Heat Transfer

Improve
Combustion System
Efficiency
Bill Axon Follow these pointers for
TMTS Associates, Inc.
maximizing the performance
of furnaces and burners.

I
ndustrial furnaces and boilers consume large amounts of
fuel. Any increase in efficiency translates into reduced
energy demand and, ultimately, monetary savings.
This article provides guidance on improving the opera-
tion of combustion systems. It explains how the proper
air/fuel ratio saves energy, outlines how to adjust burners to
save fuel, and offers suggestions for boosting system per-
formance. Although it focuses on natural-gas-fired furnaces,
many of the points discussed also apply to other gas- and
liquid-fuel-fired combustion systems as well.
Understand the importance of the air/fuel ratio
The air/fuel ratio is the volumetric ratio of air to natural
gas. The stoichiometric ratio, which is determined by the
chemistry of the combustion reaction, is the ratio of air to
natural gas (typically 10 to 1) required for complete combus-
tion with no excess air. Excess air (sometimes abbreviated
Excess air passing through a burner requires extra fuel to
raise its temperature, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Note that not all heating processes can operate close to
the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Some processes require a
specific combustion atmosphere in contact with the product
being heated. A reducing (fuel-rich) atmosphere minimizes
oxide formation during the forging or heat-treating of some
metals. An oxidizing (lean) atmosphere often aids in the
firing of ceramic products by burning carbon and sulfur out
of the clay. Even in such applications, however, reducing
excess air wherever practical can yield fuel savings.
Minor adjustments to the air/fuel ratio can often yield
fuel savings in the range of 1% to 3% without major capital
investment. Table 1 demonstrates the fuel savings (in per-
140%
Compared with 10% Excess Air

XSA) is the amount beyond the stoichiometric ratio fed to

Amount of Fuel Required

the burners. For natural gas, it is calculated by: 130%

ir
sA

XSA = [(Vair – 1)/(Vgas × 10)] × 100

r

(1)
Ai
% xces

r
ss

Ai

120%
ce

ss
E

ir
Ex

ce

where XSA is the percentage of excess air and Vair and Vgas sA
%

Ex

s
50

are the volumetric flowrates of air and natural gas in ft3 per ce
40

Ex
30

unit of time, respectively. 110% %

20
Excess air was once used to ensure complete combustion
of unburned gases in old burners with poor mixing. Later,
10% Excess Air
as improved burner designs provided better circulation and 100%
lower hot-mix temperatures (i.e., the theoretical average 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
temperature of all products of combustion of a fuel with air, Furnace Gas Exit Temperature, °F
including any excess air), excess air was used to ensure good
S Figure 1. Excess air entering a burner requires additional fuel.
temperature uniformity in furnaces.

CEP August 2009 www.aiche.org/cep 41

Heat Transfer

cent) that can be achieved by reducing the amount of excess average natural gas flowrate, 40% excess air, and a 1,400°F
air to 10%. For example, lowering the excess air from 15% fluegas exit temperature. Operation is 24 h/d, 5 d/wk,
to 10% will result in a 2.5% fuel savings at a fluegas exit 50 wk/yr (6,000 h/yr). Reducing excess air from 40% to
temperature of 1,500°F, a 4.4% fuel savings at 2,000°F, and 10% will yield a 12.3% fuel savings, or 1,712,000 ft3 of
a 7.7% fuel savings at 2,500°F. gas per year. At $6/1,000 ft3, the annual gas savings will
Example 1: heat-treating furnace. Assume a 2,320-ft3/h be $10,272.
Example 2: steel reheat furnace. Assume
Table 1. Fuel savings (in percent) that can be achieved a heat input of 60 MM Btu/h, 20% excess air,
by cutting back to 10% excess air. an 1,800°F stack temperature, and 7,400 h/yr
Excess Air operation. Reducing excess air from 20%
[Oxygen Content of Fluegas (dry basis)]* to 10% represents a fuel savings of 7%
Furnace
Exit Gas 15% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% — 31,080,000 ft3 of gas per year, and
Temperature, °F [2.98%] [3.80%] [5.22%] [6.43%] [7.46%] [9.14%] $186,480/yr.
2,600 10.1 20.3 40.5 60.8 81.1 — Higher operating temperatures and higher
2,400 7.44 14.9 29.8 44.6 59.5 89.3 heat inputs (Btu/h) will yield even larger
energy savings.
2,200 5.67 11.3 22.7 34.0 45.3 68.0
The term available heat refers to what is
2,000 4.41 8.82 17.6 26.5 35.3 52.9
accessible to the furnace and its workload. It is
1,800 3.46 6.93 13.9 20.8 27.7 41.6 equal to the gross heat input minus all fluegas
1,600 2.73 5.45 10.9 16.4 21.8 32.7 losses (Figure 2), and is expressed as a per-
1,400 2.14 4.27 8.54 12.8 17.1 25.6 centage of the gross heat input. Available heat
1,200 1.65 3.30 6.61 9.91 13.2 19.8
is a useful concept for calculating efficiencies
and fuel savings. It represents the best pos-
1,000 1.25 2.50 4.99 7.49 9.98 15.0
sible efficiency for a furnace with no heat loss
800 0.91 1.81 3.62 5.44 7.25 10.9 through the walls, openings, conveyors, etc.
600 0.61 1.23 2.45 3.68 4.91 7.36 The higher the process (fluegas) tempera-
400 0.36 0.72 1.44 2.16 2.88 4.32 ture, the lower the available heat — and the
* At 10% excess air, the O2 content is 2.09%.
more important it becomes to maintain the
furnace and combustion system at (or as near
as practical) its optimum efficiency.
Fluegas
Table 2 illustrates the percent of
Losses available heat at various fluegas
e

