be used to execute

this task.

3. To perform chemical engineering calculations on the heat exchanger.

4. To perform mechanical engineering calculations on the heat exchanger.

5. To produce an engineering drawing on the selected heat exchanger.

6-1.4 Introduction

The heat exchanger is a process equipment designed for the effective transfer of heat energy

between two fluids. The transfer of heat is possible due to the temperature difference of the

two fluids and also the fluids making thermal contact. By the second law of thermodynamics,

heat can only flow from hotter to a cooler fluid. (ME Mechanical Team,2016). Heat

exchanger encompasses all devices used to transfer energy from one fluid to another. Some

55
examples of this group are: radiators, water heaters, refrigeration batteries, evaporators,

steam generators, etc.(Tirenti,2017) They can transfer heat between a liquid and a gas (i.e., a

liquid-to-air heat exchanger) or two gases (i.e., an air-to-air heat exchanger), or they can

perform as liquid-to-liquid heat exchangers. (Azar et al.,2010)

Heat exchangers are classified according to transfer process, number of fluids, degree of

surface contact, design features, flow arrangements and heat transfer mechanisms.

Table 6-1.4.1 Summary of types of heat exchangers designs

Sample Type Major Characteristics Applications

Number

1 Shell and tube Bundle of tubes encased in a Always the first type

cylinder shell of exchanger to

consider

2 Air cooled heat Rectangular tube bundles Economic where cost

exchanger mounted on frame .with air used of cooling water is

as the cooling medium high

3 Double pipe Pipe within a pipe; inner pipe may For small units

be finned or plain

4 Extended surface Externally finned tube Services where the

outside tube

resistance is

appreciably greater

then inside

resistance..

56
5 Brazed plate fin Series of plates separated by Cryogenic services:

corrugated fins all fluids must be

clean

6 Spiral wound Spirally wound tube coils within a Cryogenic services:

shell fluids must be clean

7 Scraped surface Pipe within a pipe, with rotating Crystallization

blades scraping the inside wall of cooling applications

the inner pipe

8 Bayonet tube Tube elements consists of an inner Useful for high

and tube temperature

difference between

shell and tube fluids

9 Falling film cooler Vertical units using a film of Special cooling

water in tubes applications

10 Worm coolers Pipe coils submerged in a box of Emergency cooling

water

11 Barometric condenser Direct contact of water and vapour Where mutual

solubilities of water

and process fluid

permit

12 Cascade coolers Cooling water flows over series of Special cooling

tubes applications for every

corrosive process

fluids.

57
 13 Impervious graphite Constructed of graphite for Used in very highly

corrosion protection corrosive heat

exchanger services

(Source: ME Mechanical Team.2016)

6-1.5 Equipment Selection

The typical shell and tube heat exchanger is made up of a number of tubes mounted inside a

cylindrical shell. The two process streams(fluids) exchange heat as one fluid flows over the

outside of the tubes while the second fluid flows through the tubes. The fluids can be single

or two phase and can flow in a parallel or a cross/counter flow arrangement. (Kaveh et.

al,2010) The shell and tube heat exchanger is used when a process requires large amounts of

fluids to be heated or cooled. Due to their design, they offer a large heat transfer area and

provide high heat transfer efficiency. There are some types of shell and tube heat exchangers

and they are described below;

6-1.5.1Fixed Tube Sheet Exchanger

A fixed-tube sheet heat exchanger has straight tubes that are secured at both ends to tube

sheets welded to the shell. The main advantage of the fixed tube sheet exchanger is its low

cost because of its simple construction. Fixed tube sheet being the least expensive shell and

tube exchanger type, as long as we don’t use any expansion joint. But for the same reason,

fixed tube sheet exchanger does not help much for services having large temperature

difference between shell & tube sides. Because in such cases, an expansion joint would be

needed. Other advantages are that the tubes can be cleaned easily by removing the channel

cover or bonnet. Moreover, absence of flanged joints helps to minimize the leakage of the

shell side fluid. But there is a disadvantage that the outsides of the tubes cannot be cleaned

58
mechanically, as the tube bundle is fixed to the shell. Fixed tube sheet exchangers require

that a clean fluid must be used on the shell side. (Hanan,2014)

6-1.5.2 Floating head exchanger

In this type of shell and tube exchanger, one end of the tubes is kept fixed in a tube sheet

attached to the shell side. While the other end is free to expand or ‘floating’ in the shell side.

In this type, heat exchangers can withstand fluids to high temperature difference, as the tubes

are free to expand. Also, the floating head cover can be easily removed to mechanically clean

insides of the tubes. Therefore, even dirty and fouling services can also be used on the tube

side. That makes this shell & tube heat exchanger type most versatile in terms of its

applicability to different scenarios. But the design is quite complex, making it also the most

expensive type of shell & tube exchangers. (Hanan,2014)

6-1.5.3 U tube exchanger

As the name suggests, in this type the tube bundle is U shaped. There is only one tube sheet.

All the tubes start from upper half of this tube sheet, make a U turn in the shell and come

back to the lower half of the same tube sheet. The advantage of using a U tube bundle is that

the tubes can freely expand as they are U turn end of the bundle is freely floating in the shell

side. Hence a U tube exchanger is the preferred option where there is high temperature

difference between shell & tube side fluids and tube expansion is expected. But as the same

time, this U shape of the tubes makes it difficult to mechanically clean them. Only chemical

cleaning would be possible. Hence U tube exchangers are normally not preferred where we

need to use a dirty or fouling service on the tube side. These exchangers are also cost

effective, as expansion joints are not needed and tube bundle is free to expand. (Hanan,2014)

59
Advantages of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

 They can be designed and manufactured to bear very high pressures

 They have extremely flexible and steady design

 They are resistant to thermal shocks

 Pressure loss is at a minimum and can be maintained at a minimum in line with the

process purpose.

 Pipe diameter, pipe number, pipe length, pipe pitch and pipe arrangement can be

altered. So, the designs of tube heat exchangers are quite flexible

Disadvantages of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

 It is very tough to readily analyze the shell side of the tubes for scaling or tube

damage

 Less efficiency in Heat Exchange

 Cleaning and maintenance is Problematic since a tube cooler requires enough

clearance at one end to remove the tube nest

 It cannot be increased the capacity of tube cooler.

 Its require more space for drop it at one place.

 The manufacturing cost is the highest of all configurations. Due to the numerous

jacketed gaskets present, it is not the best option for toxic or hazardous processes.

6-1.6 Equipment Justification

The choice of shell and tube type is determined chiefly by factors such as the need for the

provision for differential movement between shell and tubes, the design pressure, the design

temperature, and the fouling nature of the fluids rather than the function(Saunders,1988).The

fixed tube exchanger is the most suitable for this process because the design allows for the
60
removal, inspection and cleaning of the shell circuit and shell interior and the low cost of

construction . The shell pass can be cleaned with chemical method after the scaling is formed.

6-1.7 Equipment Description

They consist of tubes and shells. The tubes act as the flow channels for one of the fluids in

the heat exchanger; these exchangers are often parallel in order to provide a large surface

area for the heat transfer. On the other hand, the shell holds the tube bundle and acts as the

conduit for the fluid. The shell assembly houses the shell side connections and is the actual

structure into which the tube bundle is placed. (Chukwudi and Igwegbe,2019) One end of the

tubes is held stationary to the housing with a fixed tube sheet, but the other side is free to

expand using a component known as a floating tube sheet. This part allows the tubes to

expand with increased temperatures, without needing to bend the pipes. When being operated

on, one can access the tubes for easy cleaning, while also being able to create a high-

temperature difference without fear of breaking the device. (Cavallo,2019). The main

components of the floating head Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger are described below:

1. Shell

The shell is a cylindrical body constructed from one or more pieces, obtained from a rolled

plate or a seamless tube, containing the tube bundle. The fluid bathing the tubes and the tube

bundle circulates inside the shell. It is one of the most important parts of a shell and tube

heat exchanger, especially from the structural point of view.

2. Tube bundle

The tube bundle is a component formed mainly by tubes and baffles. This bundle is located

inside de shell, following the same alignment. The function of the tubes is to transfer heat

61
between the two present fluids. The baffles support the tubes, create turbulence and direct

the fluid flowing outside the tubes

3. Tube sheet

The tube bundle ends in circular perforated plates called Tube sheets. Their main purposes

are to divide the flow between the shell side and tube side flow and secondly to anchor all

the tubes of the bundle. Tubes cross the tube sheet from side to side inside the drilled holes;

these tubes will be sealed against the tube sheet through expansion or welding. The aim is

to join both elements permanently.

4. Tubes

The function of the tubes is to transfer heat between the two present fluids Tubes are standard

length, whose nominal diameter coincides with the outer diameter.

5.Stationary head

From a structural point of view, the stationary head is similar to the shell. Its function is to

receive the tube side fluid, distribute it in the different passes and collect it to send it outside

the exchanger.

6.Floating head

The floating head is formed by the floating tube sheet, aspherical head and a split backing

ring the entire assembly bolted together. The purpose is returning the fluid circulating inside

the tubes to the stationary head.

7.Baffles

62
Baffles serve three functions: 1) support the tube; 2) maintain the tube spacing; and 3) direct

the flow of fluid in the desired pattern through the shell side. A segment, called the baffle

cut, is cut away to permit the fluid to flow parallel to the tube axis as it flows from one baffle

space to another. Segmental cuts with the height of the segment approximately 25 percent

of the shell diameter are normally the optimum. Baffle cuts larger or smaller than the

optimum typically results in poorly distributed shell side flow with large eddies, dead zones

behind the baffles and pressure drops higher than expected. The spacing between segmental

baffles is called the baffle pitch. The baffle pitch and the baffle cut determine the cross flow

velocity and hence the rate of heat transfer and the pressure drop. The baffle pitch and baffle

cut are selected during the heat exchanger design to yield the highest fluid velocity and heat

transfer rate while respecting the allowable pressure drop. The orientation of the baffle cut

is important for heat exchanger installed horizontally. When the shell side heat transfer is

sensible heating or cooling with no phase change, the baffle cut should be horizontal. This

causes the fluid to follow an up-and-down path and prevents stratification with warmer fluid

at the top of the shell and cooler fluid at the bottom of the shell.

8.Fouling consideration

Fouling is generally defined as the deposition and accumulation of unwanted materials such

as scale, algae, suspended solids and insoluble salts on the internal or external surfaces of

processing equipment including boilers and heat exchangers. Fouling on process equipment

surfaces can have a significant, negative impact on the operational efficiency of the unit. In

the shell side in particular lower fluid flow velocities and low-velocity or stagnant regions,

for example in the vicinity of baffles, encourage the accumulation of foul ants. Major

detrimental effects of fouling include loss of heat transfer as indicated by charge outlet

temperature decrease and pressure drop increase. Other detrimental effects of fouling may
63
also include blocked process pipes, under-deposit corrosion and pollution. Loss of heat

transfer and subsequent charge outlet temperature decrease is a result of the low thermal

conductivity of the fouling layer or layers which is generally lower than the thermal

conductivity of the fluids or conduction wall. As a result of this lower thermal conductivity,

the overall thermal resistance to heat transfer is increased and the effectiveness

and thermal efficiency of heat exchangers are reduced. In general, high turbulence, absence

of stagnant areas, uniform fluid flow and smooth surfaces reduce fouling and the need for

frequent cleaning. (Hassan,2012)

6-1.8 Chemical Engineering Design

Determination of physical properties

Table 6-1.8.1 Physical property of superheated steam shell side

Properties Inlet Outlet Mean

Temperature, ℃ 85 130 107

Specific heat, kJ/kg℃ 2.24271 2.24271 2.24271

Thermal conductivity, 0.0288 0.0288 0.0288

W/m2℃

Density, kg/m3 0.6468 0.6468 0.6468

Viscosity, Ns/m2 0.01 0.01 0.01

(Source: Towler and Sinnott,2012)

Table 6-1.8.2: Physical property of stream at tube side.

Properties Inlet Outlet Mean

64
 Temperature, ℃ 800 300 550

Specific heat, kJ/kg℃ 2.19 2.19 2.19

Thermal conductivity, 3.7063 x 10-5 3.7063 x 10-5 3.7063 x 10-5

w/m2℃

Density, kg/m3 1.34 1.34 1.34

Viscosity, Ns/m2 0.1004 x 10-3 0.1004 x 10-3 0.1004 x 10-3

Heat capacity= (1 x 33.8) +(1 x 31.9) = 65.7 J/mol K

Molecular mass= 30.01

65.7
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡(𝐶𝑝𝑡 ) = = 2.19𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃
30.01

.Estimating the thermal conductivity

1
𝜌4 3
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑘) = 3.56 𝑥 10−5 𝑥 𝐶𝑝𝑡 𝑥 ( )
𝑀

1.344 1
= 3.56 𝑥 10−5 𝑥 2.19 𝑥 (30.01)3

=3.7063 x 10-5 W/m℃

Table 6-1.8.3: Symbols and their respective meanings

65
Symbol Meaning

∆Ps Shell side pressure drop

∆Pt Tube side pressure drop

A Area of one tube

Ao Heat transfer area

Ap Area per pass

As Shell cross flow area

At Tube cross flow area

Bs Baffle spacing

Db Bundle diameter

De Equivalent diameter

Ds Shell inside diameter

Hi Heat transfer coefficient at tube side

Hs Heat transfer coefficient at shell side

LMTD Logarithmic mean temperature difference

Pr Prandtl number

Q Heat load

R Two dimensionless temperature

Re Reynolds number

S Temperature efficiency

Tm Mean temperature

Uo Overall heat transfer coefficient

Us Shell side velocity

66
 Ut Tube side velocity

Vs Volumetric flow rate at shell side

Vt Volumetric flow rate at tube side

Assumptions include;

1.Process is undertaken at Steady state conditions.

2.Potential and kinetic energies are considered to be negligible

3.Across the temperature range, the fluid properties are constant

4.The exchanger is well insulated that there are no heat losses to the environment.

Table 6-1.8.4 Heat load in shell and tube

Calculations Value Unit

Heat load, Q=m x Cps x (t2-t1) 1543.01 Kw

5072.94
𝑄= 𝑥2.19𝑥(800 − 300)
3600

Where

M=mass flow rate (kg/h)

Cps=specific heat (KJ/kg.℃)

Overall coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient for water in free convection is in range of 100 – 1200

W/ m2℃. (Kurganov,2015)

Thus,first an assumption of 170 W/m2℃ is considered.

67
 Table 6-1.8.5 Type and dimension

Calculations Value Units

For counter-current flow,the Logarithmic mean temperature

difference,LMTD 400 ℃

(𝑇1 −𝑡2 )−(𝑇2 −𝑡1 ) (85−300)−(107.5−800)

= 𝑇 −𝑡 = 85−300)
ln( 1 2 ln(
𝑇2 −𝑡1 ) 107.5−800)

T1=Inlet steam temperature

T2=Outlet steam temperature

t1=Inlet slurry temperature

t2=Outlet slurry temperature

𝑇1 − 𝑇2 85 − 130 0.09
𝑅= =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 300 − 800

R=Two dimensionless temperature ratios

𝑡2−𝑡1 300 − 800 500 0.70

𝑆= = =
𝑇1−𝑡1 85 − 800 715

S=measure of the temperature efficiency of the exchanger

For 1 shell and 2 tube pass exchangers,the log mean temperature correction

factor. Ft is read from LMTD Correction Factor Chart by Nimish Shah

Temperature correction factor, Ft 0.93

Mean temperature,Tm= Ft x LMTD=0.93 x 400 372 ℃

Table 6-1.8.5 Heat transfer area

68
Calculations Value Unit

Heat transfer area 2.0 m2

𝑄 119.85 𝑥 103
𝐴𝑜 = =
𝑈𝑜 𝑥 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 150𝑥 400

Table 6-1.8.6 Layout and tube size

Length, L 2.44 M

Outer diameter 0.020 M

Inner diameter 0.010 M

Tube pattern Square

Tube pitch, pt =1.25 x 0.020 0.025 M

Table 6-1.8.7 Tube calculations

Calculations Value Unit

Area of one tube;

Assumption; neglect the thickness of tube

A= π x Do x L= π x 0.020 x 2.44 0.15 m2

Number of tubes,
𝐴0
𝑁𝑡 = 𝐴

𝑁𝑡
67
2
=
0.033

69
 𝑁𝑡
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑁𝑝 =
2
34
67
=
2

Number of passes

K1 2

n1 0.156

2.291
𝜋 𝜋
Tube cross sectional area,𝐴𝑡 = 𝑥 𝐷𝑖 2 = 𝑥 0.012 0.0000785 m2
4 4

Area per pass,Ap=Np x At= 34 x 7.854x 10-5 0.00267 m2

Table 6-1.8.8 Bundle and shell diameter

Calculations Value Unit

For 2 tube passes,K1=0.156

n1=2.291(Sinnot,2005)
1
𝑁𝑡
Bundle diameter,𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 𝑥 (𝐾 )𝑛1 =
1
0.312 m
1
67
0.020 𝑥 (0.156) 2.207

For a fixed tube heat exchanger, the typical shell

clearance is 88mm (Sinnot,2005),therefore 0.400 m

Ds=0.088+0.312

Table 6-1.8.9 Tube side heat transfer coefficient

70
Calculations Value Unit

Volumetric flow rate at tube side 1.05 𝑚2

𝑠
𝑚𝑡 5072.94
𝑉𝑡 = =
𝜌 1.34 𝑥 3600

mt=mass flow rate in the tube side (kg/s)

𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒( )
𝑚3
𝑉 1.0516 39.386 m/s
Tube side velocity,𝑈𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 = 0.0267
𝑝

𝜌 𝑥 𝑈𝑡 𝑥 𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

1.34𝑥 39.386 𝑥0.01

=
0.1004 𝑥 10−3
5256.697

𝐶𝑝 𝑥 𝜇 2.19 𝑥103 𝑥 0.1004 𝑥10−3 5.93

Prandtl number,𝑃𝑟 = =
𝐾𝑓 3.7063 𝑥 10−5

where Kf=thermal conductivity(W/m2℃)

𝐿 2.44 244
=
𝐷𝑖 0.01

Tube side heat transfer factor,jh=0.004(Sinnot,2005)

Heat transfer coefficient for tube,

𝑗ℎ 𝑥 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 𝑃𝑟 0.33 𝑥 𝐾𝑓
ℎ𝑖 =
𝑑𝑖

0.004 𝑥5256.697 𝑥 5.930.33 𝑥3.7063 𝑥 10−5

=
0.01
0.15 W/m2℃

Table 6-1.8.10 Shell side heat transfer coefficient

71
Calculations Value Unit

𝐷𝑠 0.406 0.0812 m
Baffle spacing,𝐵𝑠 = =
5 5

For square pitch,𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 𝐷𝑜 = 1.25 𝑥 0.020 0.025 m

𝑃𝑡−𝐷𝑜
Shell cross flow area,𝐴𝑠 = 𝑥𝐷𝑠 𝑥 𝐵𝑠
𝑃𝑡

(Sinnott,2005)

0.025 − 0.020
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑥 0.406 𝑥 0.0812
0.025 0.0066 m2
where Pt=Tube pitch

Do=tube outside diameter

Ds=shell inside diameter

Bs=baffle spacing

1.10
Equivalent diameter, 𝑑𝑒 = 𝑥(𝑃𝑡 2 −
𝐷𝑜

0.917𝐷𝑜 2 )
0.014 m
1.10
𝑑𝑒 = 𝑥 (0.0252 − (0.917 𝑥 0.0202 )
0.020

Volumetric flowrate on shell side,

𝑚𝑠 6909.89
𝑉𝑠 = =
𝜌 0.6468 𝑥 3600
2.967 m3/s

Shell side velocity, 45 m/s

𝑉𝑠 2.97
𝑈𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑠 0.066

Reynolds number,

𝜌 𝑥 𝑈𝑡 𝑥 𝑑 0.6468 𝑥 54 𝑥 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 1.33298 𝑥 10−5
26202.34

72
 𝐶𝑝 𝑥 𝜇
Prandtl number,𝑃𝑟 = = 1.04
𝐾𝑓

2.243 𝑥 103 𝑥1.33298𝑥10−5

0.0288

Baffle cut chosen,25%

Shell side heat transfer

factor,jh=0.0075(Sinnot,2005)
573.34 W/m2℃
𝑗ℎ 𝑥 𝑅𝑒 𝑥𝑃𝑟 0.33 𝑥𝐾𝑓
Heat transfer coefficient,ℎ𝑠 = =
𝑑𝑖

0.0075𝑥26202.341𝑥1.040.33 𝑥0.0288
0.01

Table 6-1.8.11 Overall coefficient

Calculations Value Unit

Outside fluid film coefficient. Hs 573.34 W/m2℃

Inside fluid film coefficient, hi 57.36 W/m2℃

Outside fouling factor coefficient, hod 79000 W/m2℃

Inside fouling factor coefficient, hid 5000 W/m2℃

Tube inside diameter, di 0.010 m

Tube outside diameter, do 0.020 m

Calculated overall heat transfer coefficient,

𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 𝑙𝑛 𝑜 𝑑𝑜 1 1
𝑑𝑖
= + + +( 𝑥( + )) (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡, 2005)
𝑈𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝐾𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑

thus

73
 1 356.63 W/m2℃
𝑈𝑜 =
0.01
1 1 0.02𝑙𝑛 0.02 0.01 1 1
+ + +[ 𝑥( + )]
573.34 79000 (2𝑥54) 0.15 57.36 5000

Table 6-1.8.12 Tube side pressure

Calculations Value Unit

𝜌 𝑥 𝑈𝑡 𝑥 𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

1.34 𝑥 39.386 𝑥0.01

=
0.1004 𝑥 10−3
5256.697

Tube side pressure drop

𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑡 2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 𝑥 + 2.5] 𝑥 (Sinnott,2005)
𝐷 2

1.34𝑥39.3862
∆𝑃𝑡 = 2𝑥[8(0.004)𝑥244 + 2.5)]𝑥
2

21427.08 N/m2

0.2 bar

Table 6-1.8.13 Shell side pressure drop

Calculations Value Unit

Reynolds number,

5437.21

74
 𝜌 𝑥 𝑈𝑡 𝑥 𝑑 0.6468 𝑥 11.02 𝑥 0.01
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 1.33298 𝑥 10−5

Shell side pressure drop

𝐷 𝐿 𝜌𝑢2
∆𝑃𝑠 = (8𝑗𝑓 (𝑑 𝑠 ) (𝐵𝑠)) (Sinnot,2005)
𝑒 2

∆𝑃𝑡
2053.46 N/m2
0.406 2.44 0.6468𝑥11.022
= 8𝑥(0.0075)𝑥 ( )𝑥( )𝑥 0.02053 bar
0.014 0.0812 2

Table 6-1.8.14 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design

PARAMETER VALUE UNIT

Heat Load,Q 119.85 kW

Assumed heat transfer coefficient,Uass 150 W/m2℃

Tube side design

Tube outer diameter,Do 0.020 m

Tube inside diameter,Di 0.010 m

Number of tubes,Nt 167

Inlet temperature,T1 800 ℃

Outlet temperature,T2 300 ℃

Flowrate,mt 5072.94 kg/h

Bundle diameter 0.312 m

Reynolds number,Re 5256.697

Heat transfer cofficient for tube side,hi 1351.12 W/m2℃

Pitch,Pt 0.025 m

75
 Pressure drop 0.2 bar

Shell side design

Shell diameter,Ds 0.406 m

Inlet temperature,t1 85 ℃

Outlet temperature,t2 130 ℃

Flowrate,ms 6909.89 kg/h

Baffle spacing,Bs 0.0812 m

Shell crossflow area,As 0.0066 m2

Equivalent diameter,de 0.014 m

Reynolds number,Re 26202.34

Heat transfer coefficient at shell side,hs 573.34 W/m2℃

Pressure drop 0.021 bar

Passes,Ns 2

6-1.9 Mechanical Engineering Design

6-1.9.1 Material of construction

Extreme care is taken when selecting a material of construction since electrolytic attack can

develop leading to corrosion. Commonly, 0.625 to 1.5 inches tubing used in exchangers is

made from low carbon steel, Admiralty, copper, copper-nickel, stainless steel, Hastelloy,

Inconel, or titanium. The carbon steel alloy offers good ductility and tensile strength. These

heat exchangers are possessing superior resistance to corrosion and oxidation at harsh

climatic circumstances. These also enhance good creep strength and hardness. The carbon

alloy increases the brittleness of heat exchangers(Rodriguez and Belman).

