YILDIZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARITIME FACULTY

DEPARTMENT OF
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING

LNG TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT IN MARINE APPLICATIONS

130A1027
SUAT ADNAR

DANIŞMANNURTEN BAYRAK

RESEARCH PROJECT 1

ADVISER
Assist. Prof. Dr. AYKUT SAFA

İSTANBUL, 2011DANIŞMAN
DOÇ. DR. SALİM YÜCE

ISTANBUL, 2015
 FOREWORD

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Assist. Prof. Dr. Aykut Safa who enables
me to work on this topic. His guidance and motivation leads me to learn the present
topic and finish the thesis on time.

May, 2015

Suat Adnar
CONTENTS

page

FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................... ii

CONTENTS......................................................................................................................... 2

SYMBOL LIST ..................................................................................................................... 4

ABBREVIATIONS LIST ........................................................................................................ 5

FIGURE LIST ....................................................................................................................... 6

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... 8

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Alternate Energy Sources ........................................................................... 9

1.2 Environmental Energy Sources ................................................................. 10

2. NATURAL GAS ........................................................................................................... 10

2.1 Advantages of Natural Gas ....................................................................... 11

2.2 Detection of Natural Gas .......................................................................... 13

3. GAS PRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 15

4. LIQUEFACTION .......................................................................................................... 18

5. TRANSPORTATION OF LNG ....................................................................................... 19

5.1. LNG Carriers .............................................................................................. 19

5.1.1. Tank Types …………………………………………………………………………….…20

5.1.1.1. The Membrane Tanks……………………………………………………21

5.1.1.1.1. GTT 96 Membrane Tank System..……………….……….22

5.1.1.1.2. Mark III Membrane Tank System.………………………..23

5.1.1.1.3. The Semi-Membrane Tank System….……………….….24

5.1.1.2. Independent Types ……..………………………………………………25

5.1.1.2.1. Type-A Containment System….……………………….……25

 5.1.1.2.2. Type-B Containment System……...………………………..26

6. OFFSHORE LNG TRANSFER ........................................................................................ 28

6.1. Near Shore Terminal ................................................................................. 28

6.1.1. Medium Waterdepth Terminal…………………………………………………29

6.1.2. Shallow Waterdepth Terminal……………………………………….…………32

6.1.3. Offshore Re-Gasification Dock…………………..……….……………………33

6.2. Export From Production Barge…….…………………………………………………….…..36

6.2.1 Tandem Configuration…………..…..…………………………………………….36

6.2.2 Side-by-side Configuration…………..…………………………..………………37

6.2.3 Deepwater Remote SPM Dock……..…………………………………..………38

6.3 Fluid Handling System…………………………………………………………………..………..39

7. RELIQUEFACTION ...................................................................................................... 40

8. STORAGE ................................................................................................................... 43

9. REGASIFICATION ....................................................................................................... 43

10. SOME REGULATİONS AND FILLING LIMITS FOR LNG TRANSPORT ........................... 44

10.1 Shipping Safety Record ............................................................................. 44

10.2 About LNG Ships ....................................................................................... 44
10.3 General Operational and Safety Facts ...................................................... 47
10.4 Shipping Security ...................................................................................... 48
10.5 Shipping Safety Zones ............................................................................... 50
10.6 Filling Limits for LNG ................................................................................. 51

11. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 54

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 56

CURRICULUM VITAE ....................................................................................................... 58

2
SYMBOL LIST

LL loading limit expressed in percent, which means themaximum allowable liquid

volume relative to the tank volume to which the tank may be loaded

FL filling limit

ρR relative density of cargo at the reference temperature

ρL relative density of cargo at the loading temperature and pressure

3
ABBREVIATIONS LIST

LNG Liquefied Natural Gas

BOG Boil-off Gas
GTT Gas Transport and Technigaz
IMO International Marine Organization
ISM International Safety Management
GDP Gross Domestic Product

4
FIGURE LIST

Figure 2.1 Creation of Natural Oil and Gas. .................................................................... 10

Figure 2.2 Efficient Diagram. .......................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.3 Labour Principle of Siesmic Surveys .............................................................. 13
Figure 2.4 LNG Processing Flow Diagram. ...................................................................... 14
Figure 3.1 Reachable Waterdepth Gas Production Plants. ............................................ 16
Figure 3.2 Deeper Water Depth Gas Production Plants. ................................................ 17
Figure 4.1 Separating and Liquefying the Raw Natural Gas Flow Diagram. ................... 18
Figure 5.1 Definiation of Elements. ................................................................................ 21
Figure 5.2 Thermal Layers of GTT 96 Membrane System............................................... 22
Figure 5.3 An Inside View of NO96 Membrane Tank System. ........................................ 22
Figure 5.4 Mark III Membrane System. .......................................................................... 23
Figure 5.5 78000 m3 LNG carrier with Type-A tanks. ..................................................... 24
Figure 5.6 Liquid Methane Carrier – Type A. .................................................................. 25
Figure 5.7 137000 m3 LNG carrier with Type-B tanks (Kvaerner Moss system) ........... 25
Figure 5.8 Kvaerner-Moss spherical tank. ...................................................................... 26
Figure 6.1 Design Consept for LNG transfer. .................................................................. 27
Figure 6.2 Medium Waterdepth “Big Sweep” Terminal. ................................................ 31
Figure 6.3 Shallow Waterdepth ‘Big Sweep’ Terminal ................................................... 32
Figure 6.4 Offshore Re-Gasification Dock. ...................................................................... 34
Figure 6.5 Berthing of LNG Carrier into Offshore Dock. ................................................. 34
Figure 6.6 ‘Big Sweep’ for Tandem Export from FLNG Barge. ........................................ 36
Figure 6.7 ‘Side by Side’ Transfer from FLNG Barge ....................................................... 37
Figure 6.8 Deepwater Remote SPM Dock ...................................................................... 38
Figure 6.9 Manipulator for LNG Transfer Hose .............................................................. 40
Figure 7.1 Process Flow diagram of a re-liquefaction system ........................................ 41
Figure 7.2 Typical arrangement of a LNG Re-liquefaction System ................................. 42

5
Figure 10.1 Example LNG carrier types (top – Moss sphere design; below – membrane
design) (Source: BV 2009) ............................................................................................... 45
Figure 10.2 Example tanker safety construction requirements for LNG transport at sea
(Source: BP Shipping) ...................................................................................................... 48

6
 LNG TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT IN MARINE APPLICATION

Suat ADNAR

Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

Advisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Aykut Safa

The present research project is on transfer and transportation of LNG. It is mainly

aiming to details and explains the LNG transfer and transportation processes, flow and
point out some of relevant standards.

7
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Alternate Energy Sources

With growing concerns over the growing pollution, there has been an exhaustive
search made for means of alternative energy. This has included tapping most of the
renewable resources of the Earth and using growing technological awareness to create
less pollution. As of now, there are eight different types of such energy that we know
of and use.

However, these sources of energy were not always the alternative sources. We look
for energy that can help to replace the use of coal and petroleum. These were
considered to be alternative sources of energy for other forms of fuels not so long ago.
Coal became popular when it replaced wood as the main source of fire and fuel.
Petroleum was used in place of whale oil, which had caused rampant whale killing in
the 19th century. Both of these were utilized a great deal before it was realized that
they were responsible for pollution and damage to the economy. However, the need
for means of alternative energy reached a tipping point when these fuels started to
become difficult to find.

Various Alternate Energy Sources are as follows ,

Solar Power
Wind Power
Nuclear Energy
Hydroelectricity
Biofuels (like petrol, coal and natural gas )
Geothermal Energy
Hydrogen Energy
Ocean Energy(tidal energy,wave energy)
Biomass Energy

8
1.2 Environmental Energy Sources

There are many sources of energy that are renewable and considered to be
environmentally friendly and harness natural processes. These sources of energy
provide an alternate ‘cleaner’ source of energy, helping to negate the effects of certain
forms of pollution. All of these power generation techniques can be described as
renewable since they are not depleting any resource to create the energy. While there
are many large-scale renewable energy projects and production, renewable
technologies are also suited to small off-grid applications, sometimes in rural and
remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development [1] .

Various Enviromental energy sources are ,

Solar Power

Wind Power

Hydroelectricity

Natural gas ( partially enviromentally)

Geothermal Energy

Hydrogen Energy

Ocean Energy(tidal energy,wave energy)

Biomass Energy

2. NATURAL GAS

The main ingredient in natural gas is methane, a gas (or compound) composed of one
carbon atom and four hydrogens atoms. Millions of years ago, the remains of plants
and animals decayed and built up in thick layers. This decayed matter fromplants and
animals iscalled organic material. Overtime, the sand and silt changed to rock, covered

9
the organic material and trapped it beneath the rock. Pressure and heat changed some
of this organic materialinto coal, some into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas
(tiny bubbles of odorless gas) [2].

Figure 2.1 Creation of Natural Oil and Gas

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that has been cooled to the point that it
condenses to a liquid, which occurs at a temperature of approximately -256°F (-161°C)
at atmospheric pressure. Liquefaction reduces the volume of gas by approximately 600
times, thus making it more economical to store natural gas where other forms of
storage do not exist, and to transport gas over long distances for which pipelines are
too expensive or for which other constraints exist [3].

Liquefaction makes it possible to move natural gas between continents in specially

designed ships. Thus, LNG technology makes natural gas available throughout the
world [3].

2.1 Advantages of Natural Gas

Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuel and a highly efficient form of energy. Natural
gas has many advantages over other fuels. It has fewer impurities, is less chemically

10
complex, and its combustion results in less pollution. You may already be familiar
with the many benefits of natural gas.

Comfortable – natural gas furnaces deliver warm air without the cool draftiness
associated with an electric heat pump.

Dependable – regardless of whether the sun is shining or the wind is blowing,

natural gas is always there for you.

Convenient – busy lifestyles demand appliances that not only are highly efficient but
also can save you time. With natural gas, you can have an endless supply of hot
water, precise temperature control for cooking, and faster drying time for your
laundry.

Economical - if you are looking to save on your energy bills, look no further. Natural
gas provides the best energy value costing less than electricity, propane and heating
oil.

It is clear that natural gas is the best energy

choice for your home. But did you know
that natural gas is also the natural choice
for the environment? In a world that is
rapidly learning about "going green" and
"carbon footprints" natural gas allows us to
be environmentally responsible. It is
considered the energy solution to secure a
greener tomorrow for our children.

Naturally Cleaner

Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuel,

emitting fewer greenhouse gases than coal
or oil. In addition to having a smaller carbon
footprint, it also addresses a number of
environmental concerns like smog and acid
Figure 2.2 Efficient Diagram

11
rain. Imagine this, when measured at the source, natural gas appliances can lower a
home's carbon footprint by 43% over electric appliances! It's a reliable fuel source
combined with solar, wind, and other renewable energies.

Naturally Efficient

There is a misconception that electricity is cleaner than natural gas since there are
no emissions from the electricity used in your home. Some think electricity is also
more efficient. However, when you consider how electricity is generated and
distributed to your home, natural gas is by far the more efficient energy.

Natural gas is a high-density energy that works harder with less waste. Consider this
fact: Out of every 100 units of energy used to generate electricity, only about 30 of
those units actually get delivered to your home. In comparison, over 90% of the
natural gas produced from the gas well is delivered directly to your house compared
to only 30% of source energy that goes into generating electricity. Now, that's pretty
efficient [4].

2.2 Detection of Natural Gas

The search for natural gas begins with Geologists, who study the structure and
Processes of the Earth. They locate the types of rock that are likely to seal gas and oil
deposits.

Today, Geologists' tools include seismic surveys that are used to find the right places to
drill wells. Seismic surveys use echoes from a vibration source at the Earth's surface
(usually a vibrating pad under a truck built for this purpose) to collect information
about the rocks beneath. Sometimes it is necessary to use small amounts of dynamite
to provice in the vibration that is needed.

12
 Figure 2.3 Labour Principle of Siesmic Surveys

Scientists and engineers explore a chosen area by studying rock samples from the
earth and taking measurements. If the site seems promising, drilling begins. Some of
these areas are on the land but many are offshore, deep in the ocean. Once the gas is
found, it flows up through the well to the surface of the ground and into the large
pipelines.

Transporting natural gas involves several steps;

Transporting natural gas from the wellhead to the final customer requires many
infrastructure assets and involves several physical transfers of custody and multiple
processing steps [5].

13
 Figure 2.4 LNG Processing Flow Diagram

3. GAS PRODUCTION

There are different types of production facilities, based on the depth of water,

Each of these systems is designed to withstand the wide range of wind and wave
forces, including severe winter storms and hurricanes. Courtesy of the U.S. Minerals
Management Service, here is a description of each type of platform:2 A Fixed Platform
(FP) consists of a jacket (a tall vertical section made of tubular steel members
supported by piles driven into the seabed) with a deck placed on top, providing space
for crew quarters, a drilling rig, and production facilities. The fixed platform is
economically feasible for installation in water depths up to 1,500 feet. A Compliant
Tower (CT) consists of a narrow, flexible tower and a piled foundation that can support
a conventional deck for drilling and production operations. Unlike the fixed platform,
the compliant tower withstands large lateral forces by sustaining significant lateral
deflections, and is usually used in water depths between 1,000 and 2,000 feet. A
Tension Leg Platform (TLP) consists of a floating structure held in place by vertical,
tensioned tendons connected to the sea floor by pile-secured templates. Tensioned
tendons provide for the use of a TLP in a broad water depth range with limited vertical
motion.

The larger TLPs have been successfully deployed in water depths approaching 4,000
feet.A Mini-Tension Leg Platform (Mini-TLP) is a floating mini-tension leg platform of

14
relatively low cost developed for production of smaller deepwater reserves which
would be uneconomic to produce using more conventional deepwater production
systems. It can also be used as a utility, satellite, or early production platform for larger
deepwater discoveries. The world’s first mini- TLP was installed in the Gulf of Mexico in
1998.

Fixed Platform Compliant Tension Leg Fixed Platform

Tower Platform
(FP) (FP)
(CT) (TLP)

Figure 3.1 Reachable Waterdepth Gas Production Plants [6]

The deeper the water, the more technologically advanced the equipment must be.

A SPAR Platform (SPAR) consists of a large diameter single vertical cylinder supporting
a deck. It has a typical fixed platform topside (surface deck with drilling and production
equipment), three types of risers (production, drilling, and export), and a hull which is
moored using a taut caternary system of six to twenty lines anchored into the seafloor.
SPARs are presently used in water depths up to 3,000 feet, although existing
technology can extend its use to water depths as great as 7,500 feet. A Floating
Production System (FPS) consists of a semi-submersible unit which is equipped with

15
drilling and production equipment. It is anchored in place with wire rope and chain, or
can be dynamically positioned using rotating thrusters. Production from subsea wells is
transported to the surface deck through productionrisers designed to accommodate
platform motion. The FPS can be used in ultra deep water.

A Subsea System (SS) ranges from single subsea wells producing to a nearby platform,
FPS, or TLP to multiple wells producing through a manifold and pipeline system to a
distant production facility. These systems are can be used in all water depths but are
generally used in water depths greater than 1,000 feet. A Floating Production, Storage
and Offloading System (FPSO) consist of a large tanker type vessel moored to the
seafloor. An FPSO is designed toprocess and stow production from nearby subsea wells
and to periodically offload the stored oil to a smaller shuttle tanker. The shuttle tanker
then transports the oil to an onshore facility for further processing. An FPSO may be
suited for marginally economic fields located in remote deepwater areas where a
pipeline infrastructure does not exist [6].

16
 SPAR Platform Floating
Shuttle Floating Production,
Production
(SPAR) Storage
System Tanker
and Offloading System
(FPS)
(FPSO)

Subsea
System
(SS)

Figure 3.2 Deeper Water Depth Gas Production Plants [6]

4. LIQUEFACTION

The liquefaction process entails cooling the cleaned gas by refrigerants. The
liquefaction plant may consist of several parallel units (“trains”).By liquefying the gas ,
its volume is reduced by a factor of 600, which means that LNG at -256 °F uses 1/600
of space required for a comparable amount of gas at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure.

LNG is a cryogenic liquid.The term “cryogenic” means low temperature, generally

below -100 °F. LNG is clear liquid, with a density of about 45 percent the density of
water.

At both liquefaction and receiving and regasification facilities, the LNG is stored in
double-walled tanks at atmospheric pressure. The storage tank is really a tank within a
tank.The annular space between the two tank walls is filled with insulation.the inner
tank, in contact with the LNG,is made of materialssuitable for cryogenic service and
structural loading of LNG.These materials include 9 percent nickel steel, aliminium and

17
pre-stressed concrete.The outer tank is generally made of carbon steel or pre-stressed
concrete [7].

Figure 4.1 Separating and Liquefying the Raw Natural Gas Flow Diagram [8]

5. LNG Transport

5.1 LNG Carriers

The LNG carriers are designed, constructed and equipped to carry cryogenic liquefied
natural gas (LNG) stored at a minimum temperature of -163 °C and at atmospheric
pressure with density of 500 kg/m3. The spherical and membrane types are accepted
worldwide as cryogenic cargo containment systems. The spherical independent tank
(by Kvaerner-Moss Technology) consists of insulated single wall spherical tank,
supported by a vertically built skirt. The skirt is connected with the tank around the
periphery of the equator. The cargo tank material is aluminum alloy. Each cargo tank is
seated in a separate cargo hold with the tank skirt mounted directly on the foundation
deck. The leak protection system prevents hull structural members from direct contact

18
with cryogenic liquid cargo in accordance with the Classification Society’s
requirements. The Mark III design (by Gaztransport & Technigaz) reduces insulation
thickness and weight significantly. The insulation of tanks, regardless of type, is
designed and constructed to accommodate the boil-off rate as specified, for example,
0.15%/day. The LNG cargo tank has a filling limit. Especially for the membrane type,
voyages sea with cargo tank filling ratio between 10% of the tank lengthwise and 80%
height wise are prohibited without rigorous safety studies due to sloshing. A number
of technologies to design the cargo hold and handling systems have entered into
practice for LNG carriers.

Evaluation for ensuring the structural integrity and the precise design of the cargo
system is the most important concern. Numerous economical reasons lead to a
significant increase in tank capacity and innovations in cargo handling systems such as
BOG reliquefaction systems and propulsion systems such as dual fuel electric driven or
diesel driven engines, etc.

The most critical concern of the LNG transportation societies is how to meet and
manage the new environmental andeconomical challenges.LNG carriers should be
adequately and safely designed for storing and handling their cryogenic cargo. This
study presents a comparative analysis of a spherical and membrane-typed cryogenic
cargo hold and cargo handling system.Evaluation of a cargo handling system is one of
the most important elements in this study [9].

5.1.1 Tank Types

During the development of LNG carriers there have been different tank designs.
Themain purpose of the cargo containment system is to keep the gas below its boiling
point andmaintaining the adequate insulation. For this purpose it is important to select
the appropriate containment system which is also determined by taking into
consideration the tank’s capability to withstand sloshing loads. The tank designs can be

19
divided into two main categories; the membrane or the independent tanks. The
membrane category consists of two tank design types used for LNG, namely the
membrane tanks and the semi-membrane tanks. Even though the tank types have
different designs, some characteristic elements are present in all of the tanks. The
double bottom and the secondary barrier are very important in case of leakages of the
LNG to prevent pollution of the ocean. These elements are shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Illustration of Elements

5.1.1.1. The membrane tank

The membrane tank system consists of a very thin primary layer (membrane)
supported by insulation. The system is directly supported by the ship’s inner hull. The
membrane containment systems must always have a secondary barrier in case of a
leakage in the primary barrier. The membrane is designed so that the thermal
expansion or contraction is compensated without stressing of the membrane.
Generally, two types of membrane tanks are used. Gaz Tranport and Technigaz, the

20
two leading companies developing the two main types of membrane tank types,
fusioned to GTT.

5.1.1.1.2. GTT 96 Membrane System

The GTT 96 Membrane System, formerly known as the Gaz Transport system, consists
of two identical Invar membranes and two independent thermal insulation layers. The
primary and secondary Invar membranes are made of a 0.7 mm thickness of 36%
nickel-steel alloy, which has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Both thermal
insulation layers consist of prefabricated plywood boxes filled with perlite as shown in
Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Thermal Layers of GTT 96 Membrane System

21
 Figure 5.3 An Inside View of NO96 Membrane Tank System [10]

5.1.1.1.3. Mark III Membrane System

The Mark III Membrane System, formerly known as the Technigaz system, consists of
aprimary corrugated stainless steel membrane and a prefabricated insulation panel
including thesecondary triplex membrane as shown in Figure 5.4. The primary
membrane is 1.2 mm thick. Thepolyurethane foam insulation is made of prefabricated
panels. It contains the primary and secondaryinsulation and the secondary membrane.

22
The secondary membrane is made of a thin sheet ofaluminum between two layers of
glass cloth and resin. To anchor the insulation and spread the loads evenly, the panels
are bonded to the inner hull by resin ropes.

Figure 5.4 Mark III Membrane System

5.1.1.1.4. The semi-membrane tank

This tank type is similar to the membrane tank design. The primary barrier is much
thicker than in the case with membrane tanks. The corners have large radius and are
not supported, so this part of the tank can withstand expansion and contraction. The
bottom and the sides of thetanks are straight plates and are supported through
insulation by the adjacent hull structure. It is through these connections the weight
and the dynamic loads are transferred to the hull.The tank is self-supported in empty
condition, but only in the empty-condition and notin the loaded condition. Self
supported means that the primary barrier is stiff enough to carry its own weight, but
when the additional weight from the gas puts pressure on the tank the primary barrier
is not strong enough and the tank needs support from the hull structure. In other
words, the tank is not designed to be placed on the deck, it must be inside the vessel.

23
5.1.1.2 Independent Types

Independent types of containment systems are divided into 2 categories, as Type-A

containment system and Type-B containment system. These tanks are generally
designed asspherical but there are examples of prismatic ones.

4.1.1.2.1 Type-A Containment System

The Type A system is designed as box shapes or prismatic tanks. This type is used in
early LNG ships and the design is carried out using the traditional methods of general
ship structural analysis. An example of LNG ships with box shaped tanks is seen in
Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5 78000 m3 LNG carrier with Type-A tanks

Early LNG ships such as the ‘Methane Princess’ and ‘Methane Progress’ were fitted
with self-supporting tanks of aluminum alloy having center-line bulkheads. The balsa
wood insulation system was attached to the inner hull (secondary barrier) and each
insulated hold contained three tanks. The midship section drawing is seen in Figure
5.6. Later vessels built with tanks of this category have adopted a prismatic tank
design.

24
 Figure 5.6 Liquid Methane Carrier – Type A

5.1.1.2.2 Type-B Containment System

Type-B cargo containment systems are the most used types since they are improved in
terms of fatigue and crack propagation and the main principle is based on the crack
detection before failure, which allows the usage of a partial secondary barrier.The
independent B type tanks are generally categorized as spherical moss and self-
supported prismatic tanks. An example of a spherical moss system is shown in Figure
5.7 as Kvaerner Moss system.

Figure 5.7 137000 m3 LNG carrier with Type-B tanks (Kvaerner Moss system)

Kvaerner type tank systems are used in most LNG ships. The tanks are made of
aluminum alloy or where the only connection between tanks and hull is made of 9%
nickel steel which is seen in Figure 5.8.

25
 Figure 5.8 Kvaerner-Moss spherical tank

Type-B tank systems are designed to provide sensors to detect leakage and ability to
repair itself periodically before any critical cracks occur. This type of cargo containment
systems have comparatively less cargo space, for instance the cargo capacity of 5 large
spheres is approximately 125.000 m3.

Independent Type-B containment systems are not resistant to sloshing - which will be
explained in detail in the next section- and they have some disadvantages. The only
way to increase the cargo capacity is to increase the diameter of spherical tanks and
this will be gained by increasing the ship length which is not desirable for stability and
global strength aspects. Besides, the ship will have less hull volume efficiency and a
high area affected by wind and a limited deck area for the installation of regasification
equipment [11].

26
5. OFFSHORE LNG TRANSFER

Bluewater recognized a need for a safe, efficient and reliable transfer system. Since
there is a wide variance in waterdepth and environmental conditions between the
potential sites a whole suite of concepts has been developed to serve each
application’s specifics.We can categorize LNG transfer types as shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1 Design Consept for LNG transfer

5.1. Near Shore Terminal

Both for loading of LNG into the tankers and for offloading thereof, terminals are
required. For locations with sufficient deep water close to the coast, terminals may
consist of jetty structures and breakwaters, where tankers can be moored and
offloading can take place via the standard loading arms.

27
In case the conditions are less favourable due to shallow waters, congested shipping
and / or mooring situations, but also because of community acceptance and
permitting, offshore terminals are a very attractive alternative. Although such
terminals exist - they have been widely used for loading of crude oil and oil products
for many years - no offshore terminals for LNG are in use.

The most dominant advantages of LNG offshore terminals are the lower costs for
construction and operation, the possibility to locate the terminal in deeper water
thereby eliminating the need for dredging and increased availability, safety and
reduced voyage time as LNG carriers need not enter and manoeuvre in congested
waters.

Based on its long time experience in mooring and offloading systems, Bluewater has
developed a series of concepts for LNG terminals based on the premise of safe transfer
of LNG offshore to and from non-dedicated tankers in wave heights of up to Hs = 5.0 m
and flow rates of up to 10,000 m3/hr. Three near shore concepts were developed:

6.1.2. Medium Waterdepth Terminal

This concept, dubbed ‘Big Sweep’ consists of three basic elements, see figure 6.2:

 A jacket structure with turntable, anchored to the seabed

 A submerged rigid arm, hinged at one end to the jacket turntable and
terminating at its other end with a buoyant column.
 The LNG loading and transfer structure, located on top of the buoyant column.

To allow the vessel and arm to passively ‘weathervane’ into the most favourable
direction with respect to the environment, the turntable is connected to the jacket
structure by means of a bearing.This allows the turntable to rotate 360 o with respect
to the jacket.

28
The turntable supports the rigid arm hinges, the cryogenic fluid swivels and the hawser
attachment point. Optionally a helicopter deck, control/monitoring room and re-
gasification equipment can be mounted.

The rigid arm consists of the following main elements:

 A hinge assembly, which allows the loading arm to pitch and weathervane
relative to the jacket structure
 A structural lattice forming a rigid arm
 A buoyant hull section which pierces the waterline and accommodates the LNG
offloading equipment.

The overall length of the rigid arm is such that the buoyant column is positioned
nominally near the midship cargo manifold of the LNG carrier. By adjusting the length
of the mooring hawser the carrier’s cargo manifold can be lined up to the offloading
station for vessel sizes ranging from large to very large gas carriers.

The buoyant hull is equipped with a thruster system to swing the arm in a safe position
during approach of the vessel and in-line with the vessel in the operational mode. A
water ballast tank allows draft adjustment of the loading arm to match tanker size and
/ or drafts.

The standard fluid transfer system consists essentially of 3 Pipe-in-Pipe (PIP) lines. Two
lines are dedicated to LNG; either in full flow mode or re-circulation mode. The third
line is dedicated for vapour return.

The flow paths cross the weathervaning and pitch hinges between the jacket and the
rigid arm. This is achieved with swivels and full metal jumpers which can be easily
inspected and serviced.

The loading arm is normally trailing the jacket but can be temporarily ‘parked’ away
from the LNG carrier line of approach, with its own propulsion. In this position the

29
entire loading arm assembly cannot be damaged by a failed mooring approach of the
export carrier tanker. Note that offshore tanker mooring to SPM systems is standard
marine practice and that a failed approach run very rarely happens. Should the carrier
‘brush’ against the terminal, this will be a ‘low energy’ collision which can be
accommodated by the fendering.

The LNG carrier moors in tandem with the turntable and once it has secured itself
safely and the overall alignment is stable, the loading arm will be deployed from its
parked position toward the vessel’s manifold.

The hose deployment and loading operation may now be initiated. After completion of
the transfer operations all of the steps discussed above are done in reverse order.

Emergency disconnection, such as may follow from e.g. hawser failure or excessive
positioning difficulties (e.g. fishtailing) may readily take place by:
 Quick disconnect, allowing for the controlled closure of valves/pumps of the fluid
transfer system, but includes all the typical emergency measures as known in
normal terminals,
 Activating full power on the thrusters to clear the rigid arm away from the export
tanker returning it to its temporary parking position, giving wide berth to the
LNG carrier.

Due to the relative high mass of the rigid arm, its long length compared to operating
wave lengths and the small waterline area of the buoyant column, the heave motions
(pitch) of the arm are very small and this has been validated in physical model tests in
significant wave heights up to 9.0 m.

30
 Figure 6.2 Medium Waterdepth “Big Sweep” Terminal

6.1.3. Shallow Waterdepth Terminal

Developed from the ‘Big Sweep’ system, this unit is designed to operate in
waterdepths below 40 m, see figure 6.3. It allows direct offshore-to-shore transfer of
LNG, at rates up to 10,000 m3/hr from non-dedicated vessels.

Motion characteristics are such that offloading can proceed up to significant wave
heights of 3 m, depending on the waterdepth, which may be as little as 15 metres. For
extreme survival conditions such as in the Gulf of Mexico, the free-end of the unit is
water-ballasted and set temporarily on the seabed.

A self-positioning DP capability allows the unit to follow the LNG carrier manifold when
loading or unloading LNG but drives the unit out of the way when the LNG carrier is
mooring itself to the turntable on the jacket, thereby avoiding marine hazards.

31
Re-gasification equipment may be located on the unit for applications without LNG
storage e.g. where gas is stored in salt caverns or delivered directly to the shore gas
grid.

Figure 6.3 Shallow Waterdepth ‘Big Sweep’ Terminal

6.1.4. Offshore Re-Gasification Dock

The concept of a floating dock is not new, however in combination with a reduced
displacement and connected to a Single Point Mooring (SPM) system, and also fitted
with a simple but redundant Dynamic Positioning (DP) system, it becomes a powerful
tool to:

 Berth standard LNG vessels offshore

 Enable unloading LNG through standard marine loading arms
 Allow transfer operation to continue in conditions up to 4 m significant wave
height
 Provide a stable platform for a re-gasification plan

32
  Allow disconnection from its anchor legs for dry docking for campaign
maintenance and / or modifications.

In essence the concept is based on mooring permanently a partly submerged dock,

through an articulated rigid arm to a catenary anchor leg buoy, see figure 6.4.

The articulated rigid arm has been selected because it allows the dock to take up a
position of sway and yaw relative to the buoy, when seen from above. Since the
concept is based on having transverse propulsion means integrated in the dock, it is
quite clear that with an LNG vessel mooring on the hawser messenger wire of the SPM
and inching itself up to the buoy, the dock is now able to fully track the path the LNG
vessel will follow, including yaw and sway. Hence the dock can simply maintain
sideway clearance with the LNG vessel until it surfaces to contact the underside of the
hull once it has completed its approach, see figure 6.5.

The amount of contact force is a function of operating environmental parameters and

will be of such magnitude that no relative motions occur between vessel and dock. At
all times contact forces are modest and can be easily accepted by the vessel.
Effectively, the vessel is now fixed to the SPM through friction only. This in turn allows
standard marine loading arms to be employed.

Given the displacement of the dock, a substantial load carrying capacity can be
generated to support e.g. a full re-gasification plant. This allows gas to be exported to
shore rather than LNG.

Of particular interest in this sense is the ability of the dock to release itself from the
anchor chains and be taken into a harbour/yard environment for any major upgrades
or campaign overhauls.

Finally, relocation of the unit to another gas-import location is well feasible.

33
 Figure 6.4 Offshore Re-Gasification Dock

Figure 6.5 Berthing of LNG Carrier into Offshore Dock

34
6.2. Export from Production Barge

Currently operators are developing systems for Floating Liquid Natural Gas production
and storage (FLNG).Key to successful operation of such systems is safe and reliable
means of transfer of LNG to the export vessel.

Current transfer concepts are based upon the traditional side-by-side configuration, or
require the export vessel to be equipped with propriety connection equipment. Both
factors adversely influence the availability and flexibility of the terminal, and so
Bluewater has developed a number of concepts that circumvent these drawbacks.

6.2.1.Tandem Configuration

The ‘Big Sweep’ concept as previously described can also be deployed from a FLNG
unit, see figure 6.6. Such a system will enable offshore ship-to-ship transfer of LNG in
tandem mode, which will increase the overall availability. The concept has the same
components, albeit that a 3-axis joint is provided on the FLNG side of the arm.

The main differences between the two concepts are the motions of the FLNG. These,
in combination with the steady arm result, in higher structural loadings.

Operationally, both systems are fully comparable. In non-operating conditions, the ‘Big
Sweep’ will be parked alongside the FLNG which allows easy access to the buoyant
column and the loading arms for Inspection Repair and Maintenance (IRM).

This concept has been physically model tested in the offshore basin of MARIN, The
Netherlands. The tests confirmed the workability in sea states up to 5 m and survival
condition of 9 m significant wave height. Moreover, the station keeping by DP has
been verified and showed only modest power levels to maintain a ‘follow me’ mode.

35
 Figure 6.6 ‘Big Sweep’ for Tandem Export from FLNG Barge

6.2.2. Side by Side Configuration

Another concept has been developed as a variation on the traditional side-by-side

configuration for transfer of LNG, see figure 6.7. The key features of this concept are:

 Increase of safe distance between the FLNG barge and the export vessel during
transfer operation
 Easier mooring up, fewer mooring lines and less personnel safety issues.

The concept works with a typical (short) low sway / yaw single point mooring type
hawser attached to the end of a rigid arm which in turn is mounted on a turntable
fitted to the barge. The required mooring elasticity is provided by a gas-hydraulic
cylinder at the short end of the rigid arm on the barge.The arm is able to swing freely
forward in case the LNG carrier was to ‘nudge’ it that way.

36
An aft fender arrangement, based on a pivotal support arrangement, is provided near
the end of the carrier’s flat side shell, assuring that the ‘near position’ (i.e. bending
radius control) of the flexible hose LNG transfer system is never compromised.

Although no model tests have been performed to date, Bluewater believes that safe
mooring in conditions up to 3.5 m significant can be maintained.

Figure 6.7 ‘Side by Side’ Transfer from FLNG Barge

6.2.3. Deepwater Remote SPM Dock

When transfer of LNG in side-by-side or tandem mode poses unacceptable operational

constraints, export operations to the LNG carrier can be realized via a remote Single
Point Moored Dock, see figure 6.8. The system will be similar to the offshore dock
described previously, but without the re-gasification plant. It will be located at a safe
distance from the FLNG unit, typically 1 NM.

37
Transfer of product from the FLNG unit to the SPM dock will be via submerged full
metal PIP lines. The transfer lines will be suspended via short chain sections from the
SPM, jumpers forming the final connection to the dock’s piping. This effectively
decouples the dynamic rotations of the SPM dock from PIP transfer lines, reducing
fatigue damage in the latter.

Figure 6.8 Deepwater Remote SPM Dock

38
5.3. Fluid Handling System

The offloading equipment has been configured as a ‘manipulator’ from which the free
end of either steel articulated loading arms or flexible catenary hoses are suspended.
The advantage of this configuration is that it allows combining the free ends (3x Ø 20”)
into a single assembly, handled by direct mechanical means. Individual hose
connections, although technically feasible, would lead to clash potential during high-
offset emergency disconnects and also require more manpower in establishing first-
line connections. The arrangement of the ’manipulator’ is shown in figure 6.9.

The principle of the manipulator is based on supporting the free end of the flowlines
(flexible or rigid) from a tension leg, which maintains a slight vertical tension on the
vessel interface while fully accommodating low frequency heave of the ‘Big Sweep’,
and the heave, pitch and roll of the LNG carrier. The tension is generated by a
counterweight which is moved in the fore-aft direction as a function of the stroking out
of the horizontal boom. A redundant load pin measures actual tension in the tension
leg and adjusts automatically the counterweight position.

When the tension leg experiences an angle of tilt, due to relative motions between ‘Big
Sweep ‘ and the carrier, such angle is automatically detected and the manipulator
horizontal boom length and azimuth angle are automatically adjusted to bring back the
angular value below a pre-set value (say <10˚). The loads typically experienced by the
manipulator assembly are in the same order of magnitude as normal offshore cranes
and hence fully practicable. Since high frequency motions have no effect on the
positioning demands, power demands are low. Beyond the pre-set limits, the tension
leg will automatically initiate disconnect whereby the entire connector part is lifted up
and away from the carrier.
The connector in the lower part of the tension leg consists of a structural part and a
multi-path flow part. All connectors are made up of standard commercially available
components. The structural connector is connected first, the flowpath connectors at
that time still having a clearance at their matingfaces of about 300 ~ 500 mm. Once the

39
structural connector is secured, the flowpath connectors are stroked out to make up
the connection. The structural connector is winched-down against the slight over pull
of the tension leg. This allows that the ‘first line’ connection is made in-phase and
avoids impact loads in case of large LNG carrier roll events. All elements of the tension
leg and its connectors are designed to fail-safe.

The concept of the ‘manipulator’ allows significant automation of functions which

enhances safety and limits manpower demand [12].

Figure 5.9 Manipulator for LNG Transfer Hoses

7.RELIQUFACTION

Because LNG is handled at the ultra-low-temperature of −160°C, partial gastification

due to natural heat input from the outside cannot be avoided in LNG facilities. This
gas is called boil-off gas (BOG). The pressure of BOG is boosted by compressors in
receiving terminals, and sent along with LNG gasified by LNG vaporizers to city gas
companies and the fuel systems of power plants.

40
As one means of processing the gas, a BOG re-liquefaction system was established
with the use of cold LNG.

The following advantages can be obtained through application of the BOG re-
liquefaction system to receiving terminals:

1. Controlling the concentration of stored LNG by returning reliquefacted BOG

to LNG tanks.

2. Energy saving through the reduction of the input of compressors.

The re-liquefaction system is intended to cool and liquefy BOG through heat
exchange between BOG pressurized to 0.5 to 1 MPa, and LNG supplied to a
vaporizer. The LNG that was used as a refrigerant causing its temperature to rise is
sent to a vaporizer. Liquefied BOG is sent back to an LNG tank, or to a vaporizer
along with the LNG used as a refrigerant after being pressurized with a pump
according to the above-said objectives.

Figure 7.1 Process Flow diagram of a re-liquefaction system [13]

41
 Figure 7.2 Typical arrangement of a LNG Re-liquefaction System [13]

1. An LNG receiving terminal with a higher gas outlet pressure has greater
energy savings.

2. The system is designed to re-liquefy BOG without interfering with the

mission of the LNG receiving terminal, the reliability of a stable gas supply,
because there is no limitation on the amount of LNG sent to an LNG vaporizer
at the time of operating or stopping BOG re-liquefaction facilities, or at the
time of load changes.

3. BOG can be re-liquefied at a stable pressure by constantly controlling the

balance between the flow of BOG and the flow of refrigerant LNG.

42
 4. A system for re-liquefying BOG at a stable pressure can be provided by
integrating a function for controlling hot gas bypasses with the BOG re-
liquefaction system even when the balance between the flow of BOG and the
flow of refrigerant LNG is not controlled [14].

8. STORAGE

Modern LNG storage tanks are typically full containment type, which has a prestressed
concrete outer wall and a high-nickel steel inner tank, with extremely efficient
insulation between the walls. Large tanks are low aspect ratio (height to width) and
cylindrical in design with a domed steel or concrete roof. Storage pressure in these
tanks is very low, less than 10 kPa (1.45 psig). Sometimes more expensive underground
tanks are used for storage. Smaller quantities (say 700 m3 (190,000 US gallons) and
less), may be stored in horizontal or vertical, vacuum-jacketed, pressure vessels. These
tanks may be at pressures anywhere from less than 50 kPa to over 1,700 kPa (7 psig to
250 psig).

LNG must be kept cold to remain a liquid, independent of pressure. Despite efficient
insulation, there will inevitably be some heat leakage into the LNG, resulting in
vaporisation of the LNG. This boil-off gas acts to keep the LNG cold. The boil-off gas is
typically compressed and exported as natural gas, or it is reliquefied and returned to
storage [15].

9. REGASIFICATION

Regasification is a process of converting liquefied natural gas (LNG) at −162 °C (−260°F)

temperature back to natural gas at atmospheric temperature. LNG gasification plants
can be located on land as well as on floating barges. Floating barge mounted plants
have the advantage that they can be towed to new offshore locations for better usage
in response to changes in the business environment. In a conventional regasification
plant, LNG is heated by sea water to convert it to natural gas / methane gas.

43
In addition to regasification, many valuable industrial byproducts can be produced
using cold energy of LNG. Cold energy of LNG utilisation for extracting
liquid oxygen and nitrogen gas from air, makes LNG-regasification plants more viable
when they are located nearintegrated steel plants and/or urea plants. Cold energy of
LNG usage in lieu of massive and energy intensive cryogenic refrigeration units
in natural-gas processing plants is also more viable economically. The natural gas
processed with cold energy of LNG and the imported LNG can be readily injected into a
conventional natural gas distribution system to reach the ultimate consumers.[16]

10.SOME REGULATIONS AND FILLING LIMITS FOR LNG TRANSPORT

10.1.Shipping Safety Record

The LNG shipping industry has an excellent safety record. Since the first cargoes of LNG
were shipped on a regular commercial basis in 1964, over 56,000 shipments have been
made without a single incident of LNG being lost through a breach or failure of the
ship’s tanks.

There have been three major grounding incidents, but none resulted in loss of cargo.
The robust design of the ships and cargo tanks and the LNG industry’s extraordinary
attention to safety details have collectively served to prevent the release of cargo and
to facilitate this noteworthy safety record.

10.2. About LNG Ships

A typical modern LNG ship is approximately 300 metres (m) (975 feet) long, 43m wide
(140 feet) wide and has a draft of about 12 m (39 feet). LNG ships vary in cargo
capacity, from 1,000 cubic metres to 267,000 cubic metres, but the majority of modern
vessels are between 125,000 cubic metres and 175,000 cubic metres capacity. Smaller
LNG ships (1,000 – 25,000 cubic metres capacity) also operate in some l areas, such as
Norway and Japan. LNG carriers are capable of speeds of up to 21 knots (oil tankers
operate at 15-20 knots) in open waters.

44
The majority of LNG ships sailing today have been designed to carry LNG either in
spherical tanks (Moss sphere design) or in geometric membrane tanks (membrane
design) (Figure 10.1). The technology may also be utilised to function as floating
storage and regasification units (FSRU) in offshore receiving terminals. Floating
facilities allow LNG terminals to be sited offshore.LNG ships must comply with all
relevant local and international regulatory requirements including those of the
International Maritime Organisation (IMO), International Gas Carriers Code (IGC) and
US Coast Guard (USCG).

Figure 10.1 Example LNG carrier types (top – Moss sphere design; below – membrane
design) (Source: BV 2009)

All LNG ships have double hulls. The cargo is carried near atmospheric pressure in
specially insulated tanks, referred to as the cargo containment system, inside the inner
hull. International codes govern the design and construction of gas carriers. There are
additional international requirements set out in the codes which vary with the type of
cargo that the ship will carry. All commercial vessels have to be registered in a country
the “Flag State”. Countries with more than one LNG ship in their registry include
Algeria, Australia, The Bahamas, Bermuda, Brunei, France, Isle of Man, Italy, Japan,
Korea, Liberia, Malaysia, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Norway, and United Kingdom. No
inference can be drawn automatic-ally from a ship’s flag of registry, the supplier of the
cargo, or the nationality of the ship’s crew to a particular characterisation of the
importers.

45
All countries implement IMO Rules including the IGC, the International Safety
Management (ISM) Code and the International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watching (STCW) Convention. The government administration of the
country of registry may impose additional requirements over and above the
international codes.

A Classification Society is a non-governmental organisation which forms an integral

part of the shipping industry, and is often referred to as “Class”. It establishes and
maintains standards for the construction and classification of ships and offshore
structures, according to technical rules, confirms that designs and calculations meet
these rules, and conducts surveys of ships and structures during the process of
construction and commissioning. Classification societies periodically survey vessels in
service to ensure that they continue to comply with the rules and required codes.
Insurance underwriters require that the ships are “in class”; without insurance the
ships cannot trade.

Marine quality assurance for LNG carriers (as well as other ships) is provided through
the process of vetting, which assesses ship quality against a known standard to
determine its acceptance for use. Ships are assessed in relation to such international
conventions and industry recommendations as IGC, Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
Guidance detailed in the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals
(ISGOTT) is pertinent to all tanker types and the Society of International Gas Tankers
Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) to gas carriers. The process of assessing the ship quality
should include the assessment of operational standards of the vessel including crew
competency and training, and the ship’s physical condition. Information on ship quality
is gathered from many sources, including vessel inspections on behalf of ship
companies, owner assessments, terminal and operational feedback, market
intelligence, casualty data, reputation and questionnaires.The “Port State Controls”
established by the Memorandum of Paris (1981) are recorded in the “Equasis”
database available for worldwide access. Such port state control databases and Class

46
reports also provide information which assist in making the vetting decision. Generally,
operators perform ship inspections according to the Oil Companies International
Marine Forum (OCIMF) standards or to their own standards to assess the ship
conditions. Reports on the ship’s technical and survey status are available through the
OCIMF Ship Inspection Report (SIRE) Programme, via the ship’s classification society,
and through the ship owner.

10.3.General Operational and Safety Facts

In addition to the aforementioned safeguards for the LNG ships, the entire LNG
shipping process is replete with sophisticated operational and safety systems.
Operationally, the ships use communications technology, global positioning and radar
to continuously monitor the ship’s course, speed and position (as well as that of
nearby vessels). Additionally, comprehensive safety systems begin monitoring the
precious (LNG) cargo at the very outset of the loading process, and –at that point –
initiate the constant procedure of checking for leakage.Such checks start when the gas
is loaded into the ship’s pre-cooled cargo tanks as a refrigerated liquid at atmospheric
pressure via a closed system from insulated storage tanks at the liquefaction plant. In a
modern membrane LNG ship, the cargo containment system consists of a primary
barrier, a layer of insulation, a secondary barrier, and a second layer of insulation as
shown in Figure 3. Thus, if there should be any damage to the primary barrier, the
secondary barrier will prevent leakage. The insulation spaces are filled with nitrogen
and continuously monitored for any sign of leakage. The equipment used for tank
detection is so sensitive that it can detect leakage through a hole the size of a pinhead.
The LNG is kept fully refrigerated by allowing a small amount of cargo to evaporate
during the voyage to the import terminal. This is referred to as boil-off gas (BOG); in
addition to keeping the LNG cold, it provides a source of clean fuel for the ship’s
engines.

47
 Figure 10.2 Example tanker safety construction requirements for LNG transport at sea
(Source: BP Shipping)

10.4. Shipping Security

Shipping safety and security risks are managed through the use of strict operational
procedures, putting a priority on safety, and on well-trained, well-managed crews.
Safety and security assurance is a key part of company hiring, training and operations
practices.

As a result of the acts of terrorism in the US on September 11, 2001, IMO agreed to
new amendments to the 1974 SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life At
Sea) addressing port facility and ship security. In 2003, IMO adopted the International
Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code. This code requires that vulnerability
assessments be conducted for ships and ports and that security plans be developed.
The purpose of the ISPS code is to prevent and suppress terrorism against ships;
improve security aboard ships and ashore; and reduce risk to people (including
passengers, crew, and port personnel on board ships and in port areas), and to vessels

48
and cargoes. Cargo vessels 300 gross tons and larger, including all LNG vessels, as well
as ports servicing those regulated vessels, must adhere to these IMO and SOLAS
standards.

For ships, IMO requirements include:

Ships must develop security plans and have a Ship Security Officer;

Ships must be provided with a ship-security alert system. These alarms transmit
ship-to-shore security alerts to a competent authority designated by the
Administration, which may include the company, identifying the ship, its location
and indicating that the security of the ship is under threat or has been
compromised;

Ships must have a comprehensive security plan for international port facilities,
focusing on areas having direct contact with ships; and

Ships also may have certain equipment onboard to help maintain or enhance the
physical security of the ship.

For port facilities, IMO requirements include the following:

Port facility security plan;

Facility Security Officer; and

Certain security equipment may be required to maintain or enhance the physical

security of the facility.

For both ships and ports, security plans must address the following issues:

Monitoring and controlling access;

Monitoring the activities of people and cargo;

Ensuring the efficacy of security communications procedures and systems, and

their ready availability; and

49
 Completion of the Declaration of Security. A Declaration of Security (DOS) is a
declaration which addresses the security requirements that could be shared
between a port facility and a ship (or between ships) and stipulates the
responsibility for security each shall take.

Security plans also address issues such as: port of origin, port of destination, control of
ship movements, cooperation with shipping authorities and appropriate internal and
external communications.

In addition to the security measures listed above, in the US the USCG requires
additional security measures based on a location-specific risk assessment of LNG
shipping including among other things:

Inspection of security and carrier loading at the port of origin;

On-board escort to destination terminal by USCG “sea marshals”; and

Ninety-six hour advance Notice Of Arrival (NOA) of an LNG carrier.

10.5. Shipping Safety Zones

In most ports, the LNG ships transit through port areas in a moving “safety zone” until
they berth and then a fixed safety zone around them is established. This fixed zone
exists while they discharge cargo, for about 24 hours, until they transit back out again.
The safety zone is a way to keep other vessels away from the LNG carrier so as to
prevent accidental collisions and intentional attacks. The concept of a safety zone is
not unique to shipping. Similarly, the aviation industry applies safety zones to aircraft.
The size of the safety zone for a specific port is determined by assessing the potential
risks and hazards in that port and its approaches. A tug escort is used to manage the
safety zone around a vessel. In operating the safety zone, the ports also have to
manage and coordinate all their other shipping traffic. Specialised companies work
with the host port authority and coast guard authorities to carry out a risk assessment,
which determines the optimal configuration and management of safety zones.[17]

50
10.6. Filling Limits for LNG

The following quotation from IMO;

“” Amendments related to filling limits

Existing chapter 15 is replaced by the following:

‘‘Chapter 15

Filling limits for cargo tanks

15.1 General

15.1.1 No cargo tanks should have a higher filling limit (FL) than 98%at the reference
temperature, except as permitted by 15.1.3.

15.1.2 The maximum loading limit (LL) to which a cargo tank may be loaded should be
determined by the following formula:

LL=FL*[ρR/ρL]

where:

LL= loading limit expressed in percent, which means themaximum allowable liquid
volume relative to the tank volume to which the tank may be loaded;

FL = filling limit as specified in 15.1.1 or 15.1.3;

ρR = relative density of cargo at the reference temperature; and

51
ρL = relative density of cargo at the loading temperature
and pressure.

15.1.3 The Administration may allow a higher filling limit (FL) than the limit of
98%specified in 15.1.1 at the reference temperature, taking into account the shape of
the tank, arrangements of pressure relief valves, accuracy of level and temperature
gauging and the difference between the loading temperature and the temperature
corresponding to the vapour pressure of the cargo at the set pressure of the pressure
relief valves, provided the conditions specified in 8.2.17 are maintained.
15.1.4 For the purposes of this chapter only, reference temperature means:

1. the temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure of the cargo at the set
pressure of the pressure relief valves when no cargo vapour
pressure/temperature control as referred to in chapter 7 is provided;

2.the temperature of the cargo upon termination of loading, during transport, or at

unloading, whichever is the greatest, when a cargo vapour
pressure/temperaturecontrol as referred to in chapter 7 is provided. If this
reference temperature would result in the cargo tank becoming liquid-full
before the cargo reaches a temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure
of the cargo at the set pressure of the relief valves required in 8.2, an additional
pressure-relieving system complying with 8.3 should be fitted.

15.2 Information to be provided to the master

The maximum allowable loading limits for each cargo tank should be indicated for each
product which may be carried, for each loading temperature which may be applied and
for the applicable maximum reference temperature, on a list to be approved by the
Administration. Pressures at which the pressure relief valves, including those valves
required by 8.3, have been set should also be stated on the list. A copy of the list
should be permanently kept on board by the master.

52
15.3 Chapter 15 applies to all ships regardless of the date of construction.’’

The following words are added at the end of existing paragraph 8.2.17:

‘‘at the maximum allowable filling limit (FL)’’.

The following new paragraph 8.2.18 is added after existing paragraph 8.2.17:

‘‘8.2.18 The adequacy of the vent system fitted on tanks loaded in accordance with
15.1.5 is to be demonstrated using the guidelines developed by the Organization. A
relevant certificate should be permanently kept on board the ship. For the purposes of
this paragraph, vent system means:
1. the tank outlet and the piping to the pressure relief valve;
2. the pressure relief valve;
3. the piping from the pressure relief valve to the locationof discharge to the
atmosphere and including any interconnections and piping which joins other
tanks.

This paragraph may apply to all ships regardless of the date of construction. ””[18]

53
11. CONCLUSION

In the present project, LNG processing flow diagram has been made. It has been shown
and detailed how to transport and transfer LNGfrom resource to consumers.The LNG
processing has a long and laborious path, however when the process is actualized, it
brings regain and less effect to the nature compared to the other biofuels and nuclear
enegy sources.

Briefly, the LNG processing has a path as follows ,

Detection - seismic surveys to find the right places to drill wells are performed. Once
the gas is found, it flows up through the well to the surface of the ground and
transferred into the large pipelines.

Gas production - raw natural gas is cleaned in the gas production plant.

Liquefaction - the liquefaction process entails cooling the cleaned gas by refrigerants.

Transfer and Transport - in this process, prepared natural gas which is liquefied is
available to transfer. After transfer operation transport operation is done via LNG
carriers.

Storage - the LNG is transfered to tanks that are onshore, from carriers and stored for
distrubution.

54
Regasification - the LNG is converted into gas phase in this process via regasification
system.

Distribution - end of the all procedures, the gas is ready to be used and this process
contains bringing to costumers.

Reliquefaction - as an extra, during these processes it may need to liquefy the boil-off
gas again.This operation provides reliquefying the boil-off gas via reliquefaction
systems.

55
REFERENCES

[1] http://listverse.com/2009/05/01/top-10-renewable-energy-sources/

[2] http://www.eia.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=natural_gas_home-basics

[3] http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/skoge/diplom/diplom09/perez/perez_luber_lng_ms-
thesis09.pdf

[4] http://www.swgasliving.com/content/why-natural-gas

[5] http://www.ei.lehigh.edu/eli/energy/resources/readings/natural_gas.pdf

[6] http://www.api.org/~/media/files/oil-and-natural-gas/offshore/offshoreaccess-
primer-lores.pdf

*Image courtesy of The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM)

[7] http://www.beg.utexas.edu/energyecon/lng/

[8] http://www.co2crc.com.au/imagelibrary

[9] http://www.ivt.ntnu.no/

[10] http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/162630.pdf

[11] http://202.114.89.60/resource/pdf/4765.pdf

[12] http://www.marad.dot.gov/documents/DWP_--_Offshore_Transfer,_Re-
Gasification_and_Salt_Dome_Storage_of_LNG.pdf

[13]

http://www.hamworthy.com/PageFiles/196/LNG%20Reliquefaction%20Systems.pdf

[14] https://www.chiyoda-corp.com/technology/en/LNG/bog.html

[15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas

[16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regasification

[17] International Group of Liquefied Natural Gas Importers (GIIGNL) -

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http://www.giignl.org/sites/default/files/PUBLIC_AREA/About_LNG/4_LNG_Basics/09
0801publique_lngbasics_lng_3_-_lng_ships_7.3.09-aacomments.pdf

[18]
http://www.imo.org/Publications/Documents/Supplements%20and%20CDs/English/IG
C_2003sup.pdf

[19] International Maritime Organisation (IMO). Global Integrated Shipping

Information System.

http://gisis.imo.org/Public

[20] Luketa A. et al. 2008. Breach and Safety Analysis of Spills Over Water from
Large Liquefied Natural Gas Carriers. Sandia National Laboratories Albuquerque, New
Mexico.

[21]

http://www.gastechnology.org/Training/Documents/LNG17/proceedings/Transport-
13-Jim-Harger-Presentation.pdf

[22]
http://www.lngfacts.org/resources/SANDIA_2008_Report__Large_LNG_Vessel_Sa.pdf

[23] Liquefied Gas Carrier, DNV Part 5 Chapter 5, January 2012

[24] T. Miller, The carriage of liquefied gases, UK P&I Club

[25] M. Stopford, Maritime Economics (2009), 3rd edition. Oxon: Routledge

[26] International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code) ,1993 edition , Printed in the U.K. by IMO

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CURRICULUM VITAE

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Name Surname : ADNAR

Date of birth and place : 17/08/1994 - DUZCE

Foreign language : ENGLISH

E-mail : suatadnar@hotmail.com

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