temperatures and excess air levels,

ibl
nt

ns
Late

and can be used to estimate the fuel

Se

savings that may be achieved by

reducing excess air flow.
Wall
Figure 3 is a typical combus-
FURNACE Opening tion efficiency curve. If the air/fuel
Loss
Loss
Conveyor ratio remains on the lean side of this
Gross Loss curve (typically 10% excess air),
INPUT
Heat Net combustibles (e.g., CO, etc.) are
Available Heat to USEFUL minimized.
Load OUTPUT

Adjust the burners to save fuel

Adjusting the burners to achieve
the optimum air/fuel ratio and
Heat Storage in reduce excess air can save energy.
Walls and Fixtures The installation of pressure gages,
(batch only)
manometers, and a fluegas ana-
lyzer can provide a quick payback
in energy savings. (Note that the
S Figure 2. The useful output is a fraction of the gross heat input to the furnace. adjustment methods discussed here

42 www.aiche.org/cep August 2009 CEP

 Table 2. Available heat (as a percentage of the gross heat input) is a in the gas line at each burner to measure gas pres-
function of fluegas temperature and excess air. sure drop, and use that to calculate the gas flow-
Excess Air rate. Measure the static air pressure at each burner,
Fluegas
Temperature,°F 0% 5% 10% 25% 50%
and use the burner manufacturer’s flow/pressure
datasheet to determine air flow. For more-precise
300 86.14 85.93 85.72 85.08 84.02
adjustments, install individual metering orifices in
400 84.02 83.72 83.42 82.51 81.00 the air line at each burner to measure the air pres-
500 81.87 81.47 81.08 79.90 77.93 sure drop and flow.
600 79.68 79.19 78.71 77.25 74.82 Metering orifices, depending on design type
700 77.46 76.88 76.30 74.56 71.67 and tap location, can have a 1–3% flow error. In
addition, variable natural gas and combustion air
800 75.21 74.54 73.86 71.84 68.48
temperatures affect mass flow, and the calorific
900 72.93 72.16 71.39 69.09 65.24 value of natural gas is an average, not a fixed
1,000 70.62 69.75 68.89 66.29 61.97 value. Thus, when using metering orifices, the
1,100 68.28 67.32 66.36 63.47 58.66 general recommendation is to adjust the air/fuel
1,200 65.91 64.85 63.79 60.61 55.31 ratio to a minimum of 10% excess air, not the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Variations in air and
1,300 63.52 62.36 61.20 57.72 51.93
gas temperatures, metering flow error, and vari-
1,400 61.09 59.84 58.58 54.80 48.51
able calorific value will affect the air/fuel ratio;
1,500 58.64 57.29 55.93 51.85 45.05 by establishing a 10% excess air setting, the ratio
1,600 56.17 54.71 53.25 48.86 41.56 remains on the lean side of the air/fuel curve.
1,700 53.66 52.10 50.54 45.85 38.03 Flowrate is proportional to the square root of
1,800 51.13 49.47 47.80 42.80 34.47
pressure drop. To convert air and gas pressure-
drop readings to flowrates:
1,900 48.58 46.80 45.03 39.72 30.87

do not apply to open burners or inspirators due to their
uncontrolled air flow.)
To adjust a single burner, use an oxygen-combustibles
analyzer to sample the fluegas and measure O2 and combus-
tibles. Adjust the gas flow to the burner until the minimum
percentage O2 and minimum percentage combustibles are
reached. This will achieve the best efficiency and save fuel.
Alternatively, the procedure outlined below for multiple
burners may be applied to a single burner.
For multiple burners, install individual metering orifices
Maximum
Fuel Efficiency
10% Excess Air
Fuel Efficiency
V2 = V1(ΔP2/ΔP1)0.5 (2)
where: V2 is the burner flowrate, ft3/h; ΔP1 is the pressure
drop across the metering orifice, in. w.c.; V1 is the cor-
responding flowrate from the flow/pressure chart for the
orifice, ft3/h; and ΔP2 is the measured pressure drop across
the burner, in. w.c.
Upgrade air/fuel ratio control
Mechanical linked-valve control (Figure 4). This first-
generation control logic can be implemented as a fuel-only
configuration, or the air and fuel valves can be linked
together mechanically. It is difficult for this type of control
to maintain a constant air/fuel ratio over the entire low-
firing to high-firing range. This arrangement is also difficult
to adjust and tune.

Air Control Valve

Air

Burner
Rich Stoichiometric Lean Fuel
(Reducing) Air/Fuel Ratio (Oxidizing) Fuel Control Valve

S Figure 3. Maximum fuel efficiency is achieved at the stoichiometric S Figure 4. Mechanical linked-valve control may be unable to maintain
air/fuel ratio. a constant air/fuel ratio at all firing rates.

CEP August 2009 www.aiche.org/cep 43

Heat Transfer
Air Control Valve
Air Primary
Burner
Fuel
Ratio
Regulator Limiting Metering
Orifice Orifice
S Figure 5. A pressure-balanced regulator control system matches air
and gas pressures to adjust the air/fuel ratio.
T Figure 6. Microprocessor-based electronic mass-flow control is the
most accurate type of ratio control.
Air Control Valve
Air
Electronic
Orifice / ΔP Ratio
Transmitters Controller Burner
Fuel
Primary
Fuel Control Valve
Pressure-balanced regulator control (Figure 5). In this
second-generation control logic, also known as a cross-
connected system, the temperature controller drives a
motorized air valve, and the air-loaded impulse line, which
is connected to a ratio regulator, proportionately follows the
air flow by matching air and gas pressures. This arrange-
ment allows the adjusted air/fuel ratio to be maintained
throughout the firing range. Adjustment and tuning are also
quick and simple.
A cross-connected ratio control system can be an accu-
rate, repeatable, and cost-effective method of ratio control.
A biased ratio regulator is a special type of pressure-
balanced regulator that provides additional control-system
flexibility. As the air flowrate is turned down toward low-
fire, the gas flowrate drops faster, so the percentage of excess
air increases. These regulators allow the furnace to operate
on-ratio — i.e., at the proper air/fuel ratio, generally 10 parts
of air to 1 part of fuel — at high firing rates and then become
progressively leaner (less fuel, more excess air) as the sys-
tem tracks to a lower firing rate.
These variable ratio regulators help achieve temperature
uniformity while using a minimum amount of excess air,
improving fuel economy. Specific furnace process require-
ments usually dictate whether this type of arrangement
is needed. For example, depending on the product, some
furnaces may require an oxidizing atmosphere (excess air),
others may require a reducing atmosphere (excess fuel),
and still others may require a combination of excess air,
on-ratio, and/or reducing atmospheres as the product is
exposed to different temperatures during the firing cycle.
44 www.aiche.org/cep August 2009 CEP
Electronic mass-flow control (Figure 6) is the most accu-
rate type of ratio control. It can measure and control air and
gas flowrates, compensate for ambient air temperatures (or
preheated combustion air) and changes in fuel pressure and
temperature, and control furnace pressure. These micropro-
cessor-based multi-loop systems are accurate and fast, and
many can provide data-logging.
An electronic mass-flow control system is not inexpen-
sive, and a thorough evaluation must be undertaken before
it is selected. The potential for fuel savings and improved
product quality, as well as the ability to more-closely control
a complex process, may justify choosing this approach.
Convert from indirect to direct firing
If a specific controlled atmosphere in the furnace is
not required, consider selecting direct-fired burners, where
the flame and products of combustion are in the furnace
chamber with the product. With an indirect-fired burner, the
flame and products of combustion are in a separate chamber
and do not come in contact with the product. This results in a
loss of overall combustion efficiency, since the heat must be
transferred across an intermediary surface.
With a direct-fired burner, the flame shape, velocity,
and placement may improve efficiency through better heat
transfer, more-uniform furnace temperature, lower fluegas
temperature, and even reduced furnace maintenance.
Flue location
An adequately sized flue (or multiple flues) positioned
correctly inside the furnace will aid in maintaining tem-
perature uniformity, which translates into improved product
quality and furnace efficiency. Flue size is determined by the
volume of combustion products passing through the furnace.
The proper flue position depends on the type of furnace, the
shape of the furnace, the shape of the product (load), and
whether a direct-fired or indirect-fired burner is used. Flue
sizing and placement are best left to specialists in combus-
tion system and furnace design. The goal is to make the
heated furnace gases travel the longest distance and release
as much heat as possible before exiting the furnace.
Automatic vs. manual control
If the furnace is manually controlled, multiple opera-
tors and lack of uniform training can negatively impact the
uniformity of furnace operations. Installing an automatic
temperature-control system and keeping it well-tuned will
eliminate or reduce the inconsistencies.
Control furnace pressure
When a furnace operates at high positive pressure,
hot fluegases can be forced out around door seals and
other furnace gaps. This causes damage to door seals,
refractory, and the surrounding furnace structure. Figure 8 translates negative furnace pressure into the addi-
Conversely, a furnace operating at a substantial nega- tional cost associated with air infiltration (based on a fuel
tive pressure wastes fuel as it entrains cold air through door cost of $4/MM Btu).
seals and other gaps. Figure 7 illustrates the relationship Furnace pressure control can be accomplished using
between negative furnace pressure and cold air infiltration. either an automated mechanical damper or air jets, in
conjunction with dedicated control logic, to maintain the
desired neutral or slightly positive pressure measured at the
furnace hearth level.
600 When considering the installation of a furnace pressure
damper and controller, several factors need to be evalu-
ated to determine whether significant energy savings can
be achieved. These include: furnace operating temperature,
Air Infiltration, ft3/h per in2