76
Steps in the estimation of mechanical design

1. Selection of heat exchanger layout and number of passes.

2. Specifications of tube parameters-size, pitch and material.

3. Setting upper and lower design limits on the tube length.

4. Specification of shell side parameters-material, baffle cut, spacing and clearance.

5. Setting upper and lower design limits on the shell diameter, baffle cut and spacing.

6-1.9.2 Design Pressure

Design pressure plays vital role to determine minimum thickness required for pressure parts.

Generally design pressure is 5-10% greater than the maximum allowable working pressure

Internal pressure= hydrostatic head + atmospheric pressure

Pi = pgh + Patm

Where p is the density of working fluids

For Nitrogen Oxide Stream, p = 1.34 kg/m3

For the superheated steam, p = 0.6468 kg/m3

g is the acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s2

h is the height of the vessel=2.44m

Patm is the atmospheric pressure= 101325 N/m2

Internal pressure = (1.34 + 0.6468) x 9.8 x 2.44 +101325 = 101372.5 N/m2 = 0.10 N/mm2

Design pressure = 0.10 + (0.10 x 0.10) =0.11 N/mm2

77
6-1.9.3 Design Temperature

The temperature is also a criterion for determining minimum thickness required for pressure

parts. Usually we take 10°C higher than the maximum temperature of any component

in the heat exchanger.(Rahul and Sachin,2018)

TDesign=THighest temperature of body + 10℃ =800℃ + 10℃= 810℃

6-1.9.4 Shell Thickness Calculations

𝑃𝑅
𝑡𝑠 = + 𝐶 (𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ, 1999)
𝑓𝐽 − 0.6𝑃

P = Design Pressure

R=Shell internal radius

F=Permissible stress 100.6 N/mm2

C=Corrosion

Allowance 3 mm for carbon steel

J= Joint efficiency 0.8

0.406
110000 𝑥
𝑡𝑠 = 2 + 3𝑥10−3 = 0.0033𝑚 = 3.3𝑚𝑚
100.6 𝑥 106 𝑥 0.8 − 0.6(110000)

6-1.9.5 Torispherical Head

78
In a typical heat exchanger, there are two types of heads namely the front head and rear head.

The tube-side fluid gets into the exchanger through the front-end head and there are four

types: the A-type head, B-type head, C-type head and N-type head. The B-type head (Bonnet,

integral cover) is preferential for this design since it allows for access to the tube sheet for

cleaning but require removing the head from the piping. The B-type heads eliminate one

body flange ring and, so, are less expensive(Sloley,2013). The tube-side fluid leaves the heat

exchanger through the rear head and the S-type floating head is mostly used when thermal

expansion needs to be allowed for and access to both sides of the exchanger is required from

cleaning hence is the most suitable for this design(Brojan,2010). The torispherical head is

characterised by four geometric parameters: inside head diameter, crown radius, knuckle

radius and head thickness(Thulukkanam,2013).

Inside depth of the head(hi) is calculated as

𝐷𝑠 𝐷𝑠 0.5
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 − [(𝑅𝑖 − ) (𝐷𝑠 + ) + 2𝑟𝑖 ] (Sinnott,2005)
2 2

Where crown radius Ri=Ds (shell diameter) =406 mm

Knuckle radius ri = 0.06Ri

=0.06(406)=24.36mm

0.5
406
ℎ𝑖 = 406 − [(406 − ) + 2(24.36)] = 54.32 𝑚𝑚
2

Effective exchanger length(Leff)=Lt + 2hi = 2.44 + 2(0.05432)=2.54864 m

Thickness of torispherical head (tn)

79
 𝑃 𝑥 𝑅𝑖 𝑥 𝑊
𝑡𝑛 = + 𝐶(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡, 2005)
2𝑓𝑗 − 0.2𝑃

1 𝑅 1 406
Where 𝑊 = 4 (3 + √ 𝑟 𝑖 ) = 4 (3 + √24.36) = 1.7706 𝑚𝑚
𝑖

0.110 𝑥 406 𝑥 1.7706

𝑡𝑛 = + 3 = 3.393 𝑚𝑚
2(100.6 𝑥 1) − 0.2(0.110)

6-1.9.6 Channel Cover Thickness

Channel cover material; Carbon steel

The thickness of the channel shall be greater than the two values : (i) shell thickness or

(ii)thickness calculated on the basis of the design pressure shown below.

𝐷𝑐 𝑥√𝐶𝑖 𝑥𝑃
𝑡𝑐𝑐 =
10𝑓

Where

Dc=diameter of cover usually the same as outside shell diameter

Ci=a factor which is 0.25 when the cover is bolted with full faced gaskets and 0.3 when

bolted with narrow faced or ring type gaskets.

P is design pressure in N/mm2

F is allowable stress value in N/mm2 at design temperature

Outside diameter of shell,D0=shell internal diameter + 2(shell thickness)

=406+2(3.3)=412.6 mm

80
 412.6 𝑥 √0.25 𝑥 0.11
𝑡𝑐𝑐 = = 0.068𝑚𝑚
10 𝑥 100.6

Use tcc=0.068mm + 3mm(corrosion allowance)=3.068mm

6-1.9.7 Tube Sheet Thickness

𝐹𝑥𝐺 𝑃
Tube sheet thickness,𝑡𝑠 = √𝑘𝑥𝑓 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑡, 2005)
3

Where F is the tube sheet constant(for the tube sheet having straight tubes F=1)

G is the mean gasket with

P is the design pressure

K is 0.5 for square pitch

f is the permissible tensile strength

1𝑥406 0.110
𝑡𝑡𝑠 = √ = 6.329 𝑚𝑚
3 100.6𝑥0.5

6-1.9.8 Flat Head

𝑃
Head thickness,𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 . 𝐷𝑒 . √𝑓 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑡, 2005)

Where

t=head of closure thickness

Cp=design constant,dependent on the edge constraint(Sinnott,2005)

De=nominal plate diameter=434mm

81
Using a full-face gasket,bolted cover,take Cp=0.4

f is the permissible tensile strength of the material

0.110
𝑡 = 0.4 𝑥 406 𝑥 √ = 5.37 𝑚𝑚
100.6

Closure thickness =5.37 + 3(corrosion allowance) = 8.37 mm

6-1.9.9 Nozzle thickness

Nozzle diameter=76.2 mm

𝑃 𝑥𝐷
Minimum nozzle thickness,𝑡𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑥𝑖 𝐽−𝑃𝑛 + 𝑐
𝑖

Where Dn is the nozzle diameter

110000 𝑥 0.0762
𝑡𝑛 = + 3𝑥10−3 = 0.003104 𝑚 = 3.104𝑚𝑚
100.6𝑥106 𝑥0.8 − 110000

6-1.9.10 Design of Gaskets

The expression below is used to derive a preliminary estimation of gaskets:

Residual gasket force= Gasket seating force – Hydrostatic pressure force

To prevent the leakage of the internal fluid,the residual gasket force should be greater. By

this condition the final equation can be given as follows:

𝐷𝑂𝐺 𝑌 − 𝑝𝑚
=√
𝐷𝐼𝐺 𝑌 − 𝑝(𝑚 + 1)

DOG = outside gasket diameter (mm)

DIG = inside gasket diameter (mm) = Ds + 0.25(Sinnott,2005)

82
P= design pressure

Y= minimum design seating stress

m = gasket factor

𝐷𝑂𝐺 −𝐷𝐼𝐺
Width of gasket (𝑁) = 2

DIG = 406 + 0.25 =406.25 mm

Y = 5.35 kgf/mm2 and m=3.75 (Sinnott,2005)

𝐷𝑂𝐺 5.35 − (0.11𝑥3.75)

=√ = 1.0161
406.25 5.35 − 0.11(3.75 + 1)

DOG = 406.25x1.0161=412.78 mm= 413 mm

410.852−406.25
Width of gasket (𝑵) = = 2.301 𝑚𝑚
2

But for the standard Y=5.35 kgf/mm2 and m=3.7, width of gasket =6 mm(Sinnott,2005)

Basic gasket seating width (bo) = N/2 = 6/2 =3mm

6-1.9.11 Bolts

The bolt load due to gasket reaction under atmospheric conditions is given by:

Wml =y x G x π x bo

bolt load required to seat the gasket(Wml)

Wml = 52.466 x 406 x π x 3 = 200759.0426N =200.759kN

The bolt head under tight pressure (Wm2)

83
Wm2 = H + Hp

Where

Wm2 = minimum required bolt load under the operation condition

𝜋
H is the total hydrostatic force = 4 𝑥 𝐺 2 𝑥𝑃

Hp is the total joint contact surface compression load = 2 x G x π x b x m x P

𝜋
𝑊𝑚2 = 2 𝑥 𝐺 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 𝑚 𝑥 𝑃 + ( 𝑥𝐺 2 𝑥 𝑃)
4

𝜋
𝑊𝑚2 = 2 𝑥 406 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.293 𝑥 2.44 𝑥 0.110 + ( 𝑥4062 𝑥 0.110) = 14441.41968𝑁
4

= 14.41𝑘𝑁

Wm1 is the controlling load since it is greater than Wm2

Minimum bolt area

The minimum bolt cross sectional area (bolt material is stainless steel and Fa=Fb)

𝑊𝑚𝑙 200759.0426
𝐴𝑚 = = = 1995.62 𝑚𝑚2
𝑓𝑎 100.6

M16 nominal thread diameter with circle diameter (Cb) of 860 mm, 32 bolts and 18 mm roots

diameter (dbr) are selected.

Corresponding actual bolt circle diameter

𝜋 𝑥 𝑑𝑏𝑟 2 𝜋 𝑥 182
𝐴𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = 𝑥32 = 8143.01 𝑚𝑚2
4 4

Ab ˃ Am therefore the selected bolts are suitable

84
The minimum gasket width

𝐴𝑏 . 𝐹𝑏 8143.01 𝑥 100.6
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 60.02 𝑚𝑚
2 𝜋 𝑌 𝐺 2 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 5.35 𝑥 406

6-1.9.12 Flange design

Thickness of the flange is given by

𝑃𝑖
𝑡𝑓 = 𝐺√ + 𝐶(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑡, 2005)
𝐾. 𝑓

1.5 𝑥 𝑊𝑚 𝑥ℎ𝐺 −1
𝐾 = [0.3 { }]
𝐻𝑥𝐺

hG is the radial distance from the gasket to bolt circle

𝐵−𝐺
ℎ𝐺 =
2

B is the flange internal diameter

B= gasket (outer diameter) + 2(bolt diameter) +12

B=406 + 2(860) +12 =2138 mm

𝐵 − 𝐺 2138 − 406
ℎ𝐺 = = = 866𝑚𝑚
2 2

𝜋
𝐻= 𝑥 4062 𝑥0.11 = 14240.81𝑁 = 14.24𝑘𝑁
4

1.5 𝑥 200.789 𝑥 866 −1

𝐾 = [0.3 { }] = 0.074
14.24 𝑥 406

0.11
𝑡𝑓 = 406√ = 49.35 𝑚𝑚
0.074 𝑥 100.6

85
Hence the flange thickness is 51.81 mm

6-1.9.13 Weight Analysis

Length of heat exchanger=2.44m

Shell internal diameter Di = 0.406 m

Shell outer diameter Do =0.413 m

Thickness of shell = 0.0033 m

Outer diameter of tube do = 0.02 m

Inner diameter of tube di = 0.01 m

Number of tubes Nt =167 tubes

Density of carbon steel Ps = 7850 kg/m3

Density of fluid in tubes = 1. kg/m3

Weight of shell body, Ws

𝜋
Volume of shell body (𝑉𝑠 ) = 4 (𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 )𝑥 𝐿

𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑥 (0.4132 − 0.4062 ) 𝑥 2.44 = 0.011 𝑚3
4

Weight of shell body= Vs x ρs x 9.81

Ws = 0.011 x 7850 x 9.81 = 847.09 N

Weight of tubes, Wt
86
 𝜋
𝑉𝑡 = (𝑑𝑜 2 − 𝑑𝑖 2 )𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝑁𝑡
4

𝜋
𝑉𝑡 = (0.022 − 0.012 )𝑥 2.44 𝑥 167 = 0.096 𝑚3
4

Weight of tube= Vt x Ps x 9.81

Wt = 0.096 x 7850 x 9.81 = 7392.816N

Weight of head. Wh

Volume of head = 0.087Di3 =0.087(0.4063) = 0.0058 m3

Weight of head = 0.0058 x 7850 x 9.81 =448.37 N

Weight of insulation,Wi

Wi = Vi x Pi 9.81

𝑉𝑖 = 𝜋𝐷𝑖 𝑥 𝑡1 𝑥 𝐿 = 𝜋 𝑥 0.406 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 2.44 = 0.311 𝑚3

Density of insulation material = 120 kg/m3

WI = 0.311 x 120 x 9.81 =366.11 N

Weight of spacers and tie rods,Wsr

𝑊𝑠𝑟 = 𝑉𝑠𝑟 𝑥 𝜌𝑠𝑟 𝑥 𝑔

Assuming Rods of lengths of 1.54 m is used

87
 𝜋
𝑉1 = 𝑥 (0.011)2 𝑥1.24 = 0.00012 𝑚3
4

Rods of length of 2.24 m is used

𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑥 0.012 𝑥 2.24 = 0.00018 𝑚3
4

Total volume = V1 + V2 = 0.00018+0.00012 = 0.0003 𝑚3

Wsr = 0.0003 x 7850 x9.81 = 23.10 N

Weight of baffles. Wb

Baffle diameter= Ds– (16 mm + 0.8 mm tolerance)

Baffle diameter= 312 – (16 + 0.8) = 295.2 mm

1
Cross sectional area of one baffle = 4 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.2952 = 0.068 𝑚2

For 25% Bafle

Baffle area remaining =(1-0.25) x 0.312 = 0.234 m2

Total number of tubes through the baffles is 167 with 4 tie rods

1
Total area covered by tubes (𝐴𝑡 ) = 167 𝑥 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.022 = 0.052𝑚2
4

Effective surface of area = 0.119 – 0.052 =0.067 m2

Volume of baffle = Effective surface of area x thickness of baffle

Take thickness of baffle to be 3 mm

Volume of baffle = 0.067 x 0.003 = 2.01 x 10-4m3

88
Weight of baffle = 2.01 x 10-4 x 7850 x 9.81 = 15.48 N

Weight of tube sheet, Wts

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑡𝑠 𝑥 𝑔

1 1
Cross sectional area of the tube sheet (𝐴𝑡𝑠 ) = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑡𝑠 = 4 𝑥𝜋𝑥0.4132 = 0.134 𝑚2
4

dts covers the whole outer diameter of the shell=0.413 m

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 = (𝐴𝑡𝑠 − 𝐴𝑡 )𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑠 = (0.134 − 0.022) 𝑥 0.0063 = 0.00071 𝑚3

Weight of tube sheet= 0.00071 x 7850 x 9.81 = 54.68 N

Weight of fluid in the tubes, Wft

Wft =Vft x pft x g

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 = 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 (0.022 − 0.012 )𝑥 2.44 = 5.74 𝑥 10−4 𝑚3
4

Total volumes fluid in the tubes = 167x 5.74 x 10-5 = 0.01m3

Weight of fluid in the tubes = 0.01 x 1.34 x 9.81 = 0.13 N

Weight of superheated steam at shell side, Wfs

Volume of superheated steam = Volume of shell –volume of tubes –volume of baffle

Volume of superheated steam = 0.011 – 0.0003 – (2.91x10-4)=0.0104 m3

Weight of superheated steam at shell side = 0.0104 x 30.8736 x 9.81 =3.15 N

Dead weight,DW

DW= 3.15 + 12.19 +54.68 +22.41 + 23.10+ 366.11 + 448.37 + 3095.74 + 847.09 = 4872.84

N
89
6-1.9.14 Stress Analysis

𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
4𝑡𝑠

Where P is the design pressure

D is shell diameter

T is shell thickness

0.11 𝑥 406
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 3.38 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
4 𝑥 3.3

𝑃𝐷𝑖 0.11 𝑥 406

𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = = 6.77 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
2𝑡𝑠 2 𝑥 3.3

𝐷𝑊 4872.84
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = = 1.17 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 − 𝑡𝑠 )𝑡𝑠 𝜋(406 − 3.3)3.3

Longitudinal bending moments at mid-span, Ml1

2(𝑅 2 − 𝐻 2 )
𝑄 1+
𝑀𝑙1 = 𝑥 𝐴 ( 𝐿2 )
2 4𝐻 4𝐻
(1 + 3𝐿 ) − ( 𝐿 )

𝐷𝑊 4872.84
𝑄= = = 2436.42 𝑁
2 2

𝐷𝑖 0.406
R,radius of shell = = = 0.203 m
2 2

H=depth of head

A is the distance from bracket center line from shell end.

A= 0.4R = 0.4 x 0.203 =0.0812 m2

90
 2(0.2032 − 0.054322 )
4872.84 1+
𝑀𝑙1 = 𝑥 0.0812 ( 2.442 ) = 223.5 𝑁𝑚
2 4𝑥0.05432 4𝑥0.0812
(1 + 3𝑥2.44 ) − ( 2.44 )

Longitudinal bending moment at supports, Ml2

𝐴 2 2
𝐿 + (𝑅 − 𝐻 )
𝑀𝑙2 = 𝑄𝑥𝐴𝑥 1 − 2𝐿𝐴
4𝐻
(1 + 3𝐿 )
( )
0.0812 2 2
2.44 + (0.203 − 0.05432 )
= 4872.84𝑥0.0812 1 − 2𝑥2.44𝑥0.0812 = 326.3 𝑁𝑚
4𝑥0.05432
(1 + 3𝑥2.44 )
( )

Longitudinal bending stress at mid-span,f1

4𝑀𝐿1 4 𝑥 223.5
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = = = 523.14𝑁
𝜋𝑥𝐷2 𝑖 𝑥 𝑡𝑠 𝜋 𝑥 0.4062 𝑥3.3

Longitudinal bending stress at support, f2

C, is an empirical constant for a completely stiff shell c=1

4𝑀𝐿2 4𝑥326.3
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 = = = 763.77 𝑁
𝐶𝑥𝜋𝑥𝐷2 𝑖 𝑥𝑡𝑠 1𝑥𝜋𝑥0.4062 𝑥3.3

6-1.9.15 Vessel Support

The choice of a support for the vessel is based on its size, shape and weight of the vessel; the

design temperature and pressure. This vessel is then mounted on two saddle supports made

carbon steel. The saddle supports will be located nearer the ends to make use of the stiffening

effects of the ends. In addition to the longitudinal bending stress a vessel supported on saddles

91
will be subjected to tangential shear stresses, which transfer the load from the unsupported

sections of the vessel to the supports, and to circumferential bending stresses. (Sinnott,2005)

Table 6-1.9.15.1 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design

PARAMETER VALUE UNIT

Design Pressure 112 kPa

Design Temperature 810 ℃

Shell thickness 3.3 mm

Shell outside diameter 412.6 mm

Inside depth of Head 54.32 mm

Thickness of Head 3.393 mm

Channel cover thickness 3.068 mm

Tube sheet thickness 6.329 mm

Corrosion allowance 3 mm

Nozzle thickness 3.104 mm

Nozzle diameter 76.2 mm

Outside Gasket Diameter 412.78 mm

Gasket Width 2.301 mm

Flange thickness 49.35 mm

Effective length of heat exchanger 2.5486 m

Dead Weight 4872.84 N

Longitudinal Stress 3.38 N/mm2

Direct Stress 1.77 N/mm2

Circumferential Stress 6.77 N/mm2

92
 Longitudinal bending moment at mid-span 223.5 Nm

Longitudinal bending moment at supports 326.31 Nm

Longitudinal bending stress at mid span 523.14 N

Longitudinal bending stress at support 763.77 N

6-2 Design of Absorption Column

6-2.1 Problem Statement

A gaseous mixture containing NO2 and water, with a molar composition of 15% NO2 and

8.80 % water, is evolved from the condenser, CD-108 in the nitric acid plant. The absorption

column will absorb nitrogen dioxide and react it with deionized water to produce the nitric

acid needed for the ammonium nitrate production.

6-2.2 Objective

6-2.2.1 Main Objective

To design an absorption column that will absorb the nitrogen dioxide formed from the

oxidation of Nitric Oxide from the condenser, CD-108.

6-2.2.2 Specific Objectives

i. To specify the type of absorber for the unit operation.

ii. To specify the material of construction of the equipment.

iii. To determine the mechanical and chemical design parameters for the absorber.

iv. To obtain a detailed mechanical design drawing of the equipment.

93
6-2.3 Background

The absorption column is also called the contact tower or scrubber. This tower, when it has

a small diameter, has packings in it. However, a tray type is considered when the diameter is

large (Fang and Duan, 2014). In chemical and petrochemical industries, absorption is a

common method employed for transferring mass, heat and momentum between gas and

liquid phases. Absorption is defined as a mass transfer operation at which one or more soluble

components contained in a gas phase mixture are dissolved into a liquid solvent whose

volatility is low under process conditions.

Some processes that highlight the importance of absorption includes the following:

1. The recovery of solvent vapors or natural gasoline from gaseous currents

2. The treatment of gases in refinery

3. The decontamination of industrial gases

The absorption process could be classified as physical or chemical depending on whether or

not there is a reaction between the solute and the solvent. The physical absorption occurs

when the target solute is dissolved into the solvent, while the chemical absorption takes place

when the target solute reacts with the solvent (Sanchez and Silva, 2016).

NO2 gas with a flowrate of 13141.54 kg/h, is going to be absorbed with deionized water by

chemical absorption method. The nitric acid, HNO3 is collected at the bottom of the column.

The tail gases from the absorption column include N2, O2, water vapor and NO. The reaction

of the absorption is given by:

3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO ∆H = -135.98Kj

94
6-2.3.1 Equipment selection

To absorb the nitrogen dioxide formed from the oxidation of Nitric Oxide, a packed bed

absorption column will be used.

The advantages of a packed bed absorber over the plate column absorber for the absorption

of nitrogen dioxide;

i. The liquid holdup is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column. This

is important when the liquids involved are corrosive, toxic or flammable needs to be

kept as small as possible for safety reasons.

ii. For corrosive liquids a packed column will usually be cheaper than the equivalent

plate column.

iii. There is low pressure drop in the packed-bed absorbers.

iv. Packed-bed absorbers come at lower capital and operating costs than the plate

column.

6-2.3.1 Plate Contactors

Cross-flow plates are the most common type of plate contactor used in distillation and

absorption columns. In a cross-flow plate, the liquid flows across the plate and the vapour up

through the plate. Other types of plate are used that have no down comers, that is, they are

non-cross-flow plates. They are used particularly when a low pressure drop is required

(Towler and Sinnott, 2008).

Three typical types of cross-flow plates are;

a. Sieve or perforated plate

The sieve plate is the simplest type of cross-flow plate. The vapour passes up through

perforations in the plate, and the liquid is retained on the plate by the vapour flow. There is
95
no positive vapor-liquid seal, and at low flow rates liquid will ‘‘weep’’ through the holes,

reducing the plate efficiency. The perforations are usually small holes, but larger holes and

slots are used (Towler and Sinnott, 2008).

Figure 6-2.1 A schematic drawing of a perforated plate , (Towler and Sinnott, 2008).

b. Bubble-cap plates

In bubble-cap plates, the vapor passes up through short pipes, called risers, covered by a cap

with a serrated edge, or slots. The bubble-cap plate is the traditional, oldest type of cross-

flow plate, and many different designs have been developed. Standard cap designs would

now be specified for most applications. The most significant feature of the bubble-cap plate

is that the use of risers ensures that a level of liquid is maintained on the tray at all vapour

flow rates (Towler and Sinnot, 2008).

Figure 6-2. 1 A picture of a bubble cap plate, (Towler and Sinnott, 2008).

96
 c. Valve or floating cap plates

Valve plates are proprietary designs and they are essentially sieve plates with large-diameter

holes covered by movable flaps, which lift as the vapour flow increases. As the area for

vapour flow varies with the flow rate, valve plates can operate efficiently at lower flow rates

than sieve plates, the valves closing at low vapour rates. Some very elaborate valve designs

have been developed, but the simple type is satisfactory for most applications (Towler and

Sinnott, 2008).

