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Physics of Diagnostic Radiology

J.Jeyasugiththan PhD
Department of Nuclear Science
University of Colombo

X-ray production

ü x-rays are produced when highly energetic electrons

interact with matter.
• Converting some of their kinetic energy into
electromagnetic radiation.
• Bremsstrahlung x-rays
• Characteristic x-rays

ü Basis of Radiological Imaging:

• The differential absorption of X rays in tissues and
organs, due to their atomic composition

ü Radiation Dose
• Should be kept as low as possible.

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Projection imaging
X-ray image (Projection radiography) produces 2-D projections of a
3-D object on film. X-ray shadow inside the body onto a photographic
film or digital detector: film

body

Dark
X-Ray
source Light

bone

X-rays are travelling through soft tissues in body with little attenuation and are
only “stopped” by high density tissues such as bone.
3

Projection imaging

Black- Fully exposed areas of

film/detector (lung appear black –
because no attenuation in the
lung).

White - Dense objects block more X-rays

and so appear white.

Grey - Soft tissues like fat and muscle

result in intermediate exposure
(attenuation) and so appear grey.
Thanks IOP institute of Physics

Attenuation (lost of x-ray photons) is mainly caused by photoelectric absorption and

depend on 3
Z
E=r
E3
4

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Projection imaging
X-ray machine
(source) X-rays absorbed by
dense parts of
patients body

Need partial
attenuation Photographic plate or
digital detector

Film processing

White indicates
dense parts of body

Grey indicates less

dense regions

Thanks IOP institute of Physics 5

X-ray Spectrums

20 to 150 kV for
diagnostic imaging

x-ray spectrum is created when the electrons are decelerated by interaction

with a target material. The kinetic energy is converted into electromagnetic
radiation.
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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

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X-ray Spectrums

ü The target temperature is risen because the majority of

interactions are collision that produced heat.

ü A small fraction of the accelerated electrons approaches

the atomic nucleus and is influenced by the positive
electric field.

ü Those negative electrons are decelerated by the attractive

force and changed their direction by loosing their kinetic
energy which is emitted as X-rays of equal energy
(Bremsstrahlung radiation).

X-ray Spectrums

ü The amount of energy lost is determined by the distance

between the incident electron and the target nucleus.

ü At large distance from the nucleus, the columbic interaction

is week. So low energy x-ray photons are produced.

ü High energy x-rays are produced when the electron are

travelled near the atomic nucleus.

ü A nearly direct collision of an electron with the target

nucleus results in loss of nearly all of the electron’s
kinetic energy. In this rare situation, the highest x-ray
energies are produced.

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X-ray Spectrums

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-ray Spectrums

(a) generation of
low energy
electromagnetic
radiations (infra red,
visible, ultraviolet and
very soft X-rays). All
these are rapidly
converted into heat.

(b) production of an X-ray.

(c) Production of an X-ray

after previous interactions
that resulted only in heat
generation.

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Physics for Diagnostic Radiology

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Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
Greater probability of
low-energy x-ray photon
production which is
linearly decreased up to
maximum energy

No x-rays below
about 10 keV.

The average energy of the spectrum, which is typically 1/3 to 1/2 the
maximal energy .
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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
Bremsstrahlung radiation is a continues spectrum corresponding
to electrons is loosing different fraction of their initial kinetic
energy.

Short wavelength X-rays are

produced by electrons
loosing large kinetic energy
Loosing a small amount
of energy produced long
wave length X-rays

E = h c /l Electron looses all its

lmin = h c / Emax kinetic energy (cut off )
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X-ray Spectrums

ü In addition to the continuous spectrum discrete energy

peaks (characteristic radiation) can be presented.

ü The discrete peaks production is depending on the

elemental composition of the target materials and the
applied tube voltage.

13

X-ray Spectrums

Tungsten target

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Characteristic X-rays

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

Characteristic X-rays

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

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Characteristic X-rays

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –tube
The production of both Bremsstrahlung and Characteristic
Radiation requires energetic electrons hitting a target

Principle components
of an X ray tube are
an Electron Source
from a heated
tungsten filament with
a focusing cup serving
as the tube Cathode,
an Anode or Target
and a Tube Envelope
to maintain an interior
vacuum

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/ The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

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40 Physics for Diagnostic Radiology

Figure 2.14 (see later) also shows, on the extreme left, an autotransformer. An autotrans-
X-rays –tube
former comprises one winding only and works on the principle of self-induction. Since the
primary and secondary circuits are in contact, it cannot transform high voltages or step up
from low to high voltages. However, it does give a variable secondary output on the low
voltage side of the transformer and hence controls kV directly.

2.3.4.2 Generating Different Voltage Wave Forms

As explained in Section 2.2.5, the alternating potential must be rectified before it is applied
to an X-ray set. The X-ray tube can act as its own rectifier (self-rectification) since it will
only pass current when the anode is positive and the cathode is negative. However, this is
a very inefficient method of X-ray production because if the anode gets hot, it will start to
release electrons by thermionic emission. These electrons will be accelerated towards the
cathode filament during the half cycle when the cathode is positive and will damage the
tube. Thus the voltage supply is rectified independently.
If a gas-filled diode valve or a solid state p-n junction diode rectifier is placed in the anode
circuit, half wave rectification (Figure 2.6b) is obtained. Historically, a gas-filled diode, a
simplified X-ray tube, comprising a heated cathode filament and an anode in an evacuated
enclosure, was used. Electrons may only flow from cathode to anode but the diode differs
from the X-ray set in that it is designed so that only a small proportion of the electrons
boiled off the cathode travel to the anode. In terms of Figure 2.22 (see later), which shows
the effect of tube kilovoltage on tube current, the diode operates on the rapidly rising por-
tion of the curve, whereas the X-ray tube operates on the near-saturation portion.
The design and mode of operation of a p-n junction diode will be considered in Section
4.7.2
The when
essential itsmedical
physics of useimaging
as a/ Jerrold
radiation detector
T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed. is discussed. It has many advantages over19
the
gas-filled diode as a rectifier, including its small size, long working lifetime, and robust-
ness. It is also easy to manufacture in bulk, is inexpensive, requires no filament heating
circuit, has a low heat dissipation and a fast response time. For rectification, silicon recti-
fiers have a number of advantages over selenium, including a negligible forward voltage
drop and a very high reverse resistance resulting in negligible reverse current flow. They
can also withstand high reverse bias voltages so only a few hundred silicon rectifiers are
required rather than a few thousand
Generating Different if madeVoltage
of selenium, and they
Wave can work up to 200°C
Forms
if required.
The essential features of a full wave rectified supply are shown in Figure 2.11.

AC
voltage Anode
supply Bridge
X-ray tube
of four
rectifiers Cathode

FIGURE 2.11
Essential features of a full wave rectified supply. (Solid) and (dotted) arrows show that irrespective of whether
A or B is at aThe alternating
positive potential
potential, the must be
current always rectified
flows through before
the X-rayittube
is applied to direction.
in the same
an X-ray set

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

10
 increased by a factor of 100, say from 50 Hz to 5 kHz, nA may be reduced by a
similar amount. Since the efficiency has been improved the transformer is much
smaller, perhaps one-tenth the size of a three phase 12 peak generator.
4. Rapid response—The high voltage is switched on and off, and its level may be regu-
6/18/21
lated even during exposure, under feed-back control of the inverter. The rise time
of the tube voltage can be less than 200 μs.
5. Long-term stability—The tube current is more stable at the higher frequency f 2 and
is independent of the voltage.
6. Timer precision—The precision of the exposure timer can be improved.
7. Voltage range—The generator Frequency
may be usedConverter
across the full kV range from mammog-
raphy to CT.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Rectifer Inverting rectifier

u1 f1 u0 u2 f2

Converter

• Full wave rectification of the line AC voltage u1 at frequency f1.

FIGURE 2.12
42 • This provides a DC voltage u (after smoothing).Physics for Diagnostic Radiology
Schematic representation of frequency converter. 0
• Rapid chopping of this DC voltage by the inverter to provide an
alternating voltage u2 comparable to u1 at a much higher
frequency f2.
2.3.4.4 Action of Smoothing
• A high frequencyCapacitors
transformer now transforms this to a higher
A capacitor involtage
parallelu3with
and, the
afterX-ray
againunit
being rectified
will help toand smoothed
smooth thisvariations in applied
out any
voltage
potential (Figure is fed to the X-ray tube .
2.13).
Consider, for example, the full wave rectified supply shown in Figure 2.6c. When elec-
trons are flowing from the bridge circuit, some of them flow onto the capacitor plates and
are stored there. When the potential across the bridge circuit falls to zero, electrons
The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.
21 flow
from the capacitor to maintain the current through the X-ray tube.
Voltage ripple (Section 2.2.5) has decreased considerably as generator design has
improved—see Table 2.2.

2.3.4.5 Tube Kilovoltage and Tube Current Meters

These are essential components
capacitoroffor thevoltage
circuit and are shown in relation to other com-
smoothing
ponents in Figure 2.14. Note that the voltmeter is placed in the primary circuit so that
a reading may be obtained before the exposure key is closed. There are two ammeters.

+ +
Bridge V X-ray
Capacitor
circuit volts tube
– –

Flow of electrons

+ +
Bridge
Zero volts Capacitor
circuit
– –

Flow of electrons

FIGURE 2.13 22
The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.
Illustration of the use of a capacitor for voltage smoothing. For explanation see text.

TABLE 2.2
Nominal Values of Voltage Ripple for Different Generators
Voltage Wave Form Ripple (%)
Half wave/full wave 100
Full wave + capacitor smoothing 20 11
Three phase – 6 pulse unsmoothed 15
Three phase – 12 pulse unsmoothed 6
High frequency generatora (typical) 1–4
High frequency generatora (attainable but expensive) 0.1
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Tube Kilovoltage and Tube Current Meters

Production of X-Rays 43

Exposure switch

V
Mains in AC Earthed
414 V
KV
AF
selector
Autotransformer Transformer mA control
Timer
Filament
supply volts

FIGURE 2.14
Simplified representation of the position of kV and current meters in the electrical circuit.

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.
AF measures the filament supply current (IF) which may be adjusted to give the required
thermionic emission before exposure starts. The actual tube current flowing during expo-
sure (Ic) is measured by ammeter Ac.

2.3.5 The Tube Envelope and Housing

2.3.5.1 The Envelope X-rays –Cathode
The envelope must be strong enough to withstand atmospheric pressure, resistant to the
considerable amount of heat produced by the anode and able to transfer this heat away
The Filament is heated by a current that controls the thermionic
efficiently. Historically, it was constructed from thick-walled borosilicate glass under very
emission of electrons, which in turn determines the number of
clean conditions to a high precision so as to provide adequate insulation between the cath-
electrons flowing from cathode to anode (Tube or Anode
ode and anode. The X-rays were emitted through a thinner glass window.
In modernCurrent)
tubes the envelope is frequently metal-walled. These tubes are more compact,
e.g. <10 mA in fluoroscopy and 100 to 1000 mA in single exposures
have greater mechanical stability, have ceramic material to provide better electrical insula-
tion betweenThe theaccelerating
anode/cathode connections
Potential Difference and have good between
applied absorption of X-rays not pass-
ing through the window—now beryllium or titanium. They are also more efficient heat
cathode and anode controls both X ray energy and yield
exchangers because of a high absorption coefficient for radiation on the vacuum side and good
e.g. 40 to 150 kV for general diagnostic radiology and 25 to 40 kV in mammography
conductivity.
Thus Two main circuits operate within the XRT:
Insight
§ Filament circuit
Borosilicate Glass versus Metal/Ceramic Envelope
§ Tube voltage circuit
Glass tubes are more likely to break during manufacture and it is difficult to adjust mechanical
tolerances inside the glass housing. However, they are cheaper and so are still used24for standard
Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/ The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.
applications, that is, radiography with smaller power demands.
Metal/ceramic envelopes allow better mechanical precision, less manufacturing wastage and
can resist larger mechanical stress. The stress tolerance is particularly important in CT and fast-
moving 3D imaging in angiography.

The envelope also provides a vacuum seal to the metallic components that protrude 12
through it. Great care must be taken at the manufacturing stage to achieve a very high
level of vacuum before the tube is finally sealed. The electrons have a mean free path of
several metres. If residual gas molecules are bombarded by electrons, the electrons may
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X-rays –Cathode

The numbers of
electrons are adjusted
by the filament
current and filament
temperature.

Small changes in
the filament current
can produce relatively
large changes in tube
current .

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –Cathode

Above 40 kV, the filament current limits the tube current, below 40 KV,
further increases in filament current do not increase the tube
current
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X-rays –Cathode

For high anode voltages all electrons boiled off the filament
are accelerated to the anode giving an anode current fairly
independent of tube voltage (saturation current)

Tube current IA vs. tube

voltage UA depending on
filament current If

Note: current saturation occurs for

the lower filament currents

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/

X-rays –Cathode

Unbiased

In most x-ray tubes,

the focusing cup is
maintained at the
same potential
difference as the
filament relative to
the anode .

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X-rays –Cathode
Biased
Focusing cup totally insulated from
the filament wires (its voltage is
independent of the filament).

With an increasing negative bias

voltage at the focusing cup the focus
size will decrease and finally the
electron current will be pinched Off

Effect is sometimes used to

electronically control the focus size
or for a fast switching of the anode
current (Grid Controlled Tubes) when
short radiation pulses are required
as in pulsed fluoroscopy

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/ The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –Cathode

Grid-biased
A greater negative applied voltage (about -
4,000 V) to the focusing cup actually stops
the flow of electrons, providing a means to
rapidly switch the x-ray beam on and off

Grid-biased x-ray tube switching is used

in more expensive fluoroscopy systems
for pulsed fluoroscopy and angiography
to rapidly and precisely turn on and turn
off the x-ray beam.

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X-rays –Anode

Choice of Material
For common radiographic applications a high Bremsstrahlung
yield is mandatory requiring materials with high atomic
numbers (Z)

Additionally, due to the low efficiency of X ray production it is

also essential that the thermal properties such as Maximum
Useful Temperature determined by melting point and vapour
pressure, heat conduction, specific heat and density are also
considered

Tungsten (Z=74) is the optimum choice

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X-rays –Anode

Choice of Material
For Mammography other anode materials such as
molybdenum (Z=42) and rhodium (Z=45) are frequently used

For such anodes X ray spectra show less contribution by

Bremsstrahlung but rather dominant Characteristic X rays
of the anode materials
Allows a more satisfactory Optimization
of image quality and patient dose
In Digital Mammography these advantages are less
significant and some manufacturers prefer tungsten anodes

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X-rays –Anode
Anode Configuration: Stationary

An X ray tube with a Stationary Anode is applicable for X ray

examinations such as dental units, portable X ray units and
mobile fluoroscopy systems (required only a low anode current
or infrequent low power exposures ). The stationary anode
limits the tube current and x-ray output that can be sustained
without damage from excessive temperature

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/ The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –Anode

Anode Configuration: Stationary

Copper serves a dual role:

ü It mechanically supports the insert

ü Efficiently conducts heat from the tungsten target
(to dissipate the heat efficiently to the surrounding
cooling medium)

With stationary anodes and the same spot higher anode

currents leads to Melting and Destruction of the anode

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X-rays –Anode

Anode Configuration: Rotating

ü Rotating anodes are used for most diagnostic x-ray

applications, mainly because of greater heat loading
and higher x-ray intensity output.
ü This design spreads the heat over a much larger area
than does the stationary anode design,
ü permitting much larger tube currents and exposure
durations.
ü Rotation speeds are 3,000 to 3,600 (low speed) or
9,000 to 10,000 (high speed) revolutions per minute
(rpm).

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –Anode

Anode Configuration: Rotating

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X-rays –Anode
Focal spot
For measurement purposes the Focal Spot Size is defined along the
central beam projection

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/ The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –Anode
Focal spot

The actual focal spot size:

• Area on the anode that is struck by electrons

• It is primarily determined by the length of the cathode

filament and the width of the focusing cup slot.

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X-rays –Anode
Large Focal spot

ü A larger focal spot allows a greater x-ray beam

intensity (high x-ray output) and short exposure
time.

ü But causes a loss of spatial resolution that increases

with distance of the imaged object from the image
receptor.

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –Anode
Anode angle

ü The angle of the target surface with respect to the

central ray (central axis) in the x-ray field.
ü Anode angles in diagnostic x-ray tubes typically
range from 7 to 20 degrees,
ü 12- to 15-degree angles being most common.
ü Major factors affected by the anode angle
• effective focal spot size,
• tube output intensity
• x-ray field coverage

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/ The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

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X-rays –Anode
Anode angle

41

X-rays –Heel Effect

The reduction in
the x-ray beam
intensity toward the
anode side of the x-
ray field is called
heel effect.

It caused by the
greater attenuation
of x-rays in the
anode side of the
field by the anode
itself .

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

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X-rays –Heel Effect

Since the x-ray beam intensity is greater on the cathode side of the
field, the orientation of the x-ray tube cathode over thicker parts of
the patient can result in a better balance of x-ray photons transmitted
through the patient and onto the image receptor.

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students

X-rays
X-ray Tube Insert
It contains the cathode, anode, rotor assembly, and support
structures sealed in a glass or metal enclosure under a high
vacuum.

The high vacuum prevents electrons from colliding with

gas molecules.

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X-rays –Tube Envelope

The x-ray tube housing supports, insulates, and protects the x-ray tube
insert from the environment. Between the x-ray tube insert and housing
is oil that provides heat conduction and electrical insulation.

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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed./ https://www.worthpoint.com

X-rays –Tube Envelope

Lead shielding inside the housing attenuates nearly all

x-rays that are not directed to the tube port.

Except for mammography and special-purpose x-ray

tubes, the port is typically made of the same material as
the tube enclosure (To reduce absorption the Thickness
of the glass is reduced in this area).

Mammography tubes use beryllium (Z = 4) in the port

to minimize absorption of the low-energy x-rays used
in mammography.

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X-rays –Tube Envelope

ü The change of the oil volume with varying temperature is taken

care of by the Expansion Bellows.

ü The oil carries the heat away to the housing by convection

sometimes enhanced by Forced Cooling with a ventilator or heat
exchangers.

ü The housing also provides Radiation Shielding to prevent any

radiation except the primary beam from leaving the housing

ü The inside of the housing is lined with Lead Sheets to minimize

leakage radiation

ü The maximum acceptable exposure due to Leakage Radiation is

limited by regulation (100 mR/h at 1 m from the focal spot ).

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Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students/ The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed.

X-rays –Collimators

Collimators adjust the size and shape of the x-ray field

emerging from the tube port.
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The essential physics of medical imaging / Jerrold T. Bushberg. — 3rd ed./

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Filtering

— Low energy x-rays do not contribute to the formation of an

x-ray image. We need to eliminate this additional
radiation.

— The process of removing theses low-energy x-rays from

the beam is know as filtration.

— This increases the average energy (quality) of the x-ray

beam.

— There are two type of filtering

Inherent filtering
Added filtering

Inherent filtering

— Beryllium window of the X-ray tube / Glass (Sio2) and

Aluminum casing.

— Both Glass (Sio2) and Aluminum have similar attenuation

property (Z= 14 and 13 respectively) .

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Inherent filtering

X rays generated in the anode pass various Attenuating

materials before leaving the tube housing, including:

§ Anode
§ Tube envelope exit port (glass or metal)
§ Insulating oil
§ Window of the tube housing

This Inherent Filtration is measured in aluminum equivalents

in units of mm Al

Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students

Inherent filtering

ü Aluminum does not perfectly mimic the atomic

composition of the attenuating materials present.
ü Thus measurement of the Al Equivalent is usually
made at 80 kVp (or otherwise the kVp settings
should be stated).
ü Typically the inherent filtration ranges from 0.5-1
mm Al.
ü The mirror and the window in the collimator
housing also contribute to inherent filtration with
an Al-equivalent of ~1 mm.

Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students

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Added filtering

ü Since filtration effectively reduces the low-energy

component in the X ray spectrum, a minimum Total
Filtration of at least 2.5 mm Al is required to reduce
unnecessary patient dose.

ü Additional Filter material is positioned between tube

window and collimation assembly as required.

ü Typical filter materials such as Aluminum or Copper.

Review of Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students

Added filtering

— This is the additional component of aluminum disks placed

in the path of the x-ray beam.

— This disks remove the x-rays that had enough energy to get
through the inherent filtration but are still not energetic to
contribute to image formation.

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Added filtering

ü Individual filters may be Manually selected on some units

ü In modern fluoroscopy units filters are inserted

Automatically depending on the examination program
chosen

ü The Effect of added filtration on the X ray output is an

increase in the mean photon energy and HVL of the beam

ü As the X rays become more penetrating less incident dose

at the patient entrance is required to obtain the same dose at
the image receptor giving a Patient Dose Reduction

Beam filtering

Lower energy photons contribute to radiation dose but not the image quality and can
filter with thin (1-2mm) plate of material (Al or Cu).

56

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Added filtering

ü Since image contrast is higher for low-energy X rays, the

addition of filters Reduces Image Contrast and optimum
conditions must be established depending on the type of
examination.

ü Added filtration also Increases Tube Loading as the tube

output is reduced and must be compensated for by an
increase in mAs to obtain the image receptor dose required.

ü In Mammography special provisions concerning filtration

are required to obtain the optimum radiation qualities

X-ray tube

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Factors affecting X-ray emission

The target (anode) material :
affects the efficiency of bremsstrahlung radiation production, roughly
proportional to Z2. Incident electrons are more likely to have radiative
interactions in higher-Z materials . The energies of characteristic x-rays
produced in the targetdepend on the target material.

Increases with the use of

X-ray targets made of high
atomic number (Z)
materials. X-ray output
generally increases in the
total number of photons
produced. Characteristic
X-ray photons with higher
energies are also produced
using a target material with
higher Z.

59

Factors affecting X-ray emission

Tube voltage (kVp) : determines the maximum energy in the bremsstrahlung
2 • X-ray Production 15
spectrum . An increase in kVp increases the efficiency of x-ray production
and the quantity and qualitytheofappearance
voltage. Increasing the kV may result in the x-ray beam
of more
characteristic X-ray photons and the shifting of the mean photon
energy to higher energy (keV) (see Figure 2.6). The relationship
Changing tube voltage changes
Increased kVp
the total number of photons
emitted (quantity) and the photon
energies (quality). This is
because although the number of
Number of photons

bombarding electrons is the

same, the probability of X-ray
production increases with
50 kVp
100 kVp
increased tube voltage.
Increasing the kV may result in
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
the appearance of more
Energy (keV) characteristic X-ray photons
FIGURE 2.6 Effect of increasing tube voltage on X-ray output. and the shifting of the mean
photon energy to higher
Exposure
Increased mA
¥ kVp2 energy (keV).
60
Number of photons

600 mA
300 mA

30
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Energy (keV)

FIGURE 2.7 Effect of increasing tube current on X-ray output.

 2 • X-ray Production 15

voltage. Increasing the kV may result in the appearance of more

characteristic X-ray photons and the shifting of the mean photon
energy to higher energy (keV) (see Figure 2.6). The relationship

Increased kVp
6/18/21

Number of photons
Factors affecting X-ray emission 100 kVp
50 kVp

The tube current (mA) - equal to the number of electrons flowing from the
cathode10 to20the 30anode
40 per
50 unit
60 time.
70 80 The
90 exposure
100 of the beam for a given kVp
Energy (keV)
and filtration is proportional to the tube current.
FIGURE 2.6 Effect of increasing tube voltage on X-ray output.

Increasing the tube current

Increased mA Exposure ∞ "# results in an increase of the
amount of electrons used to
produce X-rays. Thus, there
Number of photons

is an increase in the
quantity of the electrons as
well as the X-ray photons
produced. The X-ray
600 mA
300 mA quality remains essentially
the same, i.e. the maximum
photon energy and the
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Energy (keV) effective photon energy
FIGURE 2.7 Effect of increasing tube current on X-ray output.
remains unchanged.

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9781482239959_C002 Page 15 23/04/18 3:16 PM

Factors affecting X-ray emission

The exposure time - the duration of x-ray production. The quantity of

x-rays is directly proportional to the product of tube current and
exposure time (mAs). Time of exposure determines the number of
electrons striking the anode. The number of X-ray photon increases
with longer exposure time

Exposure ∞ Exposure time

62

31
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Factors affecting X-ray emission

Filtration- With increased

filtration, the number of X-
ray photons is reduced and
the mean energy of the X-ray
energy spectrum shifts to a
higher energy. This is
because a proportion of the
low energy photons is
attenuated or filtered.

63

Radiographic Grid

— When the primary x-rays

interacts with the patient, X-
rays are scattered from the
patient in all directions.

— Theses scattered radiation

decreases the image contrast
and image quality.

— Grid is placed between the

patient and image receptors.

— Cleans up scattered radiation

through absorption.

32
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Radiographic Grid

— Interspaced material is a radiolucent materials such as

Aluminium, plastic or carbon fiber (lower atomic materials).

— Lead, tungsten, platinum or gold is used for strips (high

atomic number materials.

Radiographic Grid

Image contrast:
Difference in optical
density between
adjacent structures.

— Grid ratio h/D is affected by changing height of the grid (h),

width of the interspace (D) or thickness of scripts (T).

— Higher ration grid absorbed more scattered radiation (therefore

high contrast image is obtained) then low ratio grid.

33