furnace size, fuel consumption, total operating hours at a

400
negative pressure, and the condition of the door seal(s).
Seal condition can be checked by holding a smoky rag or
piece of wood near the seal and observing any movement of
the smoke — if the furnace is under positive pressure, the
200 smoke will blow away from the door seal, whereas if the
furnace is under negative pressure, the smoke will be drawn
into the door seal.
In high-temperature furnaces, the cost of cold air
infiltration caused by negative furnace pressure (i.e., the
0
–0.10 –0.20 –0.30 cost to heat the air) is usually higher than the cost of the
Furnace Pressure, in. w.c. hot gas escaping as a result of a slightly positive furnace
pressure.
S Figure 7. Negative furnace pressure causes cold-air infiltration …

T Figure 8. … which increases fuel demand and costs. Heat recovery

For large furnaces, consider recuperators to preheat
the combustion air or regenerative burners. Both of these
$8 retrofits can save significant amounts of energy. However,
they are also expensive, and require a thorough evaluation
of furnace operating costs, age, productivity, dewpoint acid
condensation, fouling, etc., prior to installation.
$6
Waste heat can also be used to preheat the furnace load
Fuel Cost, $/h per ft3 of Opening
(based on a cost of $4/MM Btu)

or combustion air, for space heating, or to heat water or

generate steam, all of which can save energy. Table 3 lists
waste-heat recovery opportunities and the typical heat-

$4 Table 3. Typical heat transfer coefficients for various

methods of waste-heat recovery
Heat-Transfer Coefficient,
Heat Receiver U, Btu/h-ft2-°F
Solid Metal, Load Preheat U = ho = 4
$2
Boiling Water, Waste-Heat Boiler U = 1/[1/4 + 1/1,000] = 3.98
Water, Hot Water Heater U = 1/[1/4 + 1/100] = 3.85
Make-Up Air, Space Heater U = 1/[1/4 + 1/4] = 2
Combustion Air, Recuperator U = 1/[1/4 + 1/4] = 2
0
or Regenerator
–0.03 –0.02 –0.01 0 +0.01 +0.02 +0.03
Furnace Pressure, in. w.c. The overall coefficient of heat transfer from one fluid through a
metal wall to another fluid is U = 1/[1/ho + 1/hi,] where ho, the
Based on 60°F ambient air and 1,900°F products of combustion film coefficient on the outside, is typically 4.

CEP August 2009 www.aiche.org/cep 45

Heat Transfer
transfer coefficient associated with each. The challenge
is to match the available waste heat to either an existing
or new load.
Boilers as large energy users
Even a small industrial boiler operating 24/7 can be a
large fuel consumer. Improving the air/fuel ratio by as little
as a few percentage points can yield a large energy savings.
Proper boiler maintenance to keep the fireside and water
surfaces clean will also help to improve heat transfer.
If the boiler’s burner is more than about ten years old,
consider the economic benefits of retrofitting it with a new
replacement (conversion) burner, taking into account the
burner’s hours of operation, operating temperature, and
maintenance history. Environmental concerns, such as
reducing NOx to meet regulatory requirements, may also
necessitate upgrading the burner.
When replacing a burner, select one that modulates the
heat input rate rather than cycling on and off. Every shut-
down/restart requires purging the boiler, which wastes heat.
If the facility experiences wide swings in steam loads,
multiple smaller packaged boilers might be more cost-effec-
tive than a single large unit, which would typically operate
inefficiently at minimum steam load for many hours each
day. With multiple boilers, one can function as a base-load
unit with the others meeting seasonal or other varying-load
demands. Installing smaller packaged boilers in multiple
locations throughout a large plant site can minimize heat and
condensate losses by keeping piping runs to a minimum.
Steam system piping
Generating 1 lb of steam at 212°F requires 1,112 Btu.
Failure to return 180°F condensate to the boiler wastes
110 Btu/lb of steam.
Properly insulated piping saves energy. One linear foot
of well-insulated 3-in.-dia. steam pipe carrying 350°F steam
will lose 51 Btu/h, whereas the same pipe, if uninsulated,
would lose a staggering 1,190 Btu/h.
Steam leaks also waste energy. For example, a leak of
100-psi steam through a 0.5-in. orifice will waste 835,000 lb
of steam per month.
Further Reading
Reed, R. J., “North American Combustion Handbook,” Vols. 1 and 2,
North American Manufacturing Co. (now Fives North American
Combustion, Inc.), Cleveland, OH, www.namfg.com (1997).
Acknowledgements
The author thanks Tom McGowan, president TMTS Associates, Inc., and Fives
North American Combustion for their contributions to this article.
46 www.aiche.org/cep August 2009 CEP
Best practices for burner system piping
1. Use black iron (not galvanized) pipe with malleable
iron fittings for combustion systems.
2. Install drip legs on gas lines to trap dirt and moisture
and prevent fouling of regulators, valves, burners, etc.
3. Leak-test all piping connections with a soapy water
solution.
4. When pressure-testing new equipment, be careful not
to exceed the allowable maximum pressure for included
components.
5. Where possible, avoid reducing bushings and street
el fittings (i.e., 45-deg. or 90-deg. fittings with a male pipe
thread on one end and a female pipe thread on the other),
which are more restrictive than conventional fittings. The
pressure loss through corrugated flexible-pipe connections
is as much as five times the pressure loss in conventional
piping. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions when piping
relief lines, impulse lines, vent lines, etc.
6. Always provide flexible connections for the burner
and pilot. Do not use the burner as a pipe support. Include
unions and flanges for easy access and removal.
7. Use a good-quality anti-seize joint compound on pipe
connections that will be exposed to elevated temperatures.
Do not use soldered joints in fuel lines.
8. Center-fed manifolds with constant diameter are pre-
ferred over end-fed or decreasing-diameter configurations.
9. Check with the equipment manufacturer regarding the
required lengths of straight pipe runs upstream and down-
stream of regulators, valves, orifices, etc., to ensure good
control and accurate tracking.
10. If the combustion system will be modulating, select
a combustion air blower that has a relatively flat pressure
curve over the entire operating range.
11. Install a blower inlet filter to help keep both the
burner air and pilot air passageways clean and dirt-free.
Filter media can be disposable or washable. Blower
noise silencers or combination filter/silencers are
also available. CEP
BILL AXON is a consultant with TMTS Associates, Inc. (399 Pavillion St.,
Atlanta, GA. 30315; Phone: (404) 627-4722; E:mail: axonw@bellsouth.
net; Website: http://tmtsassociates.home.mindspring.com), an
engineering consulting firm specializing in combustion, air pollution
control, thermal desorption, and solids handling. Prior to joining TMTS
three years ago, he spent nearly 40 years working at North American
Manufacturing Co., in field sales, where he was involved in applica-
tion/process review, combustion system design and selection, field
installation supervision, startup, and optimization. He has experience
in the engineering and application of combustion systems using natural
gas, propane, all grades of fuel oil, and various liquid waste streams;
systems used in steel, aluminum, petrochemical, solid and gaseous
incineration, glass, air heating, ceramics, boilers, thermal fluid heaters,
food, paper, and copper; and systems with capacities ranging from
0.5 MM Btu/h to 75 MM Btu/h per burner with temperatures from 60°F
to 3,000°F. Axon attended Purdue Univ., Case Western Reserve Univ.,
Cuyahoga Community College, and the Indiana Univ.-Purdue Univ.
Indianapolis (IUPUI).