Figure 6-2. 2 A schematic diagram of a valve cap, (Towler and Sinnott, 2008).

6-2.3.2 Spray chamber

The spray tower has an empty shell at the top of the column where the liquid is sprayed by

means of fixed orifices of various kinds. According to (Babcock & Wilcox, 2017), the spray

tower has many advantages. It has a simple design and also easy to construct and operate.

Also, it has high efficiency removal of acidic gases with little or no traces of scale. It has a

lower pressure and lower capital and operating cost. However, fine droplets are expected to

be produced using the spray tower. This remains a disadvantage since they are difficult to

produce (Cheremisinoff, 2003).

97
6-2.3.3 Venturi cleaning towers

Venturi scrubbers are widely used for high efficiency collection of small particles from many

industrial processes. Venturi scrubbers are also used when the gas streams are too hot for

other collection devices (Rudnick et al., 1986). Energy consumption in the form of gas-phase

pressure drop across the venturi is high compared to that found in other devices of equal

collection efficiency (Leith and Cooper, 1980).

6-2.4 Equipment Description

The absorption column used to absorb the nitrogen dioxide in the nitric acid plant is a packed-

bed absorption column. The gas-liquid contact in a packed bed column is continuous, not

stage-wise, as in a plate column. The liquid flows down the column over the packing surface,

and the gas flows counter-currently up the column. In some gas-absorption columns, co-

current flow is used. The performance of a packed column is very dependent on the

maintenance of good liquid and gas distribution throughout the packed bed, and this is an

important consideration in packed-column design (Towler and Sinnott, 2008). A well

designed packed-bed tower will provide the required mass-transfer contact between gas and

liquid phases, with low pressure drop, small capital and operating costs, and high removal

efficiencies. Several design parameters are to be determined including column diameter (D),

packing height (Z), overall mass transfer coefficient (Km) and gas pressure drop (∆ P), as

well as the overall number of gas-phase transfer units, overall height of a gas-phase transfer

unit and the effective surface area of packing.

6-2.4.1 Parts of the absorption column

98
The different parts of the packed column are a column shell, a mist eliminator, liquid

distributors, packing materials, packing support and a packing restrainer. The mist eliminator

is used to trap liquid droplets that are entrained in the gas stream before they exit the vessel.

The liquid distributors are designed to wet the column evenly and initiate uniform contact

between the flue gas stream and water. The packing support and packing restrainer keeps the

packings in place within the walls of the column.

Figure 6-2. 3 Parts of an absorption column (branchenv.com, 2020)

6-2.4.2 Types of packing

99
There are into two broad classes of packing:

 Packings with a regular or structured geometry.

The term structured packing refers to packing elements made up from wire mesh or

perforated metal sheets. The material is folded and arranged with a regular geometry, to give

a high surface area with a high void fraction. They are available in metal, plastics, and

stoneware. The advantage of structured packings over random packing is their low pressure

drop (around 100Pa/m).

 Random packings.

Random packings, unlike structured packings, are dumped into the column and take up a

random arrangement. This makes it cheaper to install compared to structured packings. They

also have a higher specific surface area of contact.

6-2.4.3 Selection of packing material

In general, small sizes are appreciably more expensive than the larger sizes. Above 50mm,

the lower cost per cubic meter does not normally compensate for the lower mass transfer

efficiency. Packing material can be made from either metals, plastics or ceramics. Ceramic

packing are considered when dealing with corrosive or acidic streams as they offer better

resistance than the other two types (Towler & Sinnott, 2013). However, since ceramic

packing is easily broken during unstable column operation, metal pall rings will be the choice

of packing in the design of the column (Sinnott, 2009).

100
\

Figure 6-2. 4 Pictures of different packing materials , (Mendez, 2011).

101
 Table 6-2.1 Hydraulic and mass-transfer parameters of four selected

packing materials

Packing Pressure Hydraulic Parameters Mass transfer

drop parameters

a ε Fp Cl Cv

50-mm Low- 92 0.977 52 1.168 0.408

Metal high medium

flow rings

50-mm Medium 121 0.783 142 1.227 0.415

Ceramic

pall rings

50-mm Low 75 0.98 46 1.326 0.389

Metal top

pack rings

25-mm Medium 205 0.97 105 1.376 0.405

Metal VSP

rings

Source: (Sanchez and Silva, 2016)

102
6-2.5 Mode of Operation

The deionized water used for the absorption is fed to the top of the column and flows

downwards to the bottom. The gas mixture enters the column from the bottom and flows

upwards. This type of flow configuration is known as the countercurrent flow arrangement.

This configuration is the best because both the liquid and gas flow as a result of gravity. The

column usually operates at atmospheric conditions, that is, 1 atm and 278K. The deionized

water is fed into the column by means of a nozzle which sprays the water down. As the water

trickles, contact is made with the gas flowing upwards. The fractional void volume of the

packings permit the flow of the liquid (Benitez, 2011). Also, to ensure that both the flue gas

and the water are well distributed, allowance is made available above and below the packed

bed within the column. Liquid redistributors are placed between sections of the packed bed

to collect water and redistribute to the packings below. The redistributor also collects liquid

off the column wall and direct it to the center of the column.

Figure 6-2. 5 Control loop for the absorption column

103
 Table 6-2.1 Sensor description

Process variable Sensor description

Flow FC-Flow sensor, Venturi

meter

Level LC-level sensor, Venturi

meter

Composition QC-pH meter

104
6-2.6 Chemical Engineering Design

In the design of every equipment, it is essential to determine the design parameters associated

with the chemical engineering principles governing the unit operation. For an absorption

column, the parameters that fully specify the equipment are, the column diameter, column

height, height of packed bed and pressure drop in the column. Other design parameters are

also specified in this design.

When designing the absorption column, the following assumptions were made:

i. The absorption takes place under isothermal conditions.

ii. The absorption conditions are isobaric.

iii. Steady state operations.

iv. The mass transfer of any other component except Nitrogen dioxide is neglected.

6-2.6.1 Material Balance on Absorption column

The flowrate of the deionized water entering the unit was determined by material balance

based on the flowrate of the nitrogen dioxide gas entering. It is required that 99% of the NO2

is absorbed by the deionized water.

General Material Balance equation:

(Mass Accumulation) = (Mass in) - (Mass out) + (Mass generation)

Steady state operation, hence no accumulation.

105
 L=?
X2 = 0 V = 2019.5
n2 = ?
y2 = ?

V = 2019.5
n1 = 305.5
y1 = 0.1513 L=?
X1 = ?
X*1 = ?

Entering gas:

NO2 = 15%

V=87,605.46 kg/h

T= 30 oC

P= 0.1MPa

Entering liquid:

Deionized water= 100%

T= 30 oC

P= 0.1MPa

Using Raoult’s law;

Yb = mXb *

Where:

Yb = mole fraction of NO2 in the gas at the bottom of the column

106
Xb * = mole fraction of NO2 in the liquid at the bottom of the column

m = slope of equilibrium line

P(NO2 )
m=
PT

Where P = vapour pressure of NO2 at 30 oC

PT = pressure of flue gas = 760 mmHg

277.97
m=
760

m= 0.37

y=0.37 Xb *

Overall balance:

La Xa + Vb Yb = Va Ya + Lb ∗ Xb *

Vb Yb − Va Ya
Lb =
Xb

Lmin = 34,581.10 kg/h

Actual liquid rate (Lact ) has a range between 1.5 Lmin ≤ Lact ≤ 3.0Lmin

Lact = 34,581.10 × 1.5

Lact = 51,871.65 kg/h

0.38
Xact =
1.5

= 0.25

107
Molar mass of flue gas

Mw = y M
i i

Where yi = mole fraction of the individual gases

Mi = molar mass of the individual gases

Mw = 0.73 (14) + 0.088 (18.01) + 0.15 (46) + 0.015 (16) + 0.008 (40) + 0.0004 (44)

Mw = 19.28 kg/kmol

Density of flue gas

PMw
ρ=
RT

Where;

P = pressure of the gas = 101.325 kPa

Mw = molar mass of the gas = 19.28 kg/kmol

R = gas constant = 8.314 kPa.m3/kmol.K (Benítez, 2011)

T = inlet gas temperature = 30oC = 303K

Substituting,

101.325 × 19.28
ρ=
8.314 × 303

ρ = 0.775 kg/m3
108
Viscosity of flue gas

μ G =  yi × μi

Where;

μ G = average viscosity of flue gas

yi = mole fraction of the individual gases

μi = viscosity of the individual gases

Table 6-2-3 Calculation of average viscosity of flue gas

Component 𝜇 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑆 yi yi × μi

N2 1.76 0.73 1.28

H2O 100 0.088 8.80

NO2 1.74 0.15 0.26

O2 2.04 0.015 0.03

Ar 2.23 0.008 0.02

CO2 1.47 0.0004 5.8×10-4

Source: Engineering Toolbox, 2019.

μG = 10.39 × 10−5 Pa. S

109
6-2.6.2 Superficial gas velocity

Flow parameter, X

𝐋 𝛒
𝐗 = 𝐆 (𝛒𝐆)𝟎.𝟓(Towler and Sinnot, 2009)
𝐋

Where;

L = liquid flow rate = 51,871.65 kg/h

G = gas flow rate = 87,605.46 kg/h

ρG = density of gas = 0.775 kg/m3

ρ L = density of liquid at 30oC = 996.53 kg/m3 (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

X= flow parameter

Substituting:

51,871.65 0.775 0.5

X= ( )
87,605.46 996.53

X = 0.017

ii. Flow parameter at flooding, Yflood.

Yflood = exp [-(3.5021 + 1.028lnX + 0.11039(lnX)2)] (Towler and Sinnot, 2009)

Where X = flow parameter

Substituting;

Yflood= exp [-(3.5021 + 1.028ln (0.017) + 0.11039(ln0.017)2)] (Towler and Sinnot, 2009)

110
Yflood= 0.32

iii. Capacity factor at flooding, Csflood .

0.5
 Yflood 
Csflood =  0.1 
(Towler and Sinnot, 2009)
 Fp(μ L ) 

Where Csflood = capacity factor at flooding, m/s

Yflood = flow parameter at flooding = 0.32

Fp = packing factor for 50 mm metal top pall rings = 46 m-1 (Table 1.1)

μ L = viscosity of liquid = 0.798 × 10-3 Pa. s (Engineersedge.com)

0.32
Csflood = (46×(0.798 × 10−3)0.1)0.5

Csflood = 0.12m/s

iv) superficial gas velocity at flooding, VGF

Csflood
VGF = 0.5 (Towler and Sinnott, 2009)
 ρG 
 
 ρ L - ρG 

Where VGF = superficial gas velocity at flooding, m/s

Csflood = capacity factor at flooding = 0.12 m/s

ρG = density of NO2 gas = 0.775 kg/m3

111
ρ L = density of water at 30oC = 996.53 kg/m3 (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

Substituting,

0.12
VGF =
0.775
( )0.5
996.53 − 0.775

VGF = 4.3m/s

v) VG = VGF × f

Where;

VG = superficial gas velocity, m/s

VGF = superficial gas velocity at flooding = 1.98 m/s

f = 0.7 since actual gas velocity through packed towers operate near 70% of the flooding rate

(Coker, 2007).

Substituting,

VG = 4.3 × 0.7 = 3.01 m/s

6-2.6.3 Diameter of column

0.5
 4×QG 
D=   (Towler and Sinnot, 2009)
 VG×π 

Where D = diameter of column, m

QG = volumetric flow rate of gas

112
 87,605.46kg/h
QG = = 31.40 m3/s
0.775kg/m3 × 3600s

VG = superficial gas velocity = 3.01 m/s

Substituting,

4 × 31.40 0.5
D=( )
3.01 × π

D = 3.6 m

6-2.6.4 Dry packing resistance co-efficient

i) effective particle diameter, dp

1 - ε 
dp = 6   (Towler and Sinnott, 2009)
 a 

Where dp = effective particle diameter, m

ε = void fraction of packing = 0.98 (Table 1.1)

a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

Substituting,

1 − 0.98
dp = 6( )
75

dp = 1.6 × 10−3 m

ii) wall factor, Kw

113
 1 2  1  dp 
= 1+    (Towler and Sinnott, 2009)
Kw 3  1 - ε  D 

Where ε = void fraction of packing = 0.98 (Table 1.1)

dp = effective particle diameter = 1.6 × 10−3 m

D = diameter of column = 3.6 m

Substituting,

1 2 1 1.6 × 10−3 m
= 1+ ( )( )
Kw 3 1 − 0.98 3.6

Kw = 0.98

iii) Reynolds number of gas in the column, REG

VG ×dp×ρG ×Kw
R EG = (Benítez, 2011)
1 - ε  μ G

Where;

VG = superficial gas velocity = 3.01 m/s

dp = effective particle diameter = 1.6 × 10−3 m

ρG = density of NO2 gas = 0.775 kg/m3

Kw = wall factor = 0.98

ε = void fraction of packing = 0.98 (Table 1.1)

μ G = viscosity of gas = 10.39 × 10-5 Pa. s

114
Substituting,

3.01 × 1.6 × 10−3 × 0.775 × 0.98

R EG =
(1 − 0.98) × 10.39 × 10−5

R EG = 1760.2

 64 1.8 
iv) Ψo = Cp  +  (Benítez, 2011)
 REG  REG 0.08 
 

Where Ψo = dry packing resistance coefficient

Cp = packing constant = 0.604 (Seader et al., 2011)

REG = Reynolds number of gas in the column = 1,760.2

Substituting,

64 1.8
φ = 0.604 ( + )
1760.2 (1760.2)0.08

φ = 0.62

6-2.6.5 Dry gas pressure drop

ΔPo Ψo×a×ρG ×VG

= (Benítez, 2011)
Z ε3×2×Kw

Where;

ΔPo = dry gas pressure drop, Pa

Z = tower height, m

115
Ψo = dry packing resistance coefficient = 0.62

a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

ρG = density of gas = 0.775 kg/m3

VG = superficial gas velocity = 3.01 m/s

ε = void fraction of packing = 0.98 (Table 1.1)

Kw = wall factor = 0.98

Substituting,

∆Po φ × 75 × 0.775 × 3.01

=
Z 0.983 × 2 × 0.98

∆Po
= 58.8 Pa/m
Z

6-2.6.6 Pressure drop at flooding

ΔPflood = 93.9(Fp)0.7 (Towler and Sinnot, 2009)

Where ΔPflood = pressure drop at flooding, Pa/m

Fp = packing factor for 50 mm Metal Top Pall rings = 46 m-1 (Table 1.1)

Substituting,

∆Pflood = 93.9 (46)0.7

∆Pflood = 1369.61 Pa/m

116
6-2.6.7 Ratio of specific areas

i) Liquid mass velocity, Gx

L
Gx = (Benítez, 2011)
Ac

Where Gx = liquid mass velocity, kg/m2s

L= liquid flow rate = 51,871.65 kg/h

πD 2
Ac = area of column, m2 =
4

π × (3.6)2
Ac =
4

Ac= 10.18 m2

Substituting,

14.41
Gx =
10.18

Gx = 1.42 kg/m2 s

ii) Reynolds number of liquid in the column, REL

Gx
R EL = (Towler and Sinnot, 2009)
a×μ L

Where Gx = liquid mass velocity = 1.42 kg/m2s

a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

μ L = viscosity of liquid = 0.798 × 10-3 Pa. s (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

117
Substituting,

1.42
R EL =
75 × 0.798 × 10−3

REL = 23.73

iii) Froude number of liquid, FRL

a×Gx 2
FRL = (Towler and Sinnot, 2009)
g×ρ L 2

Where a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

Gx = liquid mass velocity = 1.42 kg/m2s

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

ρ L = density of liquid at 30oC = 996.53 kg/m3 (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

Substituting,

75 × 1.422
FRL =
9.81 × (996.53)2

FRL = 1.55 × 10−5

iv) Ratio of specific areas

ah
= 0.85Ch R EL0.25 FRL0.1 for REL ≥ 5 (Benítez, 2011)
a

Where;

118
ah = hydraulic specific area of packing, m2/m3

a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

Ch = packing constant for 50 mm metal top pall rings= 0.881 (Sanchez and Silva, 2016)

REL = Reynolds number of liquid in the column = 23.73

FRL = Froude number of liquid = 1.55 × 10-5

Substituting,

𝑎ℎ
= 0.85 × 0.881 × 23.730.25 × (1.55 × 10−5 )0.1 = 0.55
𝑎

6-2.6.8 Specific liquid holdup

1 2
 F 3 a 3
h L = 12 RL   h 
 R EL   a 

Where;

hL = specific liquid holdup, m3 holdup/m3 packed bed

REL = Reynolds number of liquid in the column = 23.73

FRL = Froude number of liquid =1.55 × 10-5

ah
= ratio of specific areas = 0.55
a

Substituting,

1.55 × 10−5 1 2
hL = (12 × )3 × (0.55)3
23.73

119
 0.013m3 holdup
hL = 3
m packed bed

6-2.6.9 Wetting rate

L
L WR = (Towler & Sinnott, 2009)
ρ L ×Ac×a

Where LWR = wetting rate

L= liquid flow rate = 51,871.65kg/h = 14.41 kg/s

ρ L = density of liquid at 30oC = 996.53 kg/m3 (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

Ac = area of column = 10.18 m2

a = surface area of packing = 75m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

Substituting,

14.41
LWR =
996.53 × 10.18 × 75

10−5 m3
LWR = 1.89 ×
m2 s

6-2.6.10 Number of overall gas phase transfer unit

1  mG m  y1 mG m 
NOG = ln 1-  +  (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
 mG m   Lm  y2 Lm 
1-  
 Lm 

Where;

m = slope of equilibrium line = 0.39

120
Gm = molar flow rate of gas per unit cross sectional area, kmol/m2s

Lm = molar flow rate of liquid per unit cross sectional area, kmol/m2s

y1 = mole fraction of NO2 at the bottom = 0.15

y2 = mole fraction of NO2 at the top = 0.01

4543.85
Gm = = 0.124kmol/m2 s
10.18 × 3600

2690.44
Lm = = 0.073 kmol/m2 s
10.18 × 3600

Gm 0.39 × 0.124
m = = 0.66
Lm 0.073

Substituting;

1 0.15
NOG = ln[(1 − 0.66) + 0.66]
1 − 0.66 0.01

NOG = 5.15

6-2.6.11 Effective wetted area

aW   σC   LW   LW 2a   LW 2  
0.75 0.1 -0.05 0.2

=1-exp -1.45      2     (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)

a   σ L   aμ L   ρ L g   ρ L σ L a  

Where;

aW = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume, m2/m3

a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

σC = critical surface tension of the particular packing material, metal = 75 mN/m (Table 2.2)
121
σ L = surface tension of liquid at 30oC = 7.12× 10−2N/m (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

LW = Gx = liquid mass velocity = 1.42 kg/m2s

μ L = viscosity of liquid = 0.798 × 10-3 Pa. s (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

ρ L = density of liquid at 27oC = 996.53 kg/m3 (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

Table 6-2-4 The critical surface tension of some materials

Material σC mN/m

Ceramic 61

Metal 75

Plastic 33

Carbon 56

Source: (Sanchez and Silva, 2016)

δc 75 × 10−3
= = 1.053
δL 7.12 × 10−2

Lw 1.42
= = 23.73
auL 75 × 0.798 × 10−3

Lw 2 a 1.422 × 75
= = 1.55 × 10−5
ρL 2 g 996.532 × 9.81

Lw 2 a 1.422
= = 3.789 × 10−4
ρL σL a 996.53 × 7.12 × 10−2 × 75
122
𝑎𝑤
= 1 − exp[−1.45(1.053)0.75 (23.73)0.1 (1.55 × 10−5 )−0.05 (3.789 × 10−4 )0.2
𝑎

aw
= 0.53
a

aw = 0.53 × 75 = 39.75m2 /m3

6-2.6.12 Gas film mass transfer coefficient

0.7 1/3
V   μ 
k G RT
 ad 
-2.0
= K5  W   G  p
(Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
a DV  aμ G   ρG DV 

Where;

kG = gas film mass transfer coefficient, kmol/m2s.atm

a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

R = gas constant = 0.08206 atm.m3/kmol.K

T = inlet gas temperature = 30oC = 303 K

DV = diffusivity of NO2 in gas phase = 1.0×10-5 m2/s (Wegner, 2017)

K5 = 5.23 for packings above 15 mm

87,605.46
VW = gas mass velocity = 10.18×3600 = 2.39

μ G = viscosity of gas = 10.39 × 10-5 Pa.s

ρG = density of gas = 0.775 kg/m3

dp = packing size = 50 mm

123
RT 0.08206 × 303
= = 33,152.24
aDv 75 × 1 × 10−5

Vw 2.39
= = 306.7
aDv 75 × 10.39 × 10−5

μG 10.39 × 10−5
= = 13.41
ρG DV 0.775 × 1 × 10−5

adp = 75 × 50 × 10−3 = 3.75

1
K G (33,152.24) = 5.23(306.7)0.7 (13.41)3 (3.75)−2

K G = 1.47 × 10−3 kmol/m2 satm

6-2.6.13 Liquid film mass transfer coefficient

1/3 2/3 -1/2

 ρ   L   μ 
 ad 
0.4
k L  L  = 0.0051 W   L  p
(Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
 μ Lg   a W μ L   ρ L DL 

Where;

kL= liquid film mass transfer coefficient, m/s

ρ L = density of liquid at 30oC = 996.53 kg/m3 (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

μ L = viscosity of liquid = 0.798×10-3 Pa.s (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

LW = liquid mass velocity = 1.42 kg/m2s

aW = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume = 39.75 m2/m3

124
DL = diffusivity of NO2 in liquid phase = 1.59×10-9 m2/s (Engineering Toolbox,2019)

a = surface area of packing = 75 m2/m3 (Table 1.1)

dp = packing size = 50 mm

ρL 996.53
= = 127,297.09
μL g 0.798 × 10−3 × 9.81

Lw 1.42
= = 44.76
aw μL 39.75 × 0.798 × 10−3

μL 0.798 × 10−3
= = 503.63
ρL DL 996.53 × 1.59 × 10−9

adp = 75 × 50 × 10−3 = 3.75

1 2 −1
K L (127297.09)3 = 0.0051(44.76)3 (503.63) 2 (3.75)0.4

Kl = 9.66 × 10−5 m/s

6-2.6.14 Height of overall gas phase transfer

i) Height of gas phase transfer unit

Gm
HG = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
kGa WP

Where;

125
HG = height of gas phase transfer unit, m

Gm = molar flow rate of gas per unit cross sectional area = 0.124 kmol/m2s

kG = gas film mass transfer coefficient = 1.47×10-3 kmol/m2s.atm

aW = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume = 39.75 m2/m3

P = operating pressure in the column = 1 atm

Substituting,

0.124
HG =
1.47 × 10−3 × 39.75 × 1

HG = 2.122m

ii) Height of liquid phase transfer unit

Lm
HL = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
k La W Ct

Where;

HL = height of liquid phase transfer unit, m

Lm = molar flow rate of liquid per unit cross sectional area = 0.073 kmol/m2s

kL= liquid film mass transfer coefficient = 9.66×10-5 m/s

aW = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume = 39.75 m2/m3

126
 996.53
Ct = total concentration of solvent = = 55.4 kmol/m3
18

Substituting,

0.073
HL = = 0.34 m
9.66 × 10−5 × 39.75 × 55.4

Gm
iii) H OG = H G +m HL
Lm

Where HOG = height of overall gas phase transfer unit, m

HG = height of gas phase transfer unit = 2.122 m

m = slope of equilibrium line = 0.39

Gm = molar flow rate of gas per unit cross sectional area = 0.124 kmol/m2s

Lm = molar flow rate of liquid per unit cross sectional area = 0.073 kmol/m2s

HL = height of liquid phase transfer unit = 0.34 m

Substituting,

HOG = 2.122 + 0.34 × (0.66) = 2.35 m

6-2.6.15 Height of packed bed

i) Z = N OG ×H OG

Where;

127
Z = height of packed bed

NOG = number of overall gas phase transfer unit = 5.15

HOG = height of overall gas phase transfer unit = 2.35m

Substituting,

Z = 5.15 × 2.35 = 11.5 m

Total column height= height of packed bed + space allowed

Total column height =15.5 m

Table 6-2-5 Summary of Chemical Design Calculations

Design parameter Value

Gas flow rate 87,605.46 kg/h

Liquid flow rate 51,871.65 kg/h

Superficial gas velocity at flooding 4.3 m/s

Superficial gas velocity 3.01 m/s

Diameter of column 3.6 m

Dry packing resistance coefficient 0.62

Dry gas pressure drop 58.8 Pa/m

Pressure drop at flooding 1369.61 Pa/m

Ratio of specific areas 0.55

Specific liquid holdup 0.013 m3 holdup/m3 of packed bed

Wetting rate 1.89×10-5 m3/m2s

Number of overall gas phase transfer unit 5.15

128
 Effective wetted area 39.75 m2/m3

Gas film mass transfer coefficient 1.47×10-3 kmol/m2s.atm

Liquid film mass transfer coefficient 9.66×10-5 m/s

Height of overall gas phase transfer unit 2.35 m

Height of packed bed 11.5 m

Total height of column 15.5 m

Type of packing 50 mm Metal top pall rings

Packing installation Random

6-2.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

Process design of vessels establishes the pressure and temperature ratings, the length and

diameter of the shell, the sizes and locations of nozzles and other openings, all internals, and

possibly the material of construction and corrosion allowances. This information must be

supplemented with many mechanical details before fabrication can proceed, notably wall

thicknesses (Couper et al, 2009). The process engineer must also consider the requirements

of the mechanical design engineer. The material selected must have sufficient strength and

be easily worked.

6-2.7.1 Material of Construction

The materials for construction, should meet specified requirements before selected as the

ideal material. It should possess the following mechanical properties; tensile strength,

stiffness, creep resistance, toughness, hardness and fatigue resistance. The material should

have the ability to be easily formed, have good corrosive resistance, be available in standard

sizes and come at affordable price. The commonly used materials of construction include;

129
 i. Low carbon steel

ii. Stainless steel

iii. Nickel

iv. Monel

v. Copper and copper alloys

vi. Aluminium and its alloys

vii. Lead

viii. Titanium

Material Selection

The material to be used for the packed bed absorption column is Austenitic stainless steel,

type 304. The stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion-resistant materials in the

chemical industry. To impart corrosion resistance, the chromium content must be above 12%,

and the higher the chromium content, the more resistant the alloy to corrosion in oxidizing

conditions. Nickel is added to improve the corrosion resistance in non-oxidizing

environments. They can be divided into three broad classes according to their microstructure;

Ferritic, Austenitic and Martensitic.

Tensile strength

The tensile strength is a measure of the basic strength of a material. It is the maximum stress

that the material will withstand, measured by a standard tensile test. The tensile strength of

stainless steel is greater than 540 N/mm2 (Towler and Sinnott, 2009).

Stiffness

130
Stiffness is the ability to resist bending and buckling. It is a function of the elastic modulus

of the material and the shape of the cross-section of the member. The modulus of elasticity

of stainless steel is 210 kN/mm2 (Towler and Sinnott, 2009).

Hardness

The surface hardness, as measured in a standard test, is an indication of a material’s ability

to resist wear. This will be an important property if the equipment is being designed to handle

abrasive solids, or liquids containing suspended solids which are likely to cause erosion

(Towler and Sinnot, 2009). The absorption column will have random metal packing and nitric

acid formed at the bottom of the column, therefore, with stainless steel being hard, it can

resist the wear.

Material cost

It is necessary to review the cost of the material before selection. An indication of the cost of

some commonly used metals is given in Table 5.

Table 6-2-6 Relative cost of metals in July, 2006

Metal Grade Price ($/lb)

Carbon Steel A-285 0.27

Austenitic stainless steel 304 0.90

316 1.64

Copper C10400 3.34

Nickel 99%Ni 8.75

Source: (Towler and Sinnot, 2009)

131
6-2.7.2 Design Pressure

Taking the maximum allowable pressure as 10% of the total pressure:

P = 10% more than Po (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)

Where;

P = design pressure, Pa

Po = operating pressure in the column = 101325 Pa

Substituting,

P = 1.1 × (101325) = 111458 Pa

6-2.7.3 Design Temperature

For the design temperature, it is usually taken as 10 oC above the operating temperature

T = 10 oC +To

Where;

T = design temperature, oC

To = operating temperature = temperature of the gas = 30oC

T = 10+30 = 40oC

6-2.7.4 Wall Thickness

PD
t= +C (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
 2SE-P 

132
Where;

t = column shell thickness, mm

P = design pressure = 111458 Pa = 0.111458 N/mm2

D = diameter of column = 3.5 m = 3.5×103 mm

E = welded joint efficiency = 1

C = corrosion allowance = 2 mm

S= maximum allowable design stress of type 304 stainless steel= 138N/mm2

Substituting,

0.111458 × 3.6 × 103

t= +2
(2 × 138 × 1) − (0.111458)

t = 3.5 mm

6-2.7.5 Column Head Design

An ellipsoidal head was selected for the absorption column because this type of head is

suitable when the height to diameter ratio is 4 (Couper et al, 2010).

Figure 6-2.7 A diagram of the head of the column (Towler & Sinnott, 2009).

133
 0.885PR C
th =
SE-0.1P

Where;

th = head thickness, mm

P = design pressure = 111458 Pa = 0.111458 N/mm2

RC = crown radius = diameter of column = 3.6 m

S= maximum allowable design stress of type 304 stainless steel = 138N/mm2

E = welded joint efficiency = 1

Substituting,

0.885 × 0.111458 × 3600

th =
138 − (0.1 × 0.111458)

th = 2.5 mm

6-2.7.6 Total Weight

Weight load

WV = 240CW DM  H V +0.8DM  t (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)

Where WV = total weight of shell without internal fittings, N

CW = factor accounting for internal support, weight of nozzles.

Which is 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings.

1.15 for distillation columns, or similar vessels, with several manways, and with plate support

rings, or equivalent fittings

134
DM = mean diameter = 3.6 + (15×10-3) = 3.615 m

HV = height of column = 15.5 m

t = column thickness = 15 mm

Substituting,

WV = 240(1.15)(3.615)[15.5 + 0.8(3.615)](15 × 10−3 )

WV = 275.26 Kn

Weight of packings

Height of packed bed = 11.5 m

Area of column = 10.18 m2

Density of 50 mm Metal Top Pall rings = 336.39 kg/m3

Mass of packings = Density of packings × height of packed × area of column

Mass of packings = 336.39×11.5×10.18 = 39381.17 kg

Weight of packings, WP = 39381.17×9.81 = 386329.35 N = 386.3 kN

3.6.3 Weight of insulation

Density of mineral wool = 130 kg/m3

Volume of insulation = π×D×H V ×t ins

Where D = diameter of column = 3.6 m

135
HV = height of column = 15.5 m

tins = thickness of insulation = 25×10-3 m

Substituting,

Wins = ρ × V × g

Wins = 130 × 4.38 × 9.81

Wins = 5585.81N = 5.6kN

3.6.4 Total weight of column

WT = WV + WP + Wins

Where WT = total weight of column, kN

WV = weight of shell = 275.26 kN

WP = weight of packings = 386.3 kN

Wins = weight of insulation = 5.6 kN

Substituting,

WT = 266.5 + 386.3 + 5.6 = 658.4 kN

Dead weight stress

WT
σW = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
π  D+t  t

136
Where;

σW = dead weight stress = N/mm2

WT = total weight of column = 658.4 kN

D = diameter of column = 3.6×103 mm

t = column thickness = 15 mm

Substituting,

658.4 × 103
σW = = 3.86
π × (3600 + 15) × 15

6-2.8 Design Stress

Longitudinal Stress

PD
σL = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
4t

Where σL = longitudinal stress, N/mm2

P = design pressure = 0.111458 N/mm2

D = diameter of column = 3.6×103 mm

t = column thickness = 15 mm

Substituting,

0.111458 × 3.6 × 103

σL = = 6.7 N/mm2
4 × 15

137
Circumferential Stress

PD
σH = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
2t

Where σH = circumferential stress, N/mm2

P = design pressure = 0.111458 N/mm2

D = diameter of column = 3.6×103 mm

t = column thickness = 15 mm

Substituting,

0.111458 × 3.6 × 103

σL = = 13.37 N/mm2
2 × 15

Wind loading

Basis of calculations

Wind speed = 100 mph

Wind pressure = 1280 N/m2 (Towler and Sinnott, 2013)

i) Loading (per linear meter)

L = Dm × Pw

Where;

Dm = mean diameter including insulation = D + 2(tins + t)

Dm = 3.6 + 2[(25+ 15) × 10-3] = 3.68 m

Pw = wind pressure = 1280 N/m2

138
Substituting,

𝐿 = 3.68 × 1280 = 4,710.4 Nm

ii) Bending moment at any plane on the column is given as:

LH2
MX = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
2

Where;

MX = bending moment at any plane, Nm

L = loading per linear meter = 4710 Nm

H = height of column = 15.5 m

Substituting,

4710.4 × 152
MX = = 529,920Nm = 530KNm
2

6-2.9 Vessel Supports

Every equipment needs a support to carry the weight of the vessel and contents and any

superimposed loads, such as wind loads. Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two

saddle supports. Skirt supports are used for tall, vertical columns and brackets, or lugs, are

used for all types of vessels. Supports will impose localized loads on the vessel wall, and the

design must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress concentrations are below the

maximum allowable design stress (Towler and Sinnott, 2009).

Skirt support

139
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. A

flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. Skirt supports are

recommended for vertical vessels, as they do not impose concentrated loads on the vessel

shell; they are particularly suitable for use with tall columns subject to wind loading.

Figure 6-2. 8 A diagram of a conical skirt support (Towler & Sinnott, 2009).

Weight on skirt

Weight imposed on skirt = total weight of column + weight of liquid feed

Weight of liquid = ρ L × V × g

Where;

ρ L = density of liquid = 996.53 kg/m3 (Engineering Toolbox, 2019)

V = volume of vessel = area × height of column

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

Weight of liquid = 996.53×10.18×15.5×9.81 = 1542548.62 N

140
Weight imposed on skirt, WS = 658400+ 1542548.62= 2200948.62 N

Stress analysis on skirt

i) Bending moment at the base of skirt

LH2
MS = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
2

Where MS = bending moment at the base of skirt, Nm

L = loading per linear meter = 4710.1 N/m

HC = height of column = 15.5 m

HS = height of skirt = 1 m

H = total height = 16.5 m

Substituting,

4710.1 × 16.52
MS =
2

MS= 641162.4 Nm= 641kNm

ii) Bending stress on skirt

4MS
σ BS = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
π  DS +t SK  t SK DS

Where;

σBS = bending stress in the skirt, N/mm2

141
MS = bending moment at the base of skirt = 641162.4 Nm

DS = inside diameter of skirt at the base = diameter of column = 3.6×103 mm

tSK = thickness of skirt = column thickness = 15 mm

Substituting,

4 × 641162.4 × 103
σBS = = 4.18 N/mm2
π(3600 + 15) × 15 × 3600

iii) Dead weight stress on skirt

WT
a) σ WS(operating) = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
π×  DS +t SK  t SK

Where;

σWS = dead weight stress in the skirt, N/mm2

WT = total weight of vessel and contents =658.4 kN

DS = inside diameter of skirt at the base = diameter of column = 3.6×103 mm

tSK = thickness of skirt = column thickness = 15 mm

Substituting,

658.4 × 103
σWS = = 3.86 N/mm2
π × (3600 + 15) × 15

WS
b) σ WS(test) = (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
π×  DS +t SK  t SK
142
Where;

σWS = dead weight stress in the skirt, 3.86 N/mm2

WS = weight imposed on skirt = 2200948.62 N

DS = inside diameter of skirt at the base = diameter of column = 3.6×103 mm

tSK = thickness of skirt = column thickness = 15 mm

Substituting,

2200948.62
σWS = = 12.92 N/mm2
π × (3600 + 15) × 15

Table 6-2. 7 Summary of Mechanical Design Calculations

PARAMETER VALUE UNITS

Material of construction Stainless Steel 304 -

Design Pressure 111458 Pa

o
Design Temperature 40 C

Vessel Wall Thickness 15 mm

Domed Head Thickness 15 mm

Column head Ellipsoidal -

Weight of packings 386.3 kN

Weight of insulation 5.6 kN

Total weight of column 658.4 kN

Bending stress 4.18 N/mm2

Weight imposed on support 2200.9 kN

Dead Weight 3.86 N/mm2

Longitudinal Stress 6.7 N/mm2

143
 Circumferential Stress 13.37 N/mm2

Support Type Skirt support -

6-3 Design of an Evaporator

6-3.1 Problem statement

To design a multiple-effect evaporator to concentrate Ammonium nitrate solution to 96%. A

combined stream of Ammonium nitrate solution from the neutralization reactor serve as a

feed to the multi effect evaporator and enters at 14211.60 kg/h.

6-3.2 Literature review

Evaporation is the removal of solvent as vapour from a solution, slurry or suspension of

solid in a liquid. The aim is to concentrate a non-volatile solute, such as organic

compounds, inorganic salts, acids or bases from a solvent. Common solutes are caustic

soda, caustic potash, sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, phosphoric acid, and urea. The

most common solvent in most of the evaporation systems is water. Evaporation differs

from the other mass transfer operations such as distillation and drying. In distillation,

the components of a solution are separated depending upon their distribution between

vapour and liquid phases based on the difference of relative volatility of the substances.

Removal of moisture from a substance in presence of a hot gas stream to carry away the

moisture leaving a solid residue as the product is generally called drying. Evaporation

is normally stopped before the solute starts to precipitate in the operation of an

evaporator (McCabe,1993).
144
The equipment use for evaporation is called an evaporator. The heating medium in

process industries is usually steam and the residence time for evaporation depends on

the temperature of the heating medium and surface area to which the solution is exposed.

Exposing the solution to a higher surface area or heating it to a higher temperature

reduces the time needed to achieve a desired concentration. But increasing the

temperature of operation or the residence time in an evaporator might degrade the

solution. So, in order to avoid thermal degradation of the solution, the operating

temperature, as well as the residence time should be kept as low as possible.

Evaporation is either single or multiple effects depending on the number of effects. The

use of either depends on the feed amount and type of feed to the evaporator. Single-

effect evaporators are used when the throughput is low, when a cheap supply of steam

is available, when expensive materials of construction must be used as is the case with

corrosive feedstock and when the vapour is so contaminated so that it cannot be reused.

Single effect units may be operated in batch, semi-batch or continuous batch modes or

continuously. A multiple effect evaporator is an evaporator system in which the vapor

from one effect is used as the heating medium for a subsequent effect boiling at a lower

pressure (Shah et al,.2012).

Types of evaporators

Evaporator consists of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution with special provisions

for separation of liquid and vapor phases. Most of the industrial evaporators have tubular

heating surfaces. The tubes may be horizontal or vertical, long or short; the liquid may

be inside or outside the tubes.

145
Evaporators with tubular heating surface are common and are mostly used compared to

other evaporators. Where the flow of the liquid in the tubes of the evaporator is due to

density difference and gravity, it is called natural circulation and when the flow of the

liquid is provided by a pump, it is called forced circulation (Joshi, 1996).

Short tube vertical evaporators

Short-tube vertical evaporators are the oldest but still widely used in sugar industry in

evaporation of cane-sugar juice. These are also known as calandria or Robert

evaporators. This evaporator was first built by Robert. It became so common in process

industry that this evaporator is sometimes known as standard evaporator. Short-tube

vertical evaporators consist of a short tube bundle (about 4 to 10 ft in length) enclosed

in a cylindrical shell. This is called calandria. The central tube in a calandria is of longer

diameter. Typically, its down comer area is taken as 40 to 70% of the total cross-

sectional area of tubes. The circulation rate through the down comer/down take is many

times the feed rate. The flow area of the down take is normally approximately equal to

the total tubular flow area (Minton, 1986).

Basket type evaporators

The construction and operational features of basket-type evaporators are very similar to

those of the standard evaporator except that the down take is annular. The tube bundle

with fixed tube sheets forms a basket hung in the centre of the evaporator from internal

brackets. The diameter of the tube bundle is smaller than the diameter of evaporator

vessel, thus forming an annular space for circulation of liquid. The tube bundle can be

removed for the purpose of cleaning and maintenance and thus basket evaporators are

more suitable than standard evaporators for scale forming solutions. The vapour

146
generated strikes a deflector plate fixed close to the steam pipe that reduces entrained

liquid droplets from the vapour. (Nayak, 2012)

Plate type evaporators

Plate evaporators consist of corrugated and framed plates that are suitable for scaling

liquids, since the scales can be easily flaked off the plates. They provide relatively larger

surface areas than other type of evaporators. The liquid is pumped between the thin

plates, and the heating medium is provided between the mating surfaces. They have a

single pass operation and thus a short contact time with the heating surface, making them

suitable for heat-sensitive liquids. The product quality is better than other evaporators.

They have a low liquid hold-up and produce minimal waste. They can be easily scaled

up, and need low installation cost due to their compact size and light weight. (Nayak,

2012).

Long tube vertical evaporators

This is another most widely employed natural circulation evaporator because it is often

the cheapest per unit of capacity. The long vertical tube bundle is fixed with a shell that

extends into a larger diameter vapour chamber at the top. The long-tube vertical (LTV)

evaporator consists of one pass shell and tube heat exchanger. In this type of evaporator,

the liquid flows as a thin film on the walls of long (from 12 to 30 feet in length) and

vertical heated tube. Both rising film and falling types are used. Tube length usually

varies from 20 to 65 ft. They may be operated as once through or recirculating systems.

In once through, the contact time is quite low. In cases where the feed ratio to

evaporation rate is low, natural recirculation of the product is done by connecting a large

pipe between the outlet concentrate line and the feed line (Geankopolis,1993). The main

147
advantage of this type of evaporators is higher heat transfer rate. The feed enters at the

bottom and the liquid starts boiling at lower part of the tube. The LTV evaporators are

commonly used in concentrating black liquors in the paper and pulp industries (Minton,

1986).

Falling Film Evaporators

For falling film evaporators, the liquid is fed at the top of the long tube and allowed to fall

down the walls of the tubes under gravity as film. Vapour and liquid are separated at the

bottom of the tubes. Pressure drop is low and boiling point rises are minimal. Falling film

evaporators are widely used for concentrating heat sensitive product due to low contact time

(Geankopolis,1993). They are also suited for handling viscous fluids and are easily staged.

The main problem with falling film evaporators is the need to distribute the liquid evenly to

all tubes, this may require recirculation of the liquid unless the ratio of feed to evaporator is

relatively high. Recirculation can only be accomplished by pumping (Nayak, 2012).

Climbing film evaporators

These types of evaporators are operated under vacuum in order to lower the boiling point

of the solution and increase the temperature difference driving force. The liquid rises up

in the core of the tube against gravity in the form of film. They give high heat transfer

rates and have low contact time. They are mostly use to concentrate heat sensitive

materials such as juices, pharmaceutical products (Nayak, 2012).

Agitated Thin Film Evaporator

Agitated thin film evaporator consists of a vertical steam-jacketed cylinder and the feed

solution flows down as a film along the inner surface of large diameter jacket (Figure

148
3). Liquid is distributed on the tube wall by a rotating assembly of blades mounted on

shaft placed coaxially with the inner tube. The blades maintain a close clearance of

around 1.5 mm or less from the inner tube wall. (NPTEL, 2012). The main advantage is

that rotating blades permits handling of extremely viscous solutions. The device is

suitable to concentrate solutions having viscosity as high as up to 100 P (Nayak,2012).

Agitated Thin Film Evaporator

Agitated thin film evaporator consists of a vertical steam-jacketed cylinder and the feed

solution flows down as a film along the inner surface of large diameter jacket (Figure

3). Liquid is distributed on the tube wall by a rotating assembly of blades mounted on

shaft placed coaxially with the inner tube. The blades maintain a close clearance of

around 1.5 mm or less from the inner tube wall. (NPTEL, 2012). The main advantage is

that rotating blades permits handling of extremely viscous solutions. The device is

suitable to concentrate solutions having viscosity as high as up to 100 P. (Nayak,2012)

6-3.3 Equipment Selection

In order to prepare the ammonium nitrate solution for granulation, drying and other

finishing unit operations, the ammonium nitrate solution (which contains water,

ammonium nitrate and other impurities) is concentrated in an energy saving double or

triple effect falling film evaporation plant in ammonium nitrate plants. A total of

approximately 5tonnes of water are evaporated per hour (Ivanov,1990). Reasons for

choosing a falling film evaporator are: the operation of falling film evaporator is safe

and efficient, pressure drop is low, facilitates treatment of heat sensitive materials due

149
to low holdup time, boiling point rises are minimal, heat transfer coefficient is relatively

high and they are also suited for handling viscous fluids and are also easily staged

(Geankopolis,1993).

6-3.4 Equipment Description

Concentration of Ammonium nitrate solution is done using multi effect falling film

evaporators (Yordanova,2014). The evaporator resembles a long, vertical, tubular

exchanger with liquid-vapour separator at the bottom and a distributer for the liquid at

the top. The evaporator consists of a large vertical tube with smaller tubes in it, the tubes

are 50 to 250 mm in diameter (McCabe,1993) and held in place by perforated metal

plates called distribution plates or distributors. The bottom of the evaporator has a space

where the liquid-vapour mixture is collected and extracted into the separator.

The separator is a vessel connected to the bottom of the heat exchanger. The vapour

extracted from the evaporator comes out through an outlet at the apex of the evaporator

and the concentrated liquid comes out through the outlet at the bottom of the evaporator.

A triple effect falling film evaporator has three falling film evaporators connected in

series with backward feed. Each effect acts as a single effect evaporator. The

Ammonium nitrate solution is fed to the top of long tubes by the feed pump and spread

evenly in the tubes by the distribution plate, feed liquid forms a thin film layer and flows

downwards under gravity. Steam from the compressor, enters the shell side of the heat

exchanger, the liquid temperature in the tubes increases and starts boiling after reaching

the evaporation temperature due to exchange of heat from the steam in the shell.

Concentrated liquid and vapour is collected at the bottom of the tube and is extracted

into and separated in the separator.

150
The concentrated liquid is then pumped into the next evaporator as feed and the vapour

is compressed and sent to the previous evaporator as steam. Steam in the shell of the

heat exchanger flows into a condenser where it is cooled and sent to the boiler house as

feed.

Figure 6-3.1 Backward feeding of a Triple effect evaporator

ms = mass of steam

mf = mass of feed

mL1, mL2, mL3= mass of concentrate from 1st, 2nd, 3rd

effect

C1, C2, C3= condensate from 1st, 2nd and 3rd effect

V1, V2, V3 = vapour from 1st, 2nd and 3rd effect

1,2,3 = effect number
151
6-3.5 Cascade Control for Multi-Effect Evaporator

Control of multi-effect evaporators is different from that of a single evaporator. This is

because in multi-effect evaporators, the output of one evaporator is used as the input to

the next one. As such, the behavior of every evaporator is influenced by what it receives

from the preceding one. Cascade control can provide an effective overall control of

multi-effect evaporators, as it takes care of the interaction between the successive

evaporators. Figure 2 illustrates the concept of cascade control, which involves two

control loops, each loop being controlled by a separate PID controller. The primary

controller is given a set-point based on the desired output of the controlled variable,

while the output of the primary controller is used as the set-point of the secondary

controller. (Verma,2018)

Figure 6-3.2 Block schematic diagram of Cascade control (IJLEMR, 2018)

152
Figure 6-3.3 Block schematic of the cascade control of Triple -effect

evaporator. (IJLEMR,2018) Csp = Concentration set-point, Ca = Actual concentration

6-3.6 Chemical Engineering Design

In designing a Triple effect falling film evaporator, the basic chemical engineering

parameters to be considered are mass of steam, steam economy, overall material balance,

tube details, height of evaporator and diameter of evaporator.

Material and energy balance on evaporator

Assumptions

Overall heat transfer coefficient for long vertical evaporator is 2300 to 11000 W/m2K

(Geankopolis,1993). The overall heat transfer coefficient is assumed to be the same for

all four evaporators and is assumed to be 2500 W/m2K. Equal amount of water is

153
evaporated from each effect. Uniform Temperature of feed is 185°C. The mass of LOI

in the stream is negligible.

Table 6-3.1 Components of feed to evaporator

Components Mass, kg Mass percentage

AN 9206.06 64.78

NH3 25.58 0.18

H2O 4855.99 34.17

HNO3 44.05 0.31

MN-H 79.58 0.56

Overall 14211.26 100

Table 6-3.2 Components of Ammonium Nitrate Melt from evaporator

Components Mass, kg Mass percentage

AN 9189.56 96.77

NH3 18.99 0.20

HNO3 31.34 0.33

H2O 176.63 1.86

154
 MN-H 79.77 0.84

Overall 9496.29 100

6-3.6.1 Overall material balance

The overall material balance around the evaporator is given as.

F = V1 + V2 + V3 + L1 where,

F= mass of feed = 14211.26 kg/h

L = mass of concentrate = (AN + NH3 + HNO3 + H2O + MN-H) kg = (9189.56 + 18.99

+31.34 + 176.63 + 79.77) kg

= 9496.29 kg

V = mass of evaporated water

1,2 3 = effect number

but, V = V1 = V2 = V3

Hence, the overall material balance becomes

155
F = 3V + L

Substituting the values for F and L1 gives:

14211.26 = 3V + 9496.29

V = 1571.66 kg/h

Therefore, the amount of water evaporated from each evaporator is 1571.66 kg/h. To be

able to calculate the mass of concentrate and the solid fraction of the concentrate from

each evaporator, overall material balance and component balance is taken around each

evaporator.

6-3.6.2 Overall material and component balance around the various effects

For Third evaporator

Mass balance

F = L3 + V3

But V = V3

L3 = F – V3 = (14211.26 – 1571.66) kg/h

L3 = 12639.6 kg/h

Component balance

156
F× XANf = L3× X3×X3

X3 = 0.73

Hence, the mass of concentrate from the third evaporator going to the second evaporator

is 12639.60 kg/h with solid fraction 0.73.

For Second evaporator

Mass balance

L3 = L2 + V2

L2 = L3 –V2 = (12639.60 – 1571.66) kg/h

L2 = 11067.94 kg/h

Component balance on the AN

L3× X3AN = L2× X2AN

X2AN = 0.83

Hence, the mass of concentrate from the second evaporator going to the second

evaporator is 11067.94 kg/h with solid fraction of 0.83.

For First evaporator

157
Mass balance

L2 = L1 + V1

L1 = L2 –V1

(11067.94– 1571.66) kg = 9496.29 kg/h

Component balance on the AN

L2× X2AN = L1× X1AN×X1AN

X1AN = 0.97

Hence, the mass of concentrate from the First evaporator going to the Rotary drum

granulator is 9496.29 kg/h with solid fraction of 0.97.

Table 6-3.3 Summary of overall material balance

Effect Liquid Concentrate Mass flowrate, Solid Content, Temperature, °C

kg/h
%

1 L1 9496.29 97 219

2 L2 11067.94 83 207

3 L3 12639.60 73 195

158
6-3.6.2 Boiling point rise (BPR)

Vapour pressure of aqueous solutions is lower than that of water at the same temperature.

Also, the boiling point of a solution at a given pressure is higher than that of pure water.

The rise in the boiling point is called boiling point elevation or boiling point rise.

Boiling point rise is calculated for each effect using 1.78x + 6.22x2, where x is the solid

fraction (Geankopolis,1993).

Boiling point rise for the first effect

X = 0.97

1.78(0.97) + 6.22(0.97)2 = 7.6°C

Boiling point rise for the second effect

X = 0.83

1.78(0.83) + 6.22(0.83)2 = 5.8°C

Boiling point rise for the third effect

X= 0.73

1.78(0.73) + 6.22(0.73)2 = 4.6°C

Sum of BPR = 7.6 + 5.8 + 4.6 = 18

The sum of the temperature difference ∑∆T is calculated as

159
∑∆T= inlet steam temperature – inlet feed temperature – sum of BPE

= (222 –185– 18) °C = 19 °C

1
𝑈1
∆Tn = ∑∆T( 1 1 1 ), where n = 1, 2, 3……. (Geankopolis,1993)
+ +
𝑈1 𝑈2 𝑈3

1
2500
∆Tn = 18 1 1 1 = 6.3°C ≈ 6 ℃
+ +
2500 2500 2500

However, since the relatively cold feed at 185°C enters in the third effect, this effect requires

more heat and it is assumed to have the highest temperature drop, the temperature drops of

the second and first effects are reduced proportionately.

∆T3 =6°C ∆T2 = 4°C ∆T 1 = 3°C

Actual boiling point of the solution in each effect is calculated as;

T1 = TS1– ∆T1 = 222 – 3°C =219°C where, T1 =219°C is the condensing temperature of

steam to effect 1 at 2300 kPa (Rogers et al., 1981).

T1, T2 andT3 are boiling point of evaporator 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

T2 = T1 – BPR1 – ∆T2 = (219 – 7.6– 4) °C = 207.4°C ≈ 207°C

TS2 = T1 – BPR1 = (219 – 7.6) °C = 211.4°C

T3 = T2 – BPR2 – ∆T3 = (207– 5.8 – 6) °C = 195°C

160
TS3 = T2 – BPR2 = (207.4 – 5.8) °C = 201.6°C

T1 = 219°C T2 = 207°C T3 =195°C

For Effect 1

The values of the vapour enthalpy(H) and enthalpy of vaporization(λ) relative to water

at 0°C are obtained from steam tables.

H1 = HS2(saturation enthalpy at TS2) + 1.884(BPR1) (Geankopolis,1993)

Saturation enthalpy at TS2(211.4°C) = 2797 kJ/kg (Rogers et

al.1981)

Hence,

H1 = 2797 + 1.884(7.6) = 2811.3 kJ/kg

For Effect 2

H2 = HS3(saturation enthalpy at TS3) + 1.884(BPR2) (Geankopolis,1993)

T2 = 207°C

TS3 = 201°C

BPR2 = 5.8°C

Saturation enthalpy at TS3(201°C) = 2792kJ/kg (Rogers et al., 1981)

Hence, H2 = 2792+ 1.884(5.8) = 2802.9 kJ/kg

161
For Effect 3

H3 = HS3(saturation enthalpy at TS3) + 1.884(BPR3) (Geankopolis,1993)

T3 = 195°C

but TS3 is taking as T3 = 195°C

BPR3 = 4.6°C

TS3 = 136.2°C

Saturation enthalpy at TS3 (195°C) = 2787 kJ/kg (Rogers et al., 1981)

Hence, H3 = 2787+ 1.884(4.6) = 2796 kJ/kg

6-3.6.3 Energy balance

Taking energy balance around each effect to calculate the actual mass of concentrate and

water evaporated.

Energy Balance equation on Third Effect, mf

Cpl ∆Tf + V2 λ2 = mL3Cp3 ∆T3 + V3hg3

where, m = mass, kg

Cp =specific heat capacity, kJ/kg K

∆T = temperature change, K

V = water evaporated, kg/h

λ = latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg

h = enthalpy of vaporization, kJ/kg K

f = feed, kg

162
L = mass of concentrate, kg.

S = steam, kg

1,2,3 = effect number

Energy balance equation around Second Effect

mL3Cp3∆T3+ V1 λ1 = mL2Cp2 ∆T2 +V2hg2

Energy balance equation around first effect

mL2Cp2∆T2 + S λs = mL1Cp1 ∆T1 + V1hg1

Table 6-3.4 Summary of Known Data and calculated values

Effects T, °C Hg, kJ/kg λ, kJ/kg Cp, kJ/kgk P, kPa

1 219 2811 1858 1.91 2300

2 207 2803 1910 2.15 1800

3 195 2796 1958 2.33 1400

6-4 Design of a Reactor

6-4.1 Reactors

Chemical kinetics is the study of chemical reaction rates and reaction mechanisms. The

chemical reactor may be referred as the heart of a chemical process. To find the capability of

a reactor, one needs to know the kinetics, how it gets into contact with the reactant (contacting

pattern) and the performance equations. Reactors are mostly selected to meet the

requirements imposed by the reaction mechanisms, rate expressions, and the required
163
production capacity. A very essential factor in reactor operation is the outlet degree of

conversion. Operating conditions such as temperature, pressure, and degree of agitation,

effectiveness and quality of catalyst is associated with most economic operation. The reactor

that will best meet the process requirements requires a review of whether the process involves

continuous, batch, tubular or catalytic reactors such as the fixed and fluidized beds. This

report covers the basic elements in the field of reaction to allow the design of a reactor with

the suitable process parameters; volume of reactor, conversion, time reaction and pressure

drop. It also includes parameters influenced by factors, including process requirements,

advantages and disadvantages.

Fixed Bed Reactors

A fixed bed reactor is a cylindrical tube filled with catalyst pellets with reactants flowing

through the bed and being converted into products. It is a packed bed reactor, packed with

fixed catalyst unlike the fluidized bed reactor. The flow of a fixed bed reactor is typically

downward. Fixed-bed reactors are a widely used reactors in the chemical and process

industry. They play a key role for heterogeneous catalysis, e.g. steam and dry reforming of

methane, strong oxidative processes, or the Sabatier process. Fixed bed reactors are used for

strong endothermic and exothermic reactions and has small tube diameters for effect heat

transfer into and out of the system. These reactors convert the reactant to products without

the use of a stirrer.

6-4.2 Introduction

Chemical oxidation reactions are a process of transferring of electrons from

an oxidizing reagent to the chemical species being oxidized. The oxidation of NH3 with

oxygen is an exothermic process that produce NO and steam. This reaction process is the

164
first and essential stage in the production of HNO3. A fixed bed multi-tubular catalytic reactor

is used in the oxidation reaction because of it strong exothermic or endothermic character of

such reactions.

6-4.3 Objectives

Main Objectives

To design a fixed bed reactor for the production of nitric oxide from an oxidization reaction

between ammonia and oxygen.

Specific Objectives

i. A detailed chemical engineering design will be carried out.

ii. A detailed mechanical engineering design will be done.

iii. A justification of the type of equipment chosen.

iv. A specification of the equipment cost of the reactor.

Design Problem Statement

To design a fixed bed reactor to convert NH3 to nitric oxide by oxidizing 4864.28kg/h

(approximately 4.9 tons) of NH3 with 17335.50 kg/h (approximately 17.3 tons) of O2 in the

presence of a platinum rhodium catalyst at a temperature of 800-850 °C and a pressure of

4.1-10.1 bara.

6-4.4 Equipment Justification

Justification

165
A multi-tubular fixed bed reactor has been specific and selected for the process because of

its features and advantages over the other reactors. Below are merits of a fixed bed catalytic

multi-tubular reactor:

1. High conversion rate per weight of the catalyst.

2. Reduction in residence time due to the contact time between the reactant and the

catalyst compare to other alternatives.

3. Low cost of construction, operation and maintenance.

4. Works effectively at high temperatures.

5. More products are formation due to increased contact between reactants and catalyst.

6. Operated at high velocities, enabling little or no back mixing (Walas, 1959).

In a fixed bed catalytic multi-tubular reactor, it is difficult for temperature to be controlled.

This is accounted for by the inclusion of a heat exchange system to regulate the temperature

in the reactor at 8500C.

6-4.5 Description of A Fixed Bed Catalytic Multi-Tubular Reactor

Multi-tubular fixed catalytic bed reactor is a form of fixed bed reactor. Multi-tubular fixed

bed reactors have numerous of smaller tubes inside the cylindrical tube reactor, acting as a

shell and tube reactor. These reactors typically operate at high temperatures and at pressures

ranging from 10–45 bar, although even higher pressures might be favourable to further

increase the capacity of a single reactor. Under such conditions, the reactor operates in the

three-phases, gas–liquid–solid trickle bed mode. Heat is removed through the tube walls to

generate steam on the shell side of the reactor. The Interaction between heat generation and
166
heat removal through the walls gives rise to axial and radial temperature profiles. The

effective control of temperatures and prevention of unstable conditions become more critical

with increasing activity of the catalyst. When the options to increase heat transfer through

gas and liquid recycle have been exhausted, further improvements can only be achieved by

decreasing the tube diameters, which will escalate the reactor cost. Besides difficult heat

management, other disadvantages of multi-tubular fixed bed reactors include the inability to

replace catalyst during production, the relatively high pressure drop and the occurrence of

significant intra-particle diffusion limitations.

Figure 6-4.1 Multi-tubular fixed bed reactor

Catalyst

167
The production is a catalytic oxidation of NH3 with air to form NO. This process is usually

carried out over a multi-layered stack of rhodium-platinum alloy gauzes at operating

temperatures of 800 to 900oC. Owing to increased demand for nitric acid, relatively high

operating pressures 8 atm is used.

Catalyst filling activity

Different aspects of the catalyst filling exercise are covered in the following sections. The

inert/catalyst mixture zones in a reactor tube are at the top and bottom inert zones and four

different catalyst inert mixture zones. The top as well as the bottom dome of the reactor need

to be opened and placed at the side of the reactor to provide an empty work space for a smooth

and safe catalyst filling operation. Appropriate lifting arrangements are required for raising

and relocating the catalyst/inert container from the ground floor to a platform at the level of

the reactor top tube sheet. The reactor top tube sheet working height needs to be checked for

any additional platform requirement, if needed.

Effect of the reactions on the nature of the catalyst

During the reaction process relatively high operating pressures (8 atm) is used. Of major

concern in this process is the anomalous loss of platinum from the catalyst gauzes. This is as

a result of variables as high temperatures, oxygen concentration and linear gas velocity, and,

consequently, is most pronounced at high pressures. So, adsorption of reactants on the

catalyst surface results in a weakening of the Pt-Pt bonds, and at 900°C platinum is lost as

platinum oxide, PtO2. The ammonia oxidation stage utilises a catalyst pack of up to 36

platinum group alloy gauzes, the number being dependent on the pressure in the plant, and

the make-up of the pack is design- ed to maximise the efficiency of the reaction. The process

is fast, but during the reaction contact between the gas and the catalyst is required for times

168
of the order of seconds in order to maintain process efficiency. The catalysts employed have

a typical service life of 50 - 300 days, depending upon the pressure of the system. B.T. Horner

(1991).

Figure 6-4.2 Tube filled with catalyst

6-4.6 Mode of operation

A fixed bed catalytic multi-tubular reactor consists of tubes packed with platinum rhodium

catalyst and a shell side containing steam which regulates the temperature at 8500C. The feed

input stream enters the reactor at the top and flows into the tubes where the oxidation process

takes place. After the reaction, the effluent leaves the reactor at the bottom of the reactor.

Since the reaction is exothermic much heat will be released during the oxidation process

inside the tube filled with catalyst so cooling water will be in the shell side of the reactor.

Figure 1 shows the pictorial representation of the mode of operation in a fixed bed catalytic

multi-tubular reactor.

169
Figure 6-4.3 A fixed bed catalytic multi -tubular reactor mode of operation

170
6-4.7 Chemical Engineering Design

6-4.7.1 Reactor Sizing

Feed entering: NH3=4864.28 Kg/h O2= 17335.50 Kg/h

Temperature: 8500C

Pressure: 8 bara

Table 6-4.1 Data for feed entering the reactor

Composition of feed Mass flowrate Kg/h Molar Mole fraction

flowrates(kmol/hr)

N2 64608.60 2307.45 0.74

O2 17335.0 541.71 0.17

NH3 4864.28 286.13 0.09

Total 86807.88 3135.29 1.00

Table 6-4.2 Data for effluent

Composition of feed Mass flowrate Kg/h Molar Mole fraction

flowrates(kmol/hr)

NO 8571.76 285.7 0.09

H2O 7712.12 428.45 0.13

N2 64608.86 2307.46 0.72

O2 5910.76 184.70 0.06

Total 86803.50 3206.34 1.00

171
Mass flowrate of NH3 (main feed) = 4864.28 Kg/h

Density of NH3 = 0.73 Kg/m3

Molar mass of NH3 = 0.017031 Kg/mol

mass flowrate
Volumetric flowrate (V0) = Density

4864.28
= = 6663.40 m3/hr
0.73

mass flowrate
Molar flowrate (F0) = molar mass

4864.28
= 0.017031 = 285613.29 mol/hr

8571.76
Molar flowrate (F) = = 285630.12 mol/hr
0.0301

6-4.7.2 Rate of Reaction

The rate constant is the proportionality factor in the rate law of chemical kinetics that relates

the molar concentration of the reactants to the reaction rate. It is also known as the reaction

coefficient and it’s indicated in the equation by the symbol k. it may be found experimentally

using the molar concentration of the reactants and the order of the reaction. Alternatively, it

may be calculated using the Arrhenius equation. The unit of the rate constant depends on the

order of the reaction. It is also not a true constant since its value depends on temperature. It

is affected by changing temperature, catalyst and pressure of any system. Also, it doesn’t

work very well if the reaction contains very large molecules at high concentrations because

the Arrhenius equation assumes reactants are perfect spheres that perform ideal collision.

6-4.7.3 Rate of the equation for ammonia oxidation

172
4NH3 + 502 = 4N0 + 6H2O ammonia

2NO + 02 = 2N02 oxidation

The rate equation obtained experimentally

r = kCα j

−10.059
rNH3 = (2.051 x 10-3)e( RT
)
C0.69NH3

Molar gas constant R = 8.314

Temperature T = 850 0C (1123.15 K)

molar flowrate 285613.29

CNH3 = volumetric flowrate = = 42.86 mol/m3
6663.40

Concentration in moles per kilogram

CNH3 (mol/m3 ) 42.86

CNH3 (mol/kg) = = = 58.71 mol/kg
ρNH3 0.73

−10.059
rNH3 = (2.051 x 10-3)e(8.314 x 1123.15) x (58.71) = 0.0116 mol/kgs

Therefore, the rate of reaction is 0.0116 mol/kgs

Reactor dimension calculations

Weight of catalyst (W)

6-4.7.4 Weight of Catalyst

For a packed bed reactor, the weight of the catalyst is calculated from the rate of reaction as

Fogler, (1981).

FAO
dFA
W=∫
FA −rA

173
 FAO
1
W= ∫ dFA
−rA FA

1
W= [F − FA ]
−rA AO

W = weight of catalyst

rA = Rate of reaction

FAO = Input of ammonia into the reactor

FA = Output of nitric oxide from reactor

FAo −FA 28613.29−285630.12

W= = = 1451.14 kg (cat)
−rA −0.0116

Weight of Pt/Rh catalyst required = 1452 kg (cat)

Volume of Reactor Bed

Volume of the catalyst bed is calculated from the solid density of the catalyst and the weight

of the catalyst. The solid density of a platinum rhodium catalyst is 720 kg/m3.

W
V of bed = ρ
Pt/Rh (cat)

The ρPt/Rh (cat) is 720 kg/m3

1452
V of bed = = 2.02 m3
720

Volume of Reactor

The volume of the reactor is related by the volume of the catalyst bed and the void fraction.

The void fraction also influences the pressure drop across the reactor, for a minimum amount
174
of pressure drop across the reactor; the packing’s must be uniformly arranged hence a higher

void fraction is required.

V of bed 2.02
V of reactor = = 1−0.9 = 20.20 m3
1−ε

Tube diameter

In a packed bed reactor, the tube diameter varies between 3 inches and 4.5inches.

4 for outer

2.54
Hence Dout = 4 x = 0.1016 m
100

3 for inner

2.54
Din = 3 x = 0.0762 m
100

Tube length

The length of the tube also varies between 40 feet and 50 feet.

So, taking the length of tube to be 45ft;

LT = 45ft

LT = 45 x 0.3048 = 13.716 m

Reactor length

45% allowance

LR = LT + 0.4 LT

LR = 13.716 + 13.716 (0.4) = 19.20 m

175
Area of reactor

Volume of reactor (VR) = Area of reactor (AR) x Length of reactor LR

V 20.20
AR = LR = 19.20 = 1.05 m2
R

Diameter of the reactor

π x D2R
AR = 4

4D 2 2
4 x 1.05 2
DR = √ πR = √ π = 1.16 m

For a packed bed reactor to operate with a plug flow behaviour, the length to diameter ratio

L
of the reactor (D) must be greater than 12.5. Kowall, (2010).

LR 19.20
= = 16.55
DR 1.16

∴(L/D) is 16.55 which is greater than 12.5, hence reactor works with a Plug Flow Reactor

behaviour.

Exiting Pressure from Reactor

The exit pressure of a packed bed reactor is calculated using the Ergun equation (Eigenberger,

1992).

dP −(1 − ε) 150(1 − ε)μ 1.75ṁ

= [ + ] v̇
dz Dp Ac ε3 De Ac

ε = Void fraction

Dp = Particle diameter(catalyst)

Ac = Cross sectional area of tube

μ = Viscosity of gas

176
m = Masṡ flow rate

̇ flow rate
v̇ = Volumetric

Dp = 0.024m

μ = 4.5 × 10−3 Pa. s

ε = 0.9

Feed pressure = 8.0bar

π(D2 )
Ac =
4

π(0.1016)2
Ac =
4

= 0.0798 m2

̇ RT
FTO
v̇ =
P

ḞTO = Molar flow of NH3 gas into the reactor

R = Molar gas constant

T = Temperature in the reactor

P = Pressure across the reactor

mol J
79.3370 s × 8.314 1123.15 K
= mol. K
P

740838.5208
=
P

dP −1(1 − 0.9) 150(1 − 0.9) × 4.5 × 10−3 1.75(1.35)

= ×[ + ]
dz 0.024 × 0.0798 × (0.9)3 1 0.0798

740838.5
×
P
177
 dP
P = −71.6240 × [0.0675 + 29.6053] × 740838.5
dz

dP Pa2
P = −15.8 × 108
dz m

Converting Pa2 to bar 2

dP bar 2
P = −0.158
dz m

PdP = −0.158dz

P 13.716
∫ PdP = ∫ −0.158 dz
8 0

P2 −82
= −13.716(0.158)
2

P 2 − 82 = −13.716(0.158)(2)

P 2 − 82 = −4.3343

P 2 = −4.3343 + 64

P 2 = 59.6657

P = √59.6657

P = 7.72 bar

∴The exiting pressure of the output stream from the reactor is 7.72 bar.

Residence Time (𝝉)

Volume of the reactor

τ=
Volumetric flow rate of feed

178
 FTO RT
Volumetric flow rate =
P

79.3370 × 8.314 × 1123.15

V̇ =
772000

m3
= 0.9596
s

20.2m3
τ=
m3
0.9596 s

τ = 21.05s

𝟏
Space Velocity ( 𝝉 )

Volumetric flow rate of feed

Space velocity =
Volume of the reactor

1 0.9596
( )=
τ 20.2

1 1
( ) = 0.0475
τ s

Fogler, (1981)

6-4.7.5 Heat exchanger section of the reactor

The reaction occurring is exothermic, hence large amount of energy is removed in the system

during the process. Therefore, an efficient heat exchange with a low cost, low corrosion

179
ability and high thermal capacity is needed. The heating process is going to ensure that the

reactor operates at the optimum temperature 1123.15 K.

Cooling medium(water)=Shell side

Condensing fluid (Mainly NO) =Tube side

6-4.7.6 Total Number of Tubes

For a packed bed reactor, the total number of tubes is calculated from the volume of the

reactor Eyalarasan et al.,(2013).

πDT 2 LT
VR = n [ ]
4

VR = Volume of reactor

DT = Diameter of tube

LT = Length of tube

n̅ × 0.10162 × 13.716
20.20m3 = n [ ]
4

20.20 = n × 0.1112

20.20
n=
0.1112

n = 181.66 tubes

∴The total number of tubes in the reactor is 182 tubes.

