2013

Emmanuel Hospital
Association

Dennyson

[Community Based Adaptive

Watershed Management]
This document is TOT document to help trainers to present Holistic, Geographically defined,
Integrated, collaborative and iterative watershed approach in participative manner
MODULE 1 MODULE 2 MODULE 3 MODULE 4
Context Analysis: Concepts and Planning and Monitoring and
Drought, Food Framework of Implementing Evaluating
Security and Community- Community- Community-
Natural Based Integrated based Integrated Based Integrated

Session 1: Session 1: Session 1: Session 1:

Participants Basic concepts and Developing a Planning, designing
sharing of framework for community-based and implementing
experiences: community-based integrated result-based M&E
Approaches in integrated watershed watershed systems for
Drought management management plan community-based
preparedness and Session 2: and institutional integrated
mitigation, disaster arrangement watershed
risk reduction, food Sustainability management
considerations in Session 2.
security and programs
natural resources watershed Application of
management management participatory tools
a. Participation in and methodologies
for watershed
watershed
management assessment,
analysis and
b. Social, gender and planning
institutional issues in
watershed Sessions 3
management Watershed
c. Institutionalizing management
and sustaining technologies and
community-based practices for
watershed livelihood
management enhancement,
programs (case restoration,
studies) rehabilitation and
protection of
d. Existing policies natural resources
and institutional
mechanisms to Field Visits
support watershed • Existing livelihood
management and watershed
e. Managing resource management
conflicts in related
watersheds interventions and
technologies
Session 3:
Field Practicum
Disaster Risk
Reduction, • Participatory
Sustainable assessment and
planning for
livelihood, Food community-based
security and integrated
Watershed watershed
management linkages management
program

Action Plan
 Table of Contents
Watershed Planning as an Overarching Management Framework ................................................................................ 7
Core Principle 1: Watersheds are natural systems that we can work with. ................................................................ 7
Core Principle 2: Watershed management is continuous and needs a multi disciplinary approach......................... 11
Core Principle 3: Watershed management framework supports partnering, using sound science, taking well-
planned actions and achieving results ............................................................................................................... 12
Core Principle 4: A flexible approach is always needed.......................................................................................... 13
Steps to Effective Watershed Management ................................................................................................................. 16
Watershed Planning Is an Interactive Process ......................................................................................................... 16
Step 1. Build Partnerships ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Set Preliminary Goals .............................................................................................................................................. 18
Step 2. Characterize the Watershed ......................................................................................................................... 19
Step 3. Set Goals and Identify Solutions ................................................................................................................. 22
Step 4. Design an Implementation Program ............................................................................................................ 25
Step 5: Implement the Watershed Plan .................................................................................................................... 29
Step 6. Measure Progress and Make Adjustments ................................................................................................... 31
The Water Cycle(3.1.4 Watershed Manual) ............................................................................................................ 32
Water Balance Identity (3.1.5 Watershed Manual).................................................................................................. 32
Measuring Rain (3.1.6 Watershed Manual) ............................................................................................................. 33
Runoff (3.1.7 Watershed Manual) .......................................................................................................................... 34
Co-efficient of Run-off (C) (3.1.8 Watershed Manual) ........................................................................................... 34
Annual Volume or Quantum of Run-off in a Watershed (Surface Water Yield) 3.1.9 ............................................ 35
Introduction to Runoff ................................................................................................................................................. 36
Definitions: .............................................................................................................................................................. 36
A. Climate factors: ................................................................................................................................................... 37
Direct Runoff and Time of Concentration ................................................................................................................... 41
Direct Runoff ........................................................................................................................................................... 41
Peak runoff Rate: ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
Particle Sizes of Constituents of Soil ....................................................................................................................... 42
Soil Erosion 3.2.6 .................................................................................................................................................... 42
Types of Erosion .......................................................................................................................................................... 43
A. Geologic erosion & ............................................................................................................................................. 43
B. Accelerated Erosion: ........................................................................................................................................... 43
C. Other types of Soil erosion:................................................................................................................................. 43
A. Geologic erosion: ................................................................................................................................................ 43
B. Accelerated erosion: ............................................................................................................................................ 43
Factors Affecting Soil & Water Erosion ...................................................................................................................... 46
Factors Affecting Soil Erosion ................................................................................................................................ 46
A. Agronomical measures: ...................................................................................................................................... 48
1. Contour cultivation: ............................................................................................................................................. 48
2. Strip Cropping: .................................................................................................................................................... 48
3. Tillage practices: .................................................................................................................................................. 49
 B. Engineering Practices:......................................................................................................................................... 50
Participation in watershed management ...................................................................................................................... 52
Importance of Participatory Approach..................................................................................................................... 52
Identify and Engage Relevant Stakeholders and Local Issues ................................................................................. 52
Gender and Watershed Development .......................................................................................................................... 60
MODULE 2 - Session 1:
Basic concepts and framework for community-based integrated watershed
management
 Watershed Planning as an Overarching Management Framework
Watershed management approaches are evolving throughout the country and are being
used to address watersheds that have multiple problems. Based on successful
watershed management efforts four core principles of watershed management are
arrived
1. Watersheds are natural systems that we can work with.
2. Watershed management is continuous and needs a multi-disciplinary approach.
3. A watershed management framework supports partnering, using sound science,
taking well-planned actions and achieving results.
4. A flexible approach is always needed.

Core Principle 1: Watersheds are natural systems that we can work with.
Delineating the Watershed
A watershed is simply the land that water flows across or through on its way to a
common stream, river, or lake. A watershed can be very large (e.g. draining thousands
of square miles to a major river or lake or the ocean), or very small, such as a 20-acre
watershed that drains to a pond. A small watershed that nests inside of a larger
watershed is sometimes referred to as a subwatershed.
Since water flows downhill from higher elevations to a common body of water, to
delineate the watershed boundary for a particular place on a stream or lake, you will
need to draw a line along the ridge tops connecting the highest elevation points
surrounding the lake or stream. Delineating the ridgeline on a topo map is actually more
challenging than you might first imagine!

Figure 1watershed is all the land that water flows across or through on its way to a specific stream, river, or lake.
Figure 2A small watershed inside a larger one is sometimes referred to as sub watershed

through on its way to a specific stream, river, or lake.

Figure 3Key map information for watershed management includes the watershed boundary and the network of
streams involved in drainage

Follow one of the blue lines until it ends near a ridge top marking the watershed
boundary. Now, let’s explore what you find within the watershed boundary. The places
where surface waters first begin flowing are called headwaters. Some experts like to
categorize the hydrography or water bodies within a watershed by a classification
system referred to as stream order. For example, when a stream first begins, it is called
a first order stream. When two first-order streams join, the water below the junction is
called a second order stream, etc. In this classification system, the next higher order
stream is formed when two of the immediately lower order streams have joined.
We often talk about three management zones when discussing watershed management
— the waterbody, riparian, and upland zones. Waterbody is a term that includes any
stream, river, pond, lake, estuary or ocean. The riparian zone is defined as the non-
cultivated, vegetated area between the waterbody edge and the upland area. Riparian
means “of the river” and the riparian zone is intimately connected with the waterbody.
This zone often includes, but is not limited to, wetlands bordering waterbodies. The
upland area is not an exact term, but usually is defined as the land above a high water
mark
Natural Processes at Work in the Watershed
Importantly, no matter where we live or work, we are in a watershed teeming with
unique, inter-related natural processes. These natural forces help shape the watershed
landscape, its water quality, and—in turn—our lives.
In mountain upland areas, there are unique blends of climate, geology, hydrology, soils,
and vegetation shaping the landscape, with waterways often cutting down steep slopes.
Look closely at this picture and the many things that influence water quality: chemicals
from the mineral weathering of rocks, from the decay of vegetation, and from
groundwater. Notice how the vegetation shades the water, influencing temperature and
what can live in the water.
• In an upland plains area, you find grassy plains, hardy vegetation, and slower
moving, meandering streams and rivers.
• In the coastal area, where oceans meet land, there are again different blends of
features and processes shaping the environment.
• In lowland areas between upland and coastal waters, where tidal wetlands are
prevalent, processes serve entirely different functions.
In other words, each watershed—indeed each watershed zone—has unique living and
nonliving components that interact, with one element responding to the action or
change of another. Knowing your watershed means coming to learn the natural
processes working within the watershed boundaries.
Once you better understand these processes, you can better appreciate how the
watershed's ecological processes help sustain life. For example, a healthy watershed
provides:
• food sources for animals and people
• temporary living quarters for migratory birds
• drinking water for people and other living organisms
• habitat for fish and other life
There are other benefits including:
• purifying air of contaminants our communities emit
• assimilating contaminants that enter the water
• transporting goods and people
Some natural processes or forces provide benefits to some parts of the watershed while
impacting others—at least in the short term. For example, floods replenish soils in the
flood plain, but people and other living organisms may be impacted.
Human Factors at Work
Working with your watershed also means understanding how most human activities in
the watershed can occur in harmony with natural processes. Communities located along
streams and rivers, for example, are faced with very basic choices: they can learn how
the river functions and learn to draw benefits from it while staying out of harm's way—
or, they can try to significantly change the river's behavior in order to accomplish their
plