Course note based on:

Medical Imaging Signals and Systems,

J.L. Prince and J.M. Links,
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.

Part II

Radiographic Imaging
(X-ray Imaging)

• Projection radiography
• Computed tomography

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BIOM5200 / BMG5200 / SYSC5304 / ELG5127 - Biomedical Image Processing (Y. Ono, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON)
 Overview
1895: Roentgen discovered x-rays  Birth of medical imaging

• X-ray projection radiography

• X-ray computed tomography (CT)
Anatomical imaging
• Transmission of ionizing radiation (x-ray) through the body.
• Intensity of transmitted radiation is decreased or attenuated. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
• Attenuation depends on tissue or organ properties. (1845-1923)
(http://www.uni-giessen.de/cms)

Ionizing radiation
beam (x-ray)

X-ray Radiation
tube detector
Body

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BIOM5200 / BMG5200 / SYSC5304 / ELG5127 - Biomedical Image Processing (Y. Ono, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON)
 Transmission Radiographic Images
Projection
radiograph CT Projection
CT
radiograph

Spine

Lung with multiple metastasizes of cancer

With contrast agent

to enhance blood vessel image

Projection radiography:
• Most commonly performed
CT:
• Cross-sectional (transaxial) image
Projection radiograph • Free from superimposition
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BIOM5200 / BMG5200 / SYSC5304 / ELG5127 - Biomedical Image Processing (Y. Ono, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON)
 Chapter 4

Physics of Radiography

What is x-ray?

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 Atomic Structure

Atom Nucleus

Carbon atom
Z: atomic number
= number of protons

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 Ionization
X-ray is electromagnetic wave like light but having a feature of ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation: radiation capable of ejecting electrons from atoms

Two types of ionizing radiation:

• Electromagnetic radiation: x-ray, gamma ray (wave and photon)
• Particulate radiation: proton, neutron, electron (particle) beam if it possess
enough energy to ionize an atom

In x-ray imaging modalities:

• X-ray is used for imaging
(Electromagnetic radiation)
• Electron beam is used to
produce x-rays (Particulate
Ionizing
radiation)

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 Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation can act like as a particle (photon) or a wave

radiation

light

x-rays

103:kHz, 106:MHz, 109:GHz, 1012:THz,

1015:PHz, 1018:EHz, 1021:ZHz, 1024:YHz Ionizing radiation

Note:
• By convention, radiation with energy ≥ 13.6 eV (binding energy of an electron in a
hydrogen atom) is considered ionizing radiation. Thus, ultraviolet light with energy
greater than 13.6 eV (its frequency >3.284 x 1015Hz) is also ionizing radiation.
• X-rays and gamma rays are distinguished by their point of origin, but not by their
frequencies or energies. X-rays are created in the electron cloud of the atom while
gamma rays in the nucleus due to radioactive decay (more in Ch.7).
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BIOM5200 / BMG5200 / SYSC5304 / ELG5127 - Biomedical Image Processing (Y. Ono, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON)
 Energetic Electron
(Particulate Radiation) Interactions
How x-ray produced for radiography?
What happens in x-ray tube?
Energetic
electron
Collision Heat
(infrared)

Radiative transfer

X-ray
Radiative
transfer Bremsstrahlung:
Primary source of
x-rays from x-ray
tube

X-ray
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 X-ray Spectrum

X-rays created by x-ray tube with tungsten target (anode)

Anode/cathode
Potential [keV]
120
100
80
61
45

(Frequency)

Note:
• Highest x-ray photon energy is equal to anode-cathode potential.
• Highest energies are produced by rare direct collisions between energetic electrons and nuclei.
• Low energy x-rays are absorbed by the x-ray tube medium.
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 Electromagnetic Radiation Interactions
X-ray interaction with materials (tissues) for medical imaging applications

Incident photon ejects an

(1) Photoelectric effect electron at a K-shell,
Materials
called “photoelectron”
(Tissues) (energetic electron).

X-rays The hole at K-shell is filled by an

electron at higher-orbit, which
produces characteristic radiation.

(Energetic electron)

Characteristic radiation in (a) further

transfers its energy to outer-orbit
electron and produce “Auger electron”
(energetic electron).

Energy of incident photon is completely absorbed, and transferred

to photoelectron and characteristic radiation.

Primary mechanism for image contrast

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 Electromagnetic Radiation Interactions
X-ray interaction with materials (tissues) for medical imaging applications

(2) Compton scattering Materials

(Tissues) Incident photon ejects an
electron at outer-orbit (valence
electron), resulting in “Compton
X-rays electron” (energetic electron).

Incident photon loses its energy

and changes its direction.
Scattered photon is called
“Compton photon”.

Compton electron is produced and incident

photon is scattered as Compton photon.

Primary mechanism for limiting image resolution

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BIOM5200 / BMG5200 / SYSC5304 / ELG5127 - Biomedical Image Processing (Y. Ono, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON)
 Intensity of X-ray
In radiography, a brief burst of x-rays (x-ray beam) is used. Strength of
x-ray burst is the concern in terms of: imaging quality (noise, SNR),
dynamic range of detectors, biological effect (risk of cancer).

Intensity of x-ray beam:


I  E   E ' S ( E ' )dE ' (energy/area/time)
0

E   : Energy of photon (ħ: Planck's constant, ν: frequency )

N
 : Photon fluence rate N: number of photons, A: area
At t: time interval
S(E) : X-ray line spectrum (line-density/area/time)

Note:
• X-ray photon (bremsstrahlung) burst is polyenergetic and each photon
carries discrete energy (giving a line spectrum of N as a function of E).
• In practice, photons are not counted but their total energy is measured
in x-ray imaging.
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Attenuation of X-ray (Monoenergetic Photons)
Monoenergetic beam: Assuming that all the photons have the same energy

Homogeneous slab

Fundamental photon attenuation law:

N  N 0 e  x
N0: numb of photons at x=0
: linear attenuation coefficient
Detected intensity:
I  I 0 e  x
Some photons are lost due to (I0: intensity of incident beam)
photoelectric effect and Compton
scattering, and do not reach to Inhomogeneous slab (human body!)

 
detector.
x
I ( x)  I 0 exp    ( x' )dx'
0

Important physical model for

projection radiography and CT
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Attenuation of X-ray (Polyenergetic Photons)

Polyenergetic beam:
Photons have different energies.

linear attenuation coefficient is

energy (frequency) dependent


• Homogeneous slab: I   S 0 ( E ' ) E ' exp  ( E ' )xdE '
0

• Inhomogeneous slab: I ( x) 
0

 x
S 0 ( E ' ) E ' exp    ( x' ; E ' )dx' dE '
0

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 Radiation Dosimetry (Exposure)

Biological effects of radiation Radiation dose

Exposure X [C/kg] (C: coulombs), or [R] (roentgen):

• The number of ion pairs produced in a specific volume of air

by electromagnetic radiation.

• 1 C/kg=3876 R.

• Natural background exposure is from 17 μR/h to 1.1 mR/h.

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 Radiation Dosimetry (Dose)

■ Dose D [rad] (radiation absorption dose), or [Gy] (gray):

• Absorption of energy into a material when ionizing EM radiation passes

through the material by photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.

• 1 Gy=1 J/kg=100 rads

• Kerma K [Gy] is equivalent to dose D in diagnostic x-ray.

■ Linear energy transfer (LET) [keV/μm]:

• Energy transferred by radiation to the material thought which it is passing

per unit length.

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 Radiation Dosimetry (f-Factor)
■ f-Factor:

• Absorbed dose depends on tissue types.

• In air, exposure X of 1 R = dose D of

0.87 rad.

• For a material other than air, f-factor is

used as a conversion: D=fX

( en /  ) material
f  0.87
( en /  ) air

μen: energy-absorption coefficient

ρ: mass density
C.H. McCollough, “The AAPM/RSNA physics tutorial
(μen/ρ): mass energy-absorption coefficient for residents,” Imaging & Therapeutic Technology,
Vol.17, pp.967-984, 1997.

Note: energy-absorption (not attenuation) coefficient should be used.

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 X-ray Mass Attenuation and
Energy-absorption Coefficients

Mass Attenuation Coefficient ()

(Absorption + Scattering)

Mass Energy-absorption
Coefficient (en)

http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/XrayMassCoef/tab4.html 18
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 Radiation Dosimetry (Dose Equivalent)

■ Dose equivalent H [rems] (roentgen equivalent in man), or [Sv] (sievert)

• H=DQ (Q: quality factor)

• Different types of ionizing radiation (from cosmetic rays, radioactivity in soil

or from our body) have different effects on the body.

• Q≈1: x-rays, gamma rays, beta particles

Q≈10: neutrons and protons,
Q≈20: alpha particles

• Q≈1 for radiation used in medical imaging.

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 Radiation Dosimetry (Effective Dose)

■ Effective dose Deffective [rems]

• Different tissues have different effects by the same dose.

• Radiation risk when whole body is irradiated uniformly.

Deffective  H w
organs
j j , where w
organs
j 1

Hj: dose equivalent for organ j, wj: weighting factor for organ j

• Annual Deffective ≈300 mrems, typical chest x-ray≈10 mrems

• Any dose of radiation increases the risk of cancer. Medical benefit over any
potential risk must to be discussed before the imaging procedure.

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Tissue weighting factors for effective dose

http://trshare.triumf.ca/~safety/EHS/rpt/rpt_3/node9.html#wt

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 Radiation Dosimetry (Example)
Example 4.7 (Textbook, p130)
Consider a chest x-ray at an energy of 20keV. What should be
the limit on the exposure X [R], in order to keep the absorbed
dose D below 10 mrads (=0.01 rads)?

Note: energy-absorption (not attenuation) coefficient should be used here.

At 20keV, the mass attenuation coefficients

(μ/ρ) of air and lung are 0.78 and 0.83 cm2/g,
respectively.

( / ) lung 0.83
D  fX  0.87 X  0.87 X  0.01 rads
( / ) air 0.78
4.001

Therefore, X  10.8 mR

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Radiation doses from various types of medical imaging procedures

Type of Procedure Average Adult Estimated Dose

Effective Dose Equivalent
(mSv) (No. of Chest X-rays)
Dental X-ray 0.005-0.01 0.25-0.5
Chest X-ray 0.02 1
Mammography 0.4 20
CT 2-16 100-800
Nuclear medicine 0.2-41 10-2050
Interventional fluoroscopy 5-70 250-3500

http://www.ikomed.com/technology/radiation-from-medical-imaging/

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 Summary
• Ionization radiation has sufficient energy to produce ionization which is the
ejection of an orbiting electron from an atom.

• Ionizing radiation may be particulate or electromagnetic; the interest in

medical imaging are x-rays, gamma rays, energetic electrons, and positron.

• Particulate ionizing radiation transfer energy via collision transfer and radiative
transfer which results in characteristic x-rays and bremsstrahlung x-rays.

• Electromagnetic ionizing radiation transfers energy in medical imaging via

photoelectric effect or Compton scattering.

• Intensity of an electromagnetic radiation beam passing though a material is

reduced because of linear attenuation coefficient which depends on
characteristics of the material and photon energy.

• Radiation dose to tissues is characterized by effective dose, which includes

considerations of deposited energy, biological effectiveness of given ionizing
radiation and the relative radiosensitivity of different tissues.
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