6-4.7.7 Tube Side Linear Velocity

kg
Mass flow rate of stream=7712.10hr
180
 kg
7712.10 × 1 hr
= hr
3600 s

kg
= 2.1423 s

Mass flow rate

Mass flow rate per unit area(G)= Cross sectional area×number of tubes

kg
2.1423 s
=
π(0.0762)2 × 182
4

2.1423
=
4.5604 X 10−3 × 182

2.1423
=
0.830

kg
= 2.58
m. s

2.58
Tube side linear velocity,Ut = 0.2924

m
Ut = 8.82
s

6-4.7.8 Heat transfer Coefficient

Heat transfer coefficient for spherical particles Sinnott, (2005)

G0.95
h = 15.1 × ( )
DT(in)

(2.58)0.95
h = 15.1 × [ ]
(0.0762)0.42

181
h = 15.1 × 7.2547

W
h = 109.55
m2 . K

6-4.7.9 Bundle and Shell diameter

The next part is to calculate the bundle diameter (DB ) and the shell diameter (DS ). The tube

bundle or tube stacks are designed for application with respect to client requirements which

include direct replacement for existing units (Primor,2002). The shell side is manufactured

based on standards such as the British Standards. Using the British standard BS 3274 which

covers the heat exchanger diameter from 6in(150mm) to 42in (1067mm) (Sinnott, 2005). The

bundle diameter is calculated as;

NT n1
DB = DT(out) ( ) 1
K1

DB = Bundle diameter

DT(out) = Outer tube diameter

NT = Number of tubes

K1 = 1.158(Sinnott, 2005)

n1 = 2.263(Sinnott, 2005)

182 1
DB = 0.1016( )2.263
1.158

= 0.1016 × 9.3445

= 0.9494m

For a fixed and U-tube exchanger, the typical shell clearance is 19mm (Sinnott, 2005).

So the shell inside diameter (Ds(in) )

182
=Bundle diameter+0.019m

=0.9494+0.019

=0.9684 m

6-4.7.10 Baffle spacing (𝑩𝒔 )

The baffle spacing is calculated as 40% of the inside diameter of the shell (Sinnott, 2005).

Bs = 0.4 × Ds(in)

= 0.4 × 0.9684

= 0.3874 m

6-4.7.11 Area of shell side

πDs(in) 2
A= 4

π(0.9684)2
= = 0.7366 m2
4

Table 6-4.3Summary of chemical engineering calculation

PARAMETER VALUE

Rate of reaction 0.0116 mol/kgs

Weight of catalyst 1452 kg (cat)

Volume of catalyst bed 2.02 m3

183
 Reactor volume 20.20 m3

Mass flow rate of inlet kg

4864.28hr

Length of reactor 19.20 m

Exit pressure from reactor 7.72 bar

Residence time 21.05s

Tube outer diameter 0.1016 m

Tube length 13.716 m

Diameter of reactor 1.16 m

Area of reactor 1.05 m2

Space velocity 1
0.0475 s

Total number of tubes 182

6-4.8 Mechanical Engineering Design

To make the fixed bed multi-tubular catalytic reactor to withstand certain forces and stress

which would affect it during the mode of operation and other external factors, the following

mechanical engineering factors are considered:

 Material of construction

 Design pressure

 Design temperatures

 Corrosion allowance

 Designs loads

 Stress analysis

6-4.8.1 Material of construction

184
Stainless steels work by containing the minimum necessary level of chromium to form a film

of chromium oxide on top of the steel when in the presence of oxygen. This process blocks

corrosion from spreading into the internal structure of the steel. Without this passive film

creation, stainless steel would rust when exposed oxygen and water much like carbon steel

does. However, there is a downside as the added benefit of stainless steel only works in the

presence of oxygen. As such, stainless steels are not used in low air environments. Austenitic

stainless steel is distinguished by their face-centered cubic structure and carbides usage. The

addition of nickel into the steel stabilizes the austenitic structure of the iron within. As such,

austenitic stainless steels contain a minimum of 7% nickel with 18-20% chromium and used

due to their high corrosion resistance.

6-4.8.2 Design pressure

The reactor vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure in the reactor. This

is the maximum pressure that the system can be exposed to and sets the system relief valve

at the same pressure. It mostly varies from 5% to 10% above the normal working pressure

to avoid spurious operation during minor process upset.

100% = bar

110% = x

110
x= × 7.72
100

N
= 8.49 bar or 0.849
mm2

6-4.8.3 Design temperature

185
As temperature increases the strength of metals decrease due to the contraction and expansion

of the metals, the maximum allowable stress usually depends on the material temperature.

The design temperature is given as the maximum working temperature of the material which

accounts for allowance of any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall temperature.

Taking a tolerance of 20℃. The maximum temperature of the reactor is 870 ℃[1123.15K].

6-4.8.4 Corrosion Allowance

Metals erode or corrode hence there is an additional thickness along the walls of the vessel

for carbon and low-alloy steels, but stainless steel usually has no corrosion allowance because

of its resistance to corrosion, where severe corrosion is not expected, a minimum allowance

of 2 mm is used. In the design of a fixed tube catalytic reactor, a corrosion allowance of 2

mm is used.

6-4.8.5 Design loads

Design loads are categorised into general and local loads. Both forms of loads can cause

membrane stresses.

General loads: they are more or less continuously applied across a vessel section such as;

pressure loads due to internal and external pressures; moment loads which is due to wind,

seismic, erection, maintenance; dead weights of installed equipment’s, like ladders, plat

form, and piping; and thermal loads due to hot box design of skirt-head attachment.

Local loads are loads due to reaction from supports, attached piping’s, and attached

equipment like platforms, mixers, etc. local loads can be radial loads, shear loads, torsional

loads, thermal loads and moment loads. All these loads can be steady and unsteady. Steady

loads are long term and continuous loads, such as loads from internal pressure, weight of

vessel contents, dead weight, wind loads, and loads from vessel supports. Unsteady loads are
186
short term and variable loads, such as loads from shop and hydro-test, earthquakes,

transportation, start-ups and shut downs, upsets and emergencies, and thermal shocks.

6-4.8.6 Cylindrical shell

The minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure of a cylindrical shell

t=PR /SE-0.6P

Where:

P = Design Pressure, kPa

R = Radius of cylinder, m

S = Allowable stress, kPa

E = Joint efficiency Maximum allowable stress of Stainless Steel 316 at 850oC = 62000 kPa

1.16
t = 849 𝑥 ÷ ((62000 × 0.9) - 0.6 (849))
2

t = 8.9 mm

Accounting for corrosion allowance of 2 mm because severe corrosion is anticipated at the closures.

The minimum thickness of the closure

Wall thickness = 8.9 mm + 2 mm

= 10.9 mm

6-4.8.7 Total Dead Weight

The total dead weight of the reactor, includes the weight of the vessel, weight of insulation,

weight of tubes, weight of ladders and the weight of catalyst

187
6-4.8.8 Vessel weight (𝑊𝑣 )

Total weight of a steel vessel excluding internal fittings is calculated by:

Wv = 240 × Cv × Dm × (Hc + 0.8Dm ) × t

Wv = Weight of steel vessel

𝐶𝑣 =Factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports and is taken as

1.15 for vessels with manways or equivalent fittings

𝐷𝑚 =maximum diameter of vessel, m

𝐻𝑐 =column height of vessel, m

𝑡=minimum thickness of vessel, mm

Mean diameter of vessel=Internal diameter+ thickness of vessel

=1.16 m + 0.0109 m

=1.1709 m

𝑊𝑣 = 240 × 1.15 × 1.1709[19.20 + 0.8(1.1709)] × 0.0109

≅ 103.53kN

6-4.8.9Weight of Insulation (𝑊𝑖 )

The insulation selected is mineral wool which is widely used properties in reactors and very

less expensive.

𝑘𝑔⁄
Density of mineral wool=130 𝑚3

Thickness of insulation=75 mm

188
𝐷𝑚 =minimum diameter of vessel=1.1709 m

𝐻𝑐 =column height

Volume of insulation (𝑉𝑖 )=𝑛̅ × 𝐷𝑚 × 𝐻𝑐 × 𝑡

= 𝑛̅ × 1.1709 × 19.20 × 75 × 10−3

= 5.30 𝑚3

Weight of insulation (𝑊𝑖 )= 𝑉𝑖 × 𝜌 × 𝑔

2
Taking acceleration due to gravity =9.81 𝑚 ⁄𝑠

=5.30× 130 × 9.81

=6755.30≅ 6.76 kN

6-4.8.10 Weight of fluid into reactor

kg⁄
ṁ(input stream) = 4864.28 hr

Weight of fluid= 𝑚̇ × 𝑔

= 4864.28⁄3600 x 9.81

2
Taking acceleration due to gravity =9.81 𝑚 ⁄𝑠

Weight of fluid= 13.26 N

6-4.8.11 Weight of catalyst (𝑊𝑐 )

The weight of catalyst is calculated from the ratio of the weight of catalyst bed to the number

of tubes.

189
 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑑
=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

1452𝑘𝑔
=
182𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

𝑘𝑔
= 7.98
𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
Weight of catalyst=7.98𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 × 9.81 𝑠

𝑁
= 78.26 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

Total weight of catalyst=weight of catalyst×number of tubes

𝑁
=78.26𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 ×182 tubes

=14244.12N≅14.24kN

6-4.8.12 Weight of tubes (𝑊𝑡 )

The weight of the tube is calculated from the volume of the tubes, the density of the material

of construction and the acceleration due to gravity.

Wt = Vt × ρSS × g

Wt = Weght of tubes

Vt = Volume of tubes

kg
ρSS = Density of stainless steel = 7850
m2

g = Acceleration due to gravity

190
 n̅(DO 2 − Di 2 )
Vt = ×L×n
4

DO = outer diameter of tubes

Di = inner diameter of tubes

𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

𝑛̅(0.10162 − 0.07622 )
𝑉𝑡 = × 13.716 × 182
4

𝑉𝑡 = 8.85𝑚3

𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
Weight of tubes (𝑊𝑡 )=8.85𝑚3 × 7850 𝑚3 × 9.81 𝑠

=681856.34N≅ 681.86 kN

6-4.8.13 Weight of ladder (𝑊𝑙 )

The force per unit length of a caged steel ladder is 360𝑁⁄𝑚 length. This is chosen for higher

safety purposes.

Weight of ladder= 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝐿

= 360 × 19.20

=6912≅ 6.91 kN

Total dead weight (𝑊𝑇 ) is,

𝑊𝑇 = 𝑊𝑣 +𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑐 +𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑙

=103.53+6.76+0.01326+14.24+681.86+6.91
191
=813.31 kN

6-4.8.13 Wind loading

The loading per unit length of the vessel is given by (Fw ) is given by

Fw = Pw × Deff

Fw =Load per unit length

N
Pw =Wind pressure,
m2

Deff =Outer diameter with allowance for the thermal insulation

Outer diameter=Inner diameter+2(thickness of reactor)

=1.16+2(0.0109)

=1.1818 m

Allowance for thermal insulation=75 mm

Deff =1.1818+75× 10−3

=1.2568 m

Wind pressure for smooth cylindrical vessels is estimated from the relation

Pw = 0.05Uw 2

N
Pw = Wind pressure
m2

km
Uw = Wind speed
h

km
Therefore, a wind speed of 160 (100mph) is used for preliminary design studies
h

192
Pw = 0.05(160)

N
= 1280
m2

Load per unit length (Fw )= Pw × Deff

=1280×1.2568

N
=1608.70m

Since the column would be free standing and mounted on skirt supports. It would act as a

cantilever under wind loading. Now for a uniform loaded cantilever, the bending movement

at any plane is given by

Fw × Hc 2
Mx =
2

Mx − Bending moment

Fw − Load per unit length

Hc − Height of vessel

N
1608.70 m × (19.20)2
Mx =
2

N kN
Mx = 296516.32 ≅ 296.52
m m

6-4.8.14 Domed head design

Reactor vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres,

cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A commonly used design is a cylinder with end
193
caps called heads. Head shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished (torispherical).

More complicated shapes have historically been much harder to analyze for safe operation

and are usually far more difficult to construct.

Theoretically, a sphere would be the best shape of a pressure vessel. A spherical shape is

tough to manufacture, therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical with

2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled

from a pipe and two covers.

A torispherical head is selected for the CSTR vessel, as the design pressure is 4.78 bar, with

the specified range of this head type.

Torispherical Head (0 – 15 bar)

t= 0.885P x R⁄SE − 0.1P

Where: P = internal pressure

R = Crown radius, m

S = Allowable stress, kPa

E = Joint efficiency

0.885(849) x 0.58
t= ⁄(62000 x 0.9) − 0.1x 849

t= 0.00782 m ≈ 7.9 mm

Thickness of the domed head and bottom = 7.9 mm

6-4.8.15 Stress Analysis

Primary stress
194
The longitudinal stress is given by

Pi Di
σh =
2t

N
σh = Longitudinal stress
m2

Pi = Design pressure 849kPa

Di = Internal diameter of vessel = 1.16m

t = wall thickness = 0.0109m

849 × 103 × 1.16

σh =
2(0.0109)

N MN
= 45176146.79 2
≅ 45.18 2
m m

6-4.8.15 circumference stress

The circumference stress is also calculated from the relation

Pi Di
σl =
4t

σl = Circumference stress

Pi = Design pressure 849kPa

Di = Internal diameter of vessel = 1.16m

t = wall thickness = 0.0109m

849 × 103 × 1.16

σh =
4(0.0109)

195
 N MN
= 22588073.39 ≅ 22.59
m2 m2

The stress due to the weight of the vessel, its content and the attachment (w) are referred to

as direct stresses (σw )

wT
σw =
n̅(Di + t)t

σl = Stress due to weight of vessel

wt = Total dead weight

Di = Internal diameter

t = wall thickness

813.31 × 103
σw =
n̅(1.16 + 0.0109)0.0109

813.31 × 103
σw =
0.0401

N MN
= 20284295.82 2
≅ 20.28 2
m m

As a result of bending moment on the vessel, the vessel would definitely be subjected to

bending stress. The bending stress will be compressive or tensile, depending on the location

and is given by

M Di
σb = ± ( + t)
Lv 2

Where;

M=total bending moment at the plane being considered

196
Lv =Second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending moment

n̅
Lv = (D 4 − Di 4 )
64 o

n̅
= [(1.16 + 2(0.0109))4 − 1.164 )]
64

n̅
= × 0.1400
64

= 6.8720 × 10−3

296516.32 1.16
σb = ± ( + 0.0109)
6.8720 × 10−3 2

N MN
= ±25496433.86 2
≅ 25.50 2
m m

Total longitudinal stress (σz )= σl + σw − σl

σw is counted as positive because of its tension

σz (upwind)= 22.59+20.28+25.50

MN
=68.37 m2

σz (downwind)=22.59+20.28-25.50

MN
=17.37 m2

Table 6-4.4Summary of Mechanical Design Calculations

PARAMETER VALUE UNITS

Material of construction Stainless Steel 316 -

197
 Design Pressure 849 kPa

o
Design Temperature 850 C

Vessel Wall Thickness 10.9 mm

Domed Head Thickness 7.9 mm

Weight of vessel 103.53 kN

Dead Weight 9.0 kN

Weight of insulation 6.76 kN

Longitudinal Stress 45.18 MPa

Circumferential Stress (upwind) 68.37 MPa

Circumferential stress (downwind) 17.37 MPa

Support Skirt support -

Weight of tube 681.86 kN

Weight of ladder 6.91 kN

Wind loading 1608.70 N/m

Weight of vessel content 13.26 N

Bending moment 296.52 kN/m

Source: Experimental Calculations

198
CHAPTER 7: PLANT LOCATION

7-1 Site Selection

Plant location refers to the choice of the region where men, materials, money, machinery and

equipment are brought together for setting up an industry. The selection of an ideal location

for a plant is very crucial because there are a lot of factors to consider in order to maximize

the factory’s net advantage and as well minimize the unit cost of production and distribution.

The factors must be highly considered because once the plant is located at a particular site,

the organization must face the consequences that come with it. Decisions regarding the

selection of a location needs a balance between primary and secondary factors. The primary

factors include; availability of raw materials, nearness to market, availability of labour and

infrastructure, and availability of water and fuel. On the other hand, the secondary factors

that affect the selection of a plant site are government policies, waste disposal, and

sustainability of climate. Upon careful consideration of the above listed factors, Kaase is

chosen as the location for the ammonium nitrate plant. Kaase is a suburb of Kumasi which

has a fast developing industrial area in the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly.

7-2 Availability of Land

Land space is one of the most important factor as it houses the plant and all complementary

facilities. Kaase is both a residential and industrial area and hence sufficient suitable space

will be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion. Ideally, the land should be

level, well drained and have suitable load bearing characteristics.

7-3 Availability of Raw Material

The major raw materials for our plant production are nitrogen and hydrogen gas and a basic

necessity for siting a plant, for production is the closeness to the source of major raw

materials. The source of nitrogen and hydrogen gas is Air Liquide, hence setting up our plant
199
in Kaase in Kumasi will be a very great advantage since there is an Air Liquide located in

Kaase industrial area. Transportation of the raw materials will not be a major problem since

we will be siting our plant in Kaase.

7-4 Availability of labour

The ultimate factor of plant siting is the availability of human resource and the stability of

labour relation. Therefore, there will be a need for labour during the construction of the plant

and its other operations. Many skilled and unskilled labour are available in the locality of

Kumasi. Adequate number of unskilled labour in Kumasi and its environs are available to be

trained to help operate the plant. According to Ghana business news, Ghana is known to be

among the countries with high unemployment rates. This unemployment rate which is at

6.78% in 2019 (Minister of Employment and Labour Relations) which means there will be a

lower cost of labour due to the law of supply and demand (index Mundi 2019). Skilled and

trained personnel will be needed for the maintenance of the plant.

7-5 Availability of utilities

Water

A water supply is an essential service for all manufacturing and process industries for

domestic, cooling or process use. The significance of a water resource on the location of an

industrial plant is essentially cost and security of supply. Certain industries like beer and

mineral water production may consider a water supply with particular chemical

characteristics as essential to their location. Water supply costs are related directly to quantity

but can rise almost exponentially in relation to quality. For the majority of industries,

however, water supply is not a prime consideration in plant location. Ghana Water Company

will supply the needed water to run the plant.

200
Electricity

For every plant, there is a need for an uninterrupted power supply. Power Distribution

Services will supply electricity to power the plant 24 hours a day.

7-6 Transport facilities

The plant should be cited in Kumasi because, Kumasi metropolis is the most populous district

in the Ashanti region. The city covers 254 square kilometers and encompasses 10 sub-

metropolitan areas. It is strategically located in south-central Ghana and all major roads

converge at the city center. This makes it possible for easy distribution of the finished

products, which is the ammonium nitrate prills, to farmers and retailers of fertilizers all over

the country.

Figure 7-6.1 A map showing Sub-Metro Areas and Major Roads.

201
Source: (Kabange, 2019).

7-7 Government influence

Local and regional governments are frequently involved in the promotion of their areas. In

some places, particularly in Western developed countries, they are able to provide useful

information on their locality, covering available sites, rents, land prices and details on

transport communications. These bodies can be very effective in helping to finalize choice.

Governments often offer monetary incentives to prospective manufacturing investors. The

types of inducements offered are:

i. Tax-free holidays; periods of possibly 3 to 15 years of no tax liability on profits.

ii. Deferred tax allowances; where capital and operating costs in early loss-making years

can be offset against profits later.

iii. Liberation from payment of import duties on capital plant and equipment, and on

materials.

iv. Liberal depreciation allowances.

The provision of free zones, usually in port locations, where goods can be imported duty free,

processed and the bulk exported.

202
CHAPTER 8: SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL

8-1 Introduction to safety

Safety denotes concern for physical injuries that might be experienced by the worker, such

as cuts, abrasions, punctures, burns, and the crushing of feet or arms. The health and safety

of a worker is influenced not only by conditions of the work-place, but also by non-work-

related factors that can nonetheless be potentiated by the workplace. The same workplace

may present different health and safety risks to workers performing similar tasks, depending

upon a wide range of personal factors (Mensah, 2019). Any organisation has a legal and

moral obligation to safeguard the health and welfare of its employees and the general public

(Sinnott, 2005). In most companies, there is a safety officer or a team of safety personnel

who ensure that good manufacturing practices are being followed to the core.

Pollution is the presence of substances and heat in environmental media that is, air, water and

land whose nature, location or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects.

Pollutants are substances that causes harm when released to the environment. Since pollutants

are emitted by a source and need to travel to reach their receptor, they might be subject to

alterations. An assessment of the environmental pathways and investigations of the behaviour

and fate of the pollutants in the environment is therefore needed in any manufacturing plant.

In some instances, they do not exert any damage because they do not reach levels sufficiently

high as a result of degradation (Mensah, 2019).

8-2 Safety Analysis

PRESSURE

Over pressure

203
Over-pressure, a pressure exceeding the system design pressure, is one of the most serious

hazards in chemical plant operation. To control over pressure in pressure vessels, three

different basic types of relief device are commonly used; directly actuated valves, indirectly

actuated valves and bursting discs.

Under pressure (Vacuum)

A vessel must be protected against the hazard of under pressure. Under pressure will normally

mean vacuum on the inside with atmospheric pressure on the outside. It requires only a slight

drop in pressure below atmospheric pressure to collapse a storage tank.

TEMPERATURE

Excessively high temperature, over and above that for which the equipment was designed,

can cause structural failure and initiate a disaster. High temperatures can arise from loss of

control of reactors and heaters; and, externally, from open fires. Steam, and other vapour

heating systems, are intrinsically safe; as the temperature cannot exceed the saturation

temperature at the supply pressure. Other heating systems rely on control of the heating rate

to limit the maximum process temperature. Electrical heating systems can be particularly

hazardous.

EXPLOSIONS

An explosion is the sudden catastrophic release of energy, causing a pressure wave. An

explosion can occur without fire, such as the failure through over-pressure of a steam boiler

or a compressor.

TYPES OF FIRE EXPLOSIONS

Confined Vapour Cloud Explosion

204
This type of explosion is caused by a relatively small amount of flammable material when it

is released into the confined space of a building.

Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion

This type of explosion results from the release of a considerable quantity of flammable gas,

or vapour, into the atmosphere, and its subsequent ignition. Such an explosion can cause

extensive damage.

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions

Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosions occur when there is a sudden release of vapour,

containing liquid droplets, due to the failure of a storage vessel exposed to fire. Example is

explosion from liquefied petroleum gas.

DUST EXPLOSIONS

Finely divided combustible solids, if intimately mixed with air, can explode. Dust explosions

usually occur in two stages, a primary explosion which disturbs deposited dust; followed by

the second, severe, explosion of the dust thrown into the atmosphere. Any finely divided

combustible solid is a potential explosion hazard. Particular care must be taken in the design

of dryers, conveyors, and storage hoppers for polymers and other combustible products such

as ammonium nitrate prills.

Table 8-1.1 Summary of Safety Analysis

EQUIPMENT HAZARDS PREVENTION OR CONTROL

ASSOCIATED MEASURE

Reactor Over heating 1. Provision of alarms to go off

when overheating occurs.

205
 2. A cooling jacket can be used
to control high
temperatures.
Explosion Automatic shutdown systems.

Over pressure 1. Pressure relief valves should

be attached to all the
reactors.
2. Use of high pressure
shutdown interlock.
Scrubber Corrosion 1. Coating metallic surfaces to
prevent corrosion.
2. Regular maintenance.
Leakages Provision of leak detectors and

regular maintenance.

Heat Transfer Over heating 1. Provision of alarms that will

go off when temperature
Equipment rises above set point.
2. Training personnel to follow
standard operating
procedure.
Rotary Drum Fire explosions caused by 1. Rotary drum should be set at
optimum speed.
the rotation of the 2. The drum should not be
more than half filled with
ammonium nitrate prills. the prills.

Pre-hopper Dust explosions from Tools that emit sparks should not be

ammonium nitrate fines. used close to the prill tower because

it may cause explosion.

Filter Dust emissions from the 1. Nose masks as well as PPE

should be worn.
second filter. 2. Ensure Good Manufacturing
practices and regular
maintenance.
Pumps and Overpressure 1. Use of emergency pressure
relief devices.
Compressor 2. Design of casing to contain
high pressure.

206
 Reduced flow of material Use correctly specified pumps.

which may cause

cavitation.

Storage tank Under pressure which Automatic vacuum relief system on

may cause the nitrogen detecting low pressure.

and hydrogen gases to

escape.

Prill tower Dust explosions Tools that emit sparks should not be

used close to the prill tower because

it may cause explosion.

Under pressure caused by Provision of pressure sensors and

insufficient air supply to controllers.

the base of the prill tower.

8-3 Pollution control

Emissions to Air and Controls

Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases to in the air which is harmful. Air

pollutants can be classified into primary and secondary pollutants. Particulate matter

constitutes a major class of air pollution. They are emitted from both combustion and non-

combustion processes in industry (Mensah, 2019).

Emissions from ammonium nitrate production plants are particulate matter coating materials,

ammonia, and nitric acid. Ammonia and nitric acid are emitted primarily from solution

formation and solidification. The emission sources in solution formation and concentration

207
processes are reactors and evaporators, primarily emitting nitric acid and ammonia. The

vapor stream off the top of the neutralization reactor is primarily steam with some ammonia

and NH4NO3 particulates present.

During screening, emissions are generated by the attrition of the ammonium nitrate solids

against the screens and against one another. Almost all screening operations used in the

ammonium nitrate manufacturing industry are enclosed or have a cover over the uppermost

screen. Screening equipment is located inside a building and emissions are ducted from the

process for recovery or reuse.

Bagging and bulk loading operations are a source of particulate emissions. Dust is emitted

from each type of bagging process during final filling when dust-laden air is displaced from

the bag by the ammonium nitrate.

Emissions are controlled using wet scrubbing because the recovered ammonium nitrate can

be sent to the solution concentration process for reuse in production of ammonium nitrate

rather than to waste streams.

Water pollution

According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, NRDC, water pollution occurs when

harmful chemicals or microorganisms contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean or any other

water body, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment

(Denchak, 2018). Water pollution has many sources, however, city sewage and industrial

discharge are the most polluting. The types of industrial waste generated include cafeteria

garbage, scrap metal, oil solvents, chemicals and oil. The impact of industrial toxics and

hazardous wastes on aquatic life including microorganisms cannot be over-stressed. When

effluents from the plants are not treated and are channeled directly into the water, it causes

208
higher values of pH, free NH3, urea and high TDS values in the water. The bacteria species

associated with this contamination include, Aerococcus viridans, Escheichia coli and

Staphylococcus aureus (Obire, et al., 2008).

The waste generated in the industries can be minimized. These source reduction techniques

reduce waste produced, or reduce the toxicity of the waste. Some examples of waste

minimization techniques are;

 Return waste material to original process.

 Use the waste material as a raw material substitute for another process.

 Process waste material for resource recovery.

 Process waste material as a by-product.

 Investigate contractors to recycle waste material.

 Advertise waste material.

 Use packaging waste again (cardboard, bubble wrap or polystyrene).

 Use technology (including measuring and cutting) to make changes to the production

process; equipment, layout or piping; or operating conditions.

 Purchase what you need to avoid waste from unwanted materials.

Noise pollution

Noise pollution is a global occupational health issue affecting the well-being of workers who

are exposed to it. A common detrimental effect of work place noise exposure over time is

noise induced hearing loss. Noise induced hearing loss is completely preventable, especially

209
when safety measures are taken, however it becomes irreversible once acquired. In the United

States of America (USA), the regulating body for Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) allows 90dB for 8 hours work shift, with a halving rate of 5dB (Bedi,

2006). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the government agency for ensuring

the judicious management of the environment in Ghana, sets permissible noise levels of

heavy industrial areas at 70dB during the day and 70dB at night.

The unit of sound measurement is the decibel, defined by the expression;

RMS sound pressure (Pa)

Sound level = 20 log10 ( ) , dB (Sinnott et al, 2007)
2× 10−5

Engineering controls are employed to reduce and inhibit the diffusion of noise through the

use or substitution of engineered machinery (Occupational Public Health Programme,2009).

An example of engineering control is changing to a lower decibel equipment. Administrative

controls on the other hand integrate changes in the work processes by alternating workers

through the shift systems. Ideally in a hearing conservation programme, engineering and

administrative controls are the best forms of practice, however, engineering controls are

expensive and often unfeasible to achieve. OSHA therefore, prescribes the use of personal

protective hearing devices for hearing protection in instances where engineering controls

cannot be used (OiSaeng et al., 2013; NIDC Fact Sheet, 2007).

210
 CHAPTER 9: INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL

9-1 Introduction

All processes within a plant are subject to disturbances that tend to change operating

conditions, compositions, and physical properties of streams. In order to minimize the

adverse effects that could result from such disturbances, chemical plants are implemented

with substantial amounts of instrumentation and automatic control equipment (Walas, 1990).

Process control therefore refers to the procedures that are used to regulate process variables

and disturbances during the operation of a plant. Process control is normally done by

measuring the variable to be controlled, comparing it with the desired value (set point) and

feeding the difference to the controller that sends an actuating signal to the final control

element to take an action (Sinnott,2005). Instruments used to monitor the process variables

would be fitted with automatic situational alarm systems to alert the operators of critical

conditions.

Objectives of Process Control

According to Sinnott (2005), the primary objective of any control system in plant operation

is to ensure:

a. Safe plant operation:

i. To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.

ii. To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic

shutdown systems.

iii. To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.

211
 b. Production rate: To achieve the design product output

c. Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified quality

standards.

Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other objectives.

9-2 Process Variables

Temperature control system

In control system for the production of ammonium nitrate prills, temperature is an important

parameter to control. Higher inlet temperatures above the designed temperature would cause

abrupt expansion and contraction of the system.

The temperature control system will be used to monitor and regulate heat exchangers E1, E2

and E3 which is fixed tube heat exchanger. The cooler c1 and all the reactors R1, R2, R3 and

R4 in which thermocouple type k and j will be used in the control loops to control the

temperature in the unit.

Table 9-2.1 Summary of temperature control

Process variable Equipment in which Sensor description and comments

variable is controlled
R-1 Thermocouple type J: Iron-constantan
Operating Temperature at 450°C
R-2 Thermocouple type K: Nickle-chromium
Operating Temperature at 850°C
R-3 Thermocouple type J: Iron-constantan
Operating Temperature at 185°C
R-4 Thermocouple type J: Iron-constantan
Operating Temperature at 185°C
E-1 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Operating Temperature at 300°C

212
 Temperature E-2 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Operating Temperature at 300°C
E-3 Thermister
Operating Temperature at 80°C
EV-1 Thermocouple type J: Iron-constantan
Operating Temperature at 50°C
EV-2 Thermocouple type J: Iron-constantan
Operating Temperature at 150°C
EV-3 Thermocouple type J: Iron-constantan
Operating Temperature at 200°C
C-1 Thermister
Operating Temperature at 25°C

Pressure Control

Pressure is an integrating process, usually with a negligible dead time therefore it requires

high gain and long integral time when tuning. Pressure control is necessary for most systems

handling vapor or gas which helps in maintaining the optimal pressure levels during

operations and also to ensure safety. The pressure control system and sensor is purposely for

measuring the pressure of a unit, to generate a signal value which is readable to operators and

to be able to maintain set point of operating pressures in order to avoid excessive build-up of

pressures. This control system would be used specifically to check the pressures of

evaporators (EV-1, EV-2, and EV-3), gas tanks (G-1, G-2), Compressors (CP-1, CP-2, and

CP-3), Absorption column (A-1), and all the reactors (R-1, R-2, R-3, and R-4) in the plant.

Capacitive and resistive sensors are employed to ensure that the mechanical displacement

taking place inside a sensor is turned into an electrical output. Resistive pressure sensors are

used to measure a wider range of pressure in a system (21 kPa to 150mpa) and capacitive

pressure sensors are for lower pressures.

Table 9-2.2 Summary of pressure control

213
Process variable Equipment in which the Sensor Description and
variable is controlled Comments
CP-1 Strain Gauge
Operating pressure at 1MPa
CP-2 Strain Gauge
Operating pressure at 1MPa
CP-3 Strain Gauge
Operating pressure at 1MPa
EV-1 Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Operating at atmospheric
pressure (101325Pa)
EV-2 Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Operating at atmospheric
Pressure pressure (101325Pa)
EV-3 Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Operating at atmospheric
pressure (101325Pa
R-1 Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Operating at atmospheric
pressure (101325Pa)
R-2 Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Operating at atmospheric
pressure (101325Pa)
R-3 Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Operating at atmospheric
pressure (101325Pa)
R-4 Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Operating at atmospheric
pressure (101325Pa)
A Piezoelectric
Operating at 101325.Pa
G-1 Piezoelectric
214
 Operating at 5.25MPa
G-2 Piezoelectric
Operating at 15.75MPa

Flow Control System

Flow measurements are normally indirect measurements using differential pressures to

measure the flow rate. Differential pressure measurements can be made for flow rate

determination when a fluid flows through a restriction. The restriction produces an increase

in pressure which can be directly related to flow rate.

Flow control is one of the crucial process variables controlled in industry. It is usually

associated with inventory control in a storage tank or other equipment or with feed to the

process. The process material balance is set by flow controllers on feed streams as flow is

related to the density and volume of contents to the process. These will often control feeds

in ratio to a flow of valuable feed, a solid stream flow (which is difficult to change quickly)

or a measured flow of process mixture (Towler G. & Sinnott R., 2013). Because the

temperature of the process fluid affects its density, temperature measurements are often taken

with flow measurements and compensation for temperature is accounted for in the flow

calculation. The flow rate of materials is measured with valves, flow meters and weighing

conveyors; depending on the material to be transported (i.e. gas, liquid or solid). Type of

flow meters include: orifice plate, venturi tube, elbow flow meter, rotameter, pitot tube, etc.

Table 9-2.3 Summary on flow control

Process variable Material Flow control / measurement

215
 Gas: H2, N2, NH3(g), Air Butterfly valve

Flow

Control: Globe valve

Liquid: Water, HNO3, NH3 Measurement: Orifice plate,

(l), NH4NO3 (aq). Venturi and Coriolis Meter

Solid: Prills Weighing conveyors

Level control system

Level or liquid level is the height of the water column, liquid and powder etc., at the desired

measurement of height between minimum level points to maximum level point. The

measurement principle is, head pressure method. Units: Meters, mm, cm, percentage. Level

is a common process variable that is measured in many industries. The method used will vary

widely depending on the nature of the industry, the process, and the application. The

measured medium can be liquid, gas or solid and stored in vessels (open/closed tanks), silos,

bins and hoppers. Units of level can be expressed in: feet (meters) gallons (liters) pounds

(kilograms) cubic volume (ft3, m3)

216
Methods used in measuring or determining the levels are Direct and Indirect (inferential)

methods. The Direct methods sense the surface or interface of the liquid and are not affected

by changes in material density (Specific Gravity) Examples: Dip Stick Resistance Tapes

Sight Glass Floats Ultrasonic. Indirect Methods (Inferential) “infer” liquid level by

measuring some other physical parameter such as pressure, weight, or temperature. Changing

materials means a corrective factor must be used or recalibrating the instrument. Examples:

Hydrostatic head methods Load Cells Capacitance Conductivity. When determining the type

of level sensor that should be used for a given application, there are a series of factors that

must be considered such as:

 Type of tank (Open tank or closed tank)

 Level sensor (inserted into the tank or completely external)

 Contact (contact or non-contact)

 Type of measurement (continuous or point)

 Type of material

 State of material (Liquid or Solid, Clean or Slurry)

Table 9-2.4 Summary on level control

Process variable Equipment where level is Sensor description and

controlled comment

Flow T-112 Float gauge

T-306 Float gauge

T-504 Optical

T-305 Float gauge

GS-101 Radar

217
 GS-102 Radar

Composition

The common process variables in industries are temperature, pressure, flow and level.

However, composition is also a process variable that needs to be considered. Composition

has to do with the constituents of a mixture in their right proportions. It is therefore necessary

in industry to control the compositions of materials. Examples of devices to control

composition are; chromatography, mass spectrometry, differential thermal analysis.

Table 9-2.5 Summary of composition control

Process variable Equipment where variable is Sensor Description

controlled

Composition R-100 Differential Thermal

analyzer

R-200 Differential Thermal

analyzer

R-300 Differential Thermal

analyzer

A-300 Mass spectrometer to

control the composition of

the gas mixture entering the

absorption column.

218
SB-308 Mass spectrometer to

control the composition of

the gas mixture entering the

first scrubber.

SB-508 Mass spectrometer to

control the composition of

the gas mixture entering the

second scrubber.

219
CHAPTER 10: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

This chapter considers the cost estimations, profitability evaluations and sensitivity analysis

of the project – it reveals the economic viability of establishing the designed plant.

10-1 Basis of Economic Analysis

1. Construction Period: December 2020 – April 2023

2. Commencement of Production: Second quarter of 2023

3. Plant Operation: 3 shifts per day; 8 hours per shift.

4. Type of Process: Continuous

5. Plant Life: 35 years

6. Plant Capacity: 94400 MTPA

7. Plant Attainments: 92% (335 working days)

8. Loan-to-Equity: 1:1

9. Dollar-to-Cedi Exchange Rate: 1 USD = GHS 5.53 (17th March, 2020)

10. Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (2004) = 444.2

11. Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (2018) = 603.1

12. Average Inflation Rate from 2018 – 2020: 1.33%

13. Tax Rate: 25%

14. Interest Rates for Selected Banks:

Bank Base Rate Interest Rate

Barclays Bank 21.55 22.5

Société Générale 22.45 24

Standard Chattered Bank 23.56 24

220
10-2 Total Capital Investment

10-2.1 Purchased Equipment Costs

The purchased equipment costs were estimated in two categories; some equipment costs were

estimated by applying cost index ratios (between 2004 and 2018) to obtain the costs in 2018,

and then applying the average inflation rate from 2018 – 2020 to obtain the cost estimate in

2020; other equipments whose previous costs were not available had their costs estimated

using prices on Alibaba.com.

Table 10-2.1 Purchase Cost Equipment Summary

Equipment Quantity Cost in 2004/ $

Storage Tank (T-2) 2 91,031.40

Storage Tank (T-3) 2 $ 37,200.00

Storage Tank (T-4) 2 $ 93,716.16

Reactor (R-1) 1 $ 137,000.00

Reactor (R-2) 1 $ 79,600.00

Reactor (R-3) 1 $ 78,906.00

Reactor (R-4) 1 $ 93,000.00

Scrubber (SB-1) 1 $ 80,000.00

Scrubber (SB-2) 1 $ 100,200.00

Absorption Column (A-1) 1 $ 270,290.00

Separator (SP-1) 1 $ 14,080.00

Compressor (CP-1) 1 $ 24,000.00

Screen (SC-1) 1 $ 16,000.00

Heat Exchanger (E-1) 1 $ 40,000.00

221
 Heat Exchanger (E-2) 1 $ 45,200.00

Heat Exchanger (E-3) 1 $ 40,800.00

Condenser (CD-1) 1 $ 60,040.00

Condenser (CD-2) 1 $ 96,000.00

Condenser (CD-3) 1 $ 50,960.00

Evaporator (EV-1) 1 $ 229,200.00

Evaporator (EV-2) 1 $ 136,000.00

Evaporator (EV-3) 1 $ 248,000.00

Rotary Drum (RD-1) 1 $ 119,200.50

Source: Experimental Calculations

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑛 2020

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2020 = ( ) (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2004) … … . . 𝑒𝑞 10.2.1
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑛 2004

Table 10-2.2 Purchase cost of equipment

Equipment Quantity Cost in 2020/ $

Storage Tank (T-1) 1 $ 15,000.00

Prill Tower (PT-1) 1 $ 1,430,000.00

Filter (F-1), (F-2), (F-3) 3 $ 1,000.00

Prehopper (PH-1) 3 $ 4,000.00

Conveyor (CN-1) 1 $ 1,440.00

Conveyor (CN-2), (CN-1) 2 $ 2,400.00

222
 Boiler 1 $ 55,000.00

Pump (P-101) 1 $ 1,605.00

Pump (P-201) 1 $ 100.00

Pump (P-301) 1 $ 100.00

Pump (P-303) 1 $ 152.22

Pump (P-401) 1 $ 100.00

Pump (P-402) 1 $ 110.00

Pump (P-405) 1 $ 1,095.00

Pump (P-502) 1 $ 3,850.80

Pump (P-503) 1 $ 10,680.00

Pump (PD-601) 1 $ 535.20

Source: Experimental Calculations

Delivered Purchased Cost of Equipment = 1.1(Purchased Cost of Equipment). (Peters et al,

2008)

10-2.2 Direct Cost Estimation

The direct costs include all manufacturing fixed-capial investments, comprising of:

 Purchased Cost: This includes all enlisted equipment on the complete flowsheet,

spare parts and noninstalled equipment spares, surplus equipment, supplies, and other

allowances related to the equipment. (Peters et al, 2008)

 Purchased-Equipment Installation: This includes the cost of installation of all

equipment listed on the complete flowsheet, structural supports, equipment insulation

and equipment painting. (Peters et al, 2008)

223
  Instrumentation and Controls: This includes the cost of purchase, installation,

calibration of computerized control systems with supportive software. (Peters et al,

2008)

 Piping: This includes the cost of process piping, pipe hangers, fittings, valves and

their insulation. (Peters et al, 2008)

 Electrical Systems: This includes the costs of electrical equipment switches, motors,

conduit, wire, fittings, feeders, grounding, instrument and control wiring, lighting,

panels, electrical materials and labor. (Peters et al, 2008)

 Buildings (including services); This includes the cost of Process Buildings

(substructures, superstructures, platforms, supports, stairways, ladders, access ways,

cranes, monorails, hoists, elevators), Auxiliary Buildings (administration and office,

dispensary, cafeteria, garage, product warehouse, parts warehouse, guard and safety,

fire station, change house, personnel building, shipping office and platform, research

laboratory, control laboratory), Maintenance Shops (electric, piping, sheet metal,

machine, welding, carpentry, instrument), Building Services (plumbing, heating,

ventilation, dust collection, air conditioning, building lighting, elevators, escalators,

telephones, intercommunication systems, painting, sprinkler systems, fire alarm).

(Peters et al, 2008)

 Yard Improvements: This captures cost of site development—site clearing, grading,

roads, walkways, railroads, fences, parking areas, wharves and piers, recreational

facilities, landscaping. (Peters et al, 2008)

Service Facilities: This includes the cost of utilities (steam, water, power, refrigeration,

compressed air, fuel, waste disposal facilities, boiler, plant incinerator, wells, river intake,

water treatment, cooling towers, water storage, electric substation, refrigeration plant, air

224
plant, fuel storage, waste disposal plant, environmental controls, fire protection), Nonprocess

Equipment (office furniture and equipment, cafeteria equipment, safety and medical

equipment, shop equipment, automotive equipment, yard material-handling equipment,

laboratory equipment, locker-room equipment, garage equipment, shelves, bins, pallets, hand

trucks, housekeeping equipment, fire extinguishers, hoses, fire engines, loading stations),

Distribution and Packaging (raw material and product storage, handling equipment, product

packaging equipment, blending facilities, loading stations). (Peters et al, 2008)

Table 10-2.3 Direct Cost Equipment Summary

Item Factor Cost

Delivered Purchased Equipment cost 1 $ 6,018,231.19

Purchased Equipment Installation 0.39 $ 2,347,110.16

Instrumentation and Controls 0.26 $ 1,564,740.11

Piping 0.31 $ 1,865,651.67

Electrical Systems 0.1 $ 601,823.12

Building 0.29 $ 1,745,287.04

Yard Improvement 0.12 $ 722,187.74

Service facilities 0.55 $ 3,310,027.15

Total Direct Cost $ 18,175,058.18

Source: Experimental Calculations

10-2.3 Indirect Cost Estimation

This comprises of the non-manufacturing fixed capital investment, including:

 Engineering and Supervision Engineering costs: this includes the cost of

administrative, process, design and general engineering, computer graphics, cost

225
 engineering. procuring, expediting, reproduction, communications, scale models,

consultant fees, travel engineering supervision and inspection. (Peters et al, 2008)

 Legal Expenses

 Construction Expenses: This includes the costs of construction operation and

maintenance of temporary facilities, offices, roads, parking lots, railroads, electrical,

piping, communications, fencing, costs of construction tools and equipment, costs of

construction supervision, accounting, timekeeping, purchasing, etc. (Peters et al,

2008)

 Contractor's fee

 Contingency

Table 10-2.3.1 Indirect Cost Summary

Item Factor Cost

Engineering and Supervision 0.32 $ 1,925,833.98

Construction Expenses 0.34 $ 2,046,198.60

Legal Expenses 0.04 $ 240,729.25

Contractor's Fees 0.19 $ 1,143,463.93

Contingencies 0.37 $ 2,226,745.54

Total Indirect Cost $ 7,582,971.29

Source: Experimental Calculations

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Total Direct Cost + Total Indirect Cost

FCI= $18,175,058.18 + $7,582,971.29

226
 = $ 25,758,029.47

10-2.5 Working Capital

Peters et al (2008) stated that the working capital is 10 – 20 %; for this plant the working

capital was chosen to be 15% of the total capital investment.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙(𝑊𝐶) = 0.15(𝑇𝐶𝐼)

10-2.6 Total Capital Investment

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑇𝐶𝐼) = 𝐹𝐶𝐼 + 𝑊𝐶

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑇𝐶𝐼) = 𝐹𝐶𝐼 + 0.15(𝑇𝐶𝐼)

𝑇𝐶𝐼 = 𝐹𝐶𝐼⁄0.85

TCI = $ 30,310,814.09

The Total Capital Investment (which will be source wholly by bank loan) = $ 30,310,814.09

10-3 Total Product Cost Estimation

This is the total of all costs of operating the plant, selling the products, recovering the capital

investments and contributing to corporate function (such as management and research and

development). It is generally divided into two categories; Manufacturing Costs and General

Expenses. (Peters et al, 2008)

10-3.1 Manufacturing Costs

These are all expenses directly connected with the manufacturing process, or the physical

equipment of the process itself. It is divided onto three categories: Direct Production Costs

(or variable costs), Fixed Charges and Plant Overhead Costs. (Peters et al, 2008)

227
Direct Production Costs include expenses directly associated with the manufacturing

operation; This type of cost involves expenditures for raw materials (including transportation,

unloading, etc.), direct operating labor, supervisory and clerical labor directly applied to the

manufacturing operation, utilities, plant maintenance and repairs, operating supplies,

laboratory supplies, royalties, catalysts, and solvents. (Peters et al, 2008).

Table 10-3.1 Total Raw Material Cost

Amount,
Material Cost per kg, $/kg Annual Cost, $
kg/h

Hydrogen 1258.3 0.96 9,712,062.72

Nitrogen 5876.35 0.83 39,214,058.82

Magnesium Nitrate 52.84 0.65 276,141.84

Deionized Water 1713.78 1.50 20,668,186.80

Iron Catalyst 24602 10.00 246,020.00

Platinum-Rhodium catalyst 1452 800.00 1,161,600.00

Total Annual Raw Material Cost

$ 71,278,070.18

Source: Experimental Calculations

Operating Labour Costs

These include both skilled and unskilled labour: the minimum wage in Ghana GHC11.82

(GhanaWeb, 2019) was used as basis for wage estimation for unskilled labour.

228
 Table 10-3.2 Summary of Direct Labour Cost

Annual

Staff Number Cost/ Head, Annual Cost, $

Plant Manager 1 35,000.00 35,000.00

Production Manager 1 20,000.00 20,000.00

Quality Assurance Manager 1 20,000.00 20,000.00

Safety Engineering 1 12,000.00 12,000.00

Chemical Engineer 3 12,000.00 36,000.00

Electrical Engineer 3 12,000.00 36,000.00

Mechanical Engineer 3 12,000.00 36,000.00

Supervisor 3 4,400.00 13,200.00

Plant Operator 35 3,500.00 122,500.00

Lab Technician 9 4,000.00 36,000.00

Laborers 15 700.00 10,500.00

$
Total Direct Labour Cost
377,200.00

Source: Experimental Calculations

Table 10-3.3 Summary of Indirect Labour Cost

229
 Annual

Staff Number Cost/ Head, Annual Cost, $

Managing Director 1 70,000.00 70,000.00

Human Resource Manager 1 40,000.00 40,000.00

Sales Manager 1 20,000.00 20,000.00

Accountant 1 20,000.00 20,000.00

Legal Personnel 1 20,000.00 20,000.00

Computer Support Staff 1 20,000.00 20,000.00

Clerk 3 9,000.00 27,000.00

Secretary 3 9,000.00 27,000.00

Receptionist 1 3,000.00 3,000.00

Store Keeper 3 3,000.00 9,000.00

Cleaners 20 700.00 14,000.00

Nurses 3 10,000.00 30,000.00

Security Personel 18 2,000.00 36,000.00

Drivers 3 2,000.00 6,000.00

Warehouse Workers 12 700.00 8,400.00

Total Indirect Labour Cost 350,400.00

Source: Experimental Calculations

Total Labour Cost (TLC) = Direct Labour Cost + Indirect Labour Cost

230
 = $ 377,200.00 + $ 350,400.00

= $ 727,600.00

The company pays 13% of total labour cost as SSNIT contribution for workers.

Total Labour Cost, TLC = 1.13 * $ 727,600.00

= $ 822,188.00

Other Costs

Utility costs, Royalties, Maintenance and Supervision Costs, and Laboratory Charges are

estimated using factors, as proposed by Peters et al, (2008), and as seen in the Table below:

Table 10-3.4 Summary of Direct Production Cost

Item Factor Annual Cost, $

Raw Materials 71,278,070.18

Operating Labour and Supervision 822,188.00

Utilities 0.2 (TCI) 5,052,103.05

Royalties 0.05 (TCI) 1,263,025.76

Maintenance and Repairs (MR) 0.03 (FCI) 643,958.26

Operating Supplies (OS) 0.1 (MR) 64,395.83

Laboratory Charges 0.2 (OS) 12,879.17

Total Direct Production Cost 79,136,620.25

Source: Experimental Calculations

 Fixed Charges are expenses which are independent of production rate; they include

expenditure for depreciation, property taxes, insurance, financing (loan interest), and

231
 rent. (Peters et al, 2008) – Fixed charges are a direct function of fixed capital

investment. These charges, except for depreciation, tend to change due to inflation.

Because depreciation is on a schedule established by tax regulations, it may differ

from year to year, but it is not affected by inflation. Depreciation was estimated ising

the straight line method, given by:

𝐹𝐶𝐼 − 𝑆𝑉
𝐷=
𝑛

Where D = Depreciation

FCI = Fixed Capital Investment

SV = Salvage Value; estimated as 0.1(FCI)

n = Plant life = 35 years

Table 10-3.5 Summary of Fixed Charges

Item Description Cost, $

Property Tax 0.02 (FCI) 429,305.51

Depreciation 0.0257 (FCI) 551,657.58

Insurance 0.01 (FCI) 214,652.75

Total Fixed Charges 1,195,615.84

Source: Experimental Calculations

 Plant Overhead Costs are for hospital and medical services; general plant

maintenance and overhead, safety services, payroll overhead (including social

security and other retirement plans), medical and life insurance, vacation allowances,

packaging, restaurant and recreation facilities, salvage services, control laboratories,

232
 property protection, plant superintendence, warehouse and storage facilities, and

special employee benefits. This is taken for preliminary estimates as 50-70% of the

Direct Labor Cost (Peters et al, 2008) – For this work, 60% was used.

Table 10-3.5.1 Summary of Manufacturing Cost

Summary of Manufacturing Costs

Item Annual Cost, $

$ 79,136,620.25
Total Direct Production Cost

$ 1,195,615.84
Total Fixed Charges

$ 210,240.00
Plant Overhead Cost

$ 80,542,476.10
Total Manufacturing Cost

Source: Experimental Calculations

10-3.2 General Expenses

In addition to the manufacturing costs, other general expenses are involved in the operations

of the company; these expenses may be classified as administrative expenses (approximated

as 15-25% of the operating cost), distribution and marketing expenses (estimated as 2-20%

of the total product cost), and research and development expenses (approximated as 5% of

the total product cost).

Table 10-3.2.1 Summary of General expenses

Item Description Annual Cost, $

233
 Administrative Expenses 0.2 (Operating Labor)

75,440.00

Dstribution and Marketting Costs 0.11 (Total Product Cost)

10,557,108.06

Research and Development Costs 0.05 (Total Product Cost)

4,798,685.48

General Expenses

15,431,233.54

Source: Experimental Calculations

10-4 Annual Cash Flow

The unutilized Ammonia and Nitric Acid are sold together with the Ammonium Nitrate prills;

the main product . The selling prices for the products as well as the amounts produced are

provided in Table 10-4.1 below:

Table 10-4.1 Summary of selling price of products

Quantity at
Quantity, Selling Annual Sales,
Product 85% Plant
kg,yr Price, $/kg $
Capacity, kg/h

Ammonia 128 1,029,120.00 0.90 926,208.00

Nitric Acid 700 5,628,000.00 0.70 3,939,600.00

234
 Ammonium Nitrate 63,757,200.0
7930 1.50 95,635,800.00
Prills 0

100,501,608.0
Total Annual Sales
0

Source: Experimental Calculations

Assuming 80% of each product is sold during the year

Total annual sales = $ 80,401,286.40

The annual tax rate = 25% of Gross Earnings (Ghana Revenue Authority, 2018)

Gross Earnings = (Gross Annual Sales) – (Annual Cost of Production)

Annual Tax = (Gross Earnings) × (Tax rate)

Net Profit (Annual Cash flow) = Gross Earnings – Annual taxes

Table 10-4.2 Summary of Annual Cash flow for first year

$ GH₵

Gross Annual Sales 80,401,286.40 444,619,113.79

Total Product Cost 76,778,967.71 424,587,691.46

Gross Profit 3,622,318.69 20,031,422.34

Annual Tax 905,579.67 5,007,855.58

NET PROFIT/ ANNUAL CASH 2,716,739.01 15,023,566.75

FLOW

Source: Experimental Analysis

235
10-5 Profitability Analysis

The resources required to undertake a project are always limited. Therefore, it follows that

these resources should be used in an appropriate and efficient manner. The wise investor

selects investments that are expected to maximize the return from the capital that is available.

(Peters et al., 2008) A proposed investment must be evaluated for its economic feasibility;

the essence of profitability analysis is to test the economic feasibility using appropriate tools

like:

 Turn-Over Ratio (TOR)

 Break-Even Point (BEP)

 Rate of Return (ROR)

 Internal Rate of Return (IROR)

 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)

 Net Present Worth (NPW)

 Payback Period

10-5.1 Turn-Over Ratio (TOR)

This is the ratio of gross annual sales of product to the fixed capital investment; it is a measure

of plant performance; a higher turnover ratio means better performance. Turnover ratio

ranges between 0.2 to 5. (Afotey, 2014)

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 100501608.00

𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 (𝑇𝑂𝑅) = = = 𝟑. 𝟗
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 25758029.47

Therefore; the TOR = 3.9

236
10-5.2 Rate of Return (ROR)

This is a measure that quantifies the speed of returns on investments; The Rate of Return

must exceed 15% for the project to be economically viable. (Peters et al, 2008). It is given

by:

𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 (1⁄𝑁) ∑𝑁

𝑗=1(𝑁𝑝,𝑗 )
𝑅𝑂𝑅 = × 100 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑇𝐶𝐼

𝑅𝑂𝑅 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐%

10-5.3 Internal Rate of Return (IROR)

This is similar to the rate of return, but considers outstanding debts (i.e. debt owed to loaners).

It is given by:

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡
𝐼𝑅𝑂𝑅 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Table 10-5.2 Amount to pay banks

Banks Interest Rate, % Amount Borrowed, Amount to be paid,

$ $

Barclays 22.5 9,300,000 11,392,500

Societe Generale 24 9,300,000 11,532,000

Standard Chartered 24 12,400,000 15,376,000

Total 31,000,000 38,300,500

Amount to be paid to bank = $ 38,300,500.00

Total Profit for entire plant life = $ 101,368,324.49

237
Internal Rate of Return, IRR = Net Profit / Total Investment×100

101,368,324.49−38,300,500.00
Internal Rate of Return, IRR = × 100 %
30,310,814.09

IRR = 5.94 %

Payback Time

This profitability measures the length of the time required for the total return to equal the

capital investment.

The Payback time is 8.94 years

Table 10-5.2 Summary of Annual Cumulative Cash Flow

Capacity, Annual Product Net Profit, Cumulative

Year Annual Sales, $
% Cost, $ $ Cash Flow, $

-1 0

0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 -26000000.00

1 80 76778967.71 80401286.40 2716739.01 -23283260.99

2 80 76778967.71 80401286.40 2716739.01 -20566521.97

3 80 76778967.71 80401286.40 2716739.01 -17849782.96

4 85 81577653.20 85426366.80 2886535.20 -14963247.75

5 85 81577653.20 85426366.80 2886535.20 -12076712.55

6 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 -8680788.78

7 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 -5284865.01

8 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 -1888941.24

9 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 1506982.53

238
10 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 4902906.29

11 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 8298830.06

12 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 11694753.83

13 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 15090677.60

14 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 18486601.37

15 100 95973709.64 100501608.00 3395923.77 21882525.14

16 90 86376338.68 90451447.20 3056331.39 24938856.53

17 90 86376338.68 90451447.20 3056331.39 27995187.92

18 90 86376338.68 90451447.20 3056331.39 31051519.31

19 90 86376338.68 90451447.20 3056331.39 34107850.70

20 90 86376338.68 90451447.20 3056331.39 37164182.10

21 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 39711124.92

22 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 42258067.75

23 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 44805010.57

24 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 47351953.40

25 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 49898896.23

26 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 52445839.05

27 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 54992781.88

28 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 57539724.71

29 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 60086667.53

30 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 62633610.36

31 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 65180553.19

239
 32 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 67727496.01

33 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 70274438.84

34 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 72821381.66

35 75 71980282.23 75376206.00 2546942.83 75368324.49

A Graph Of Cumulative Cash Flow Against

Years
100
Cumulative Cash Flow*$1,000,000

80
60
40
20
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-20
-40
Years
Cash flow at salvage value

Break Even Point

Break-even point occurs when the total annual product cost equals the total annual sales

(Afotey, 2014). i.e.:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = (𝑌 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ) × 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡

Where Y = number of units sold at breakeven point.

1 Unit = 25 kg → Cost per unit = 25(1.01$) = 25.25 $/unit

From Table 10-12, Total Product Cost at 80% plant capacity = $76,778,967.71

240
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 76,778,967.71
𝑌 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = = = 3,040,751 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 25.25

Therefore 3,040,751 units of product must be sold to break even (at 80% plant capacity).

In a different context, Break-even point is the time reached at which all the investment has

been paid off and the plant begins to make profit. (Afotey, 2014).

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (𝑍 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ) × 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡

Where Z is the number of unit sold at the time all investment has been paid off (payback)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 30310814

𝑌 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = = = 1,200,428 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 25.25

Therefore 1,200,428 units of products must be sold to pay back the initial investment.

Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return, DCFRR

This measure of the rate of return considers the change of the value of money with time.

(Peters et al, 2008). The DCFRR is a measure of the maximum rate that the project could pay

and still breakeven by the end of plant life; atthis rate, r, the net present worth is

approximately equal to zero. It is estimated using an iterative method, using the relation;

𝑛=𝑡
𝑁𝐹𝑊
𝑁𝑃𝑊 = ∑ =0
(1 + 𝑟)𝑛
𝑛=1

From Table 10-5.3, the DCFRR (after many iterations) is 15.21%

Table 10-5.3 Summary of DCFRR

241
 r=
46.340645645
r = 15% r = 50% r = 35% r = 48% %
Net
Annual Net Present Net Present Present Net Present Net Present
Year Cash Flow Worth Worth Worth Worth Worth
- - - -
26000000. 26000000.0 26000000.0 26000000. -
0 00 0 0 00 26000000.00 -26000000.00
2716739.0 2012399.2
1 1 2362381.75 1811159.34 7 1835634.47 1856448.70
2716739.0 1490666.1
2 1 2054245.00 1207439.56 3 1240293.56 1268580.37
2716739.0 1104197.1
3 1 1786300.00 804959.71 3 838036.19 866868.10
2886535.2
4 0 1650385.87 570179.79 869044.04 601630.71 629385.87
2886535.2
5 0 1435118.15 380119.86 643736.32 406507.24 430082.75
3395923.7
6 7 1468151.56 298133.23 560990.26 323137.71 345754.73
3395923.7
7 7 1276653.53 198755.48 415548.34 218336.29 236267.05
3395923.7
8 7 1110133.50 132503.66 307813.59 147524.52 161450.06
3395923.7
9 7 965333.48 88335.77 228010.06 99678.73 110324.82
3395923.7
10 7 839420.42 58890.51 168896.34 67350.49 75389.05
3395923.7
11 7 729930.80 39260.34 125108.40 45507.09 51516.14
3395923.7
12 7 634722.43 26173.56 92672.89 30748.03 35202.89
3395923.7
13 7 551932.55 17449.04 68646.59 20775.70 24055.44
3395923.7
14 7 479941.35 11632.69 50849.32 14037.63 16437.98
3395923.7
15 7 417340.30 7755.13 37666.17 9484.89 11232.68
94170813. 10063542.2
16 30 8 143369.30 773706.11 177716.96 212851.57
94170813.
17 30 8750906.33 95579.54 573115.64 120079.03 145449.38
94170813.
18 30 7609483.77 63719.69 424530.10 81134.48 99390.97
94170813.
19 30 6616942.40 42479.79 314466.74 54820.59 67917.54
94170813.
20 30 5753862.96 28319.86 232938.33 37040.94 46410.58
242
 2546942.8
21 3 135320.80 510.63 4666.70 676.90 857.74
2546942.8
22 3 117670.26 340.42 3456.82 457.36 586.12
2546942.8
23 3 102321.96 226.94 2560.60 309.03 400.52
2546942.8
24 3 88975.62 151.30 1896.74 208.80 273.69
2546942.8
25 3 77370.11 100.86 1405.00 141.08 187.02
2546942.8
26 3 67278.35 67.24 1040.74 95.33 127.80
2546942.8
27 3 58502.92 44.83 770.92 64.41 87.33
2546942.8
28 3 50872.10 29.89 571.05 43.52 59.68
2546942.8
29 3 44236.61 19.92 423.00 29.41 40.78
2546942.8
30 3 38466.62 13.28 313.33 19.87 27.87
2546942.8
31 3 33449.23 8.86 232.10 13.42 19.04
2546942.8
32 3 29086.29 5.90 171.92 9.07 13.01
2546942.8
33 3 25292.42 3.94 127.35 6.13 8.89
2546942.8
34 3 21993.41 2.62 94.33 4.14 6.08
2546942.8
35 3 19124.71 1.75 69.88 2.80 4.15
- -
31466689.8 19972255.7 15487197. -
Total 5 5 75 19628443.48 -19306283.61

10-6 Sensitivity Analysis

The response of the plant economics to unexpected changes (like cost of raw materials,

operating labor cost, selling price, etc.) was analyzed by imposing changes to observe the

effect of those changes. This analysis reveals the stability of the plant economics and also

speaks on the economic viability of the plant. The variables manipulated to impose changes

in this analysis were Raw Material Cost, Selling Price of Product and Operating Labour Cost;

five cases (Table 10-6.1) were considered:

243
 Table 10-6.1 Cases for Sensitivity Analysis

Variables

Cases Raw Materials Operating Labour Selling Price

1 10% decrease Constant Constant

2 Constant 5% increase 5% increase

3 Constant Constant 10% increase

4 10% increase 10% increase 20% increase

5 10% increase Constant 10% increase

Table 10-6.2 Summary of estimates from Sensitivity Analysis

Profitability Normal Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

Variable Condition

ROR,% 11.1 23.3 15.9 26.6 29.7 8.7

IROR, % 6.0 19.7 -3.6 23.0 26.1 5.1

Payback 8.9 3.7 6.3 3.8 3.4 11.4

time, year

Figure 10-6 the cases for the sensitivity analysis

244
 Sensitivity Analysis
350

300
Cummulative Analysis*10^6(GHC)

250

Normal
200
case 1
150 case 2
case 3
100 case 4
case 5
50

0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-50
Years

After conducting sensitivity analysis on the plant, Case 4 gave the highest profitability with

an ROR of 29.7% and a payback period of 3.4 years while Case 5 gave the lowest profitability

with an ROR of 8.7% and a pay back of 11.5 years. The increase in profitability from the

normal condition observed in Case 4 was due to the 20% increase in selling price while other

factors were increased by 10%. In Case 5, there was 10% increase and constant value in raw

materials and operating labour respectively with an increase of 10% in selling price. This

meant that the plant profit was going to reduce as seen in the results.

245
CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

11-1 Conclusion

In the economic analysis performed on the plant, it can be concluded that the plant is

economically viable. The design project was also successful since all specific objectives

were met. The designed plant would produce 97.5% purity low density Ammonium Nitrate

prills. Also, important aspects of the plant such as safety and pollution control,

instrumentation and plant layout were considered to ensure safety of operations and high

output of the plant in any case possible. All workers, including management staff would be

given safety training, protective clothing and Material Safety Data Sheet for all chemicals

they will come into contact with.

From the economic analysis, a Total Capital Investment (TCI) of $ 31 million is needed to

start up the plant. The TCI will be obtained solely from Barclays, Societe Generale and

Standard Chartered at interest rates of 22.5%, 24% and 24% respectively. The Rate of Return

of the plant is 11.2%. The payback period was found to be 8.9 years of the plant life. The

Internal Rate of Return is 6% and the Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return, 15.21%. From

the figures obtained, the plant is economically viable and would not run at a loss.

The project will have a positive impact on the Ghanaian economy as it will be the first of its

kind. Apart from the sales of Ammonium Nitrate prills, Nitric acid and Ammonia will also

be sold to neighbouring countries. This project will boost the agricultural sector of our nation

and reduce government’s expenditure on the importation of fertilizers or farm produce. The

project will also provide employment opportunities to cut down the problem of

unemployment in the country.

246
11-2 Recommendation

The following recommendations are made to improve on the low density ammonium nitrate

prills manufacturing process;

1. As the first locally manufacturing fertilizer company in Ghana, an agreement can be

reached with the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to be the supplier for farmers in

Ghana.

2. Since a number of equipment will be imported from overseas, a system must be set

in place for locally manufacturing companies so that taxes on material importation

are reduced. This will also make the investment climate in Ghana more attractive

especially for local manufacturers.

3. Another processing department can be added to the plant to produce ammonium

nitrate prills and pellets.

4. Also, an online or internet data base system can be created through which the Plant

can communicate with other similar industries about their findings so that the Plant

can position itself strategically on future eventualities.

247
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253
APPENDIX A SAMPLE MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATIONS

MN E-NA

ANS 1
REACTOR 4 ANS 2

Overall Balance;

ANS1 + MN + E-NA = ANS 2

But, ANS 2= 14211.27

Substituting;

ANS1 + MN + E-NA = 14211.27

Balance on AN

Output = Input + Generation

0.6478 (14211.27) = 0.58 ANS 1 + (𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑂3 )*80.05

9206.06 = 0.582 ANS1 + 80.05(𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑂3 )

9206.06 0.582 𝐴𝑁𝑆 1

(𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑂3 )= −
80.05 80..05

(𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑂3 )= 115.00-0.00727 ANS1

254
Balance on 𝐻𝑁𝑂3

Input= Output + Consumption

0.004 ANS1 + 0.65 E-NA = 0.0031 ANS 2 + (𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑂3 ) 63.02

But;

(𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑂3 )= 115.0 – 0.0073 ANS1

0.004 ANS1 + 0.65 E-NA – 63.02(115-0.0073 ANS1) = 44.05

0.464 ANS1 + 0.65 E-NA = 7291.35

Balance on MN

Input= Consumption

0.6MN = n(MN)*148.3

MN = n(MN) 247.17

Balance on MN-H

Output = Generation

0.0056 ANS 2 = n(MN-H) 166.3

But MN-H = MN

0.0056 𝐴𝑁𝑆 2
N(MN) = 166.3

N(MN) = 0.0000337 ANS2

MN = 0.000037 (247.17) (14211.27)

MN = 118.37
255
Solving simultaneously

ANS1 = 10048.58

E-NA = 4044.32

EFF 2

ANP

S
RD-1 ANFP

Overall Balance;

ANFP = ANPS – EFF 2

Balance on Ammonium Nitrate

9184.70 = 0.9719 (ANPS) – 0.02 (EFF 2) → Equation 1

Balance on Ammonia

10.26 = 0.0019 (ANPS) – 0.062 (EFF 2)→ Equation 2

Solving simultaneously Equation 1 and 2;

256
ANPS = 9452.81 kg/h

EFF 2 = 124.19 kg/h

257
APPENDIX B SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ON ENERGY BALANCE

E-NA + NA

E-3
NA
E-NA

Q = ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝐻𝑖 − ∑𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝐻𝑖

80
H1 = ∫25 𝐶𝑝 (𝐻𝑁03 )𝑑𝑇

=0.931 (80-25) = 51.205 kJ/kg

80
H2 = ∫25 𝐶𝑝 (𝐻2 𝑂)𝑑𝑇

= 4.196 (80-25)

= 230.78 kJ/kg

Q= [(𝑚𝐻2 𝑜 𝐻2 )𝐸−𝑁𝐴 + (𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝐻2 )𝑁𝐴 + (𝑚𝐻𝑁𝑂3 𝐻1 )𝐸−𝑁𝐴 + (𝑚𝐻𝑁𝑂3 𝐻1 )𝑁𝐴 ]-0

Q= [(1415.51 × 230.78) + (2446.73 × 230.78) + (2628.81 × 51.21) + (4543.92 ×

51.21)]

Q= 1258607.39 kJ/h

258
Q= 1258.61 MJ/h

EV-2

Q= ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝐻𝑖 − ∑𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝐻𝑖

Q= 𝑚 × (𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛 ) + 𝑚∆𝐻𝑚

Reference;

T= 25℃ , P= 101.325 kPa

−33.34 150 −35

∆𝐻 = [𝑚 (∫ 1.996𝑑𝑇) + 1126 + ∫ 2.329 𝑑𝑇] − [∫ 2.031 𝑑𝑇]
−35 −33.4 25

∆𝐻 = [1.996 × (−33.34 − −35) + 1126 + 2.329(150 − −33.34)]

− [2.031(−35 − 25)]

∆𝐻 = 1401.015 − −121.86 = 1279.16 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄 = 𝑚∆𝐻

= 1985.51 (1522.87)

= 5758.12 MJ/h

∆𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1401.15 × 1985.51 = 2781.997 𝑀𝐽

∆𝐻𝑚 = −121.86 × 1985.51 = −241.954𝑀𝐽

259
APPENDIX C SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ON ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Sensitivity analysis calculations, CASE 3.

Capacity Annual Annual Cumulative Cash Flow,

Year Net profit
,% Product Cost Sales GH ₵
-1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 -26000000

1 80 85,213,199.5 96,481,543. -17548741.92

8,451,258.08
7 68

2 80 85,213,199.5 96,481,543. -9097483.84

8,451,258.08
7 68

3 80 85,213,199.5 96,481,543. -646225.7602

8,451,258.08
7 68

4 85 90,539,024.5 102,511,64 8333235.95

8,979,461.71
5 0.16

5 85 90,539,024.5 102,511,64 17312697.66

8,979,461.71
5 0.16

6 100 106,516,499. 120,601,92 27876770.26

10,564,072.60
47 9.60
120601929.
7 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 38440842.86
6
120601929.
8 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 49004915.46
6
120601929.
9 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 59568988.06
6
120601929.
10 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 70133060.66
6
120601929.
11 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 80697133.26
6
120601929.
12 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 91261205.86
6
120601929.
13 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 101825278.5
6
120601929.
14 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 112389351.1
6
120601929.
15 100 106516499.5 10564072.6 122953423.7
6

16 90 95,864,849.5 108,541,73 132461089

9,507,665.34
2 6.64

260
 108541736.
17 90 95864849.52 9507665.34 141968754.3
6
108541736.
18 90 95864849.52 9507665.34 151476419.7
6
108541736.
19 90 95864849.52 9507665.34 160984085
6
108541736.
20 90 95864849.52 9507665.34 170491750.4
6

21 75 79,887,374.6 90,451,447. 178414804.8

7,923,054.45
0 20
22 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 186337859.3
23 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 194260913.7
24 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 202183968.2
25 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 210107022.6
26 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 218030077.1
27 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 225953131.5
28 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 233876186
29 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 241799240.4
30 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 249722294.9
31 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 257645349.3
32 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 265568403.8
33 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 273491458.2
34 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 281414512.7
35 75 79887374.6 90451447.2 7923054.45 289337567.1

Total Net Profit 315337567.1

Over plant Life
Time
ROR 0.297241927
IROR 0.2611393
PBT 3.364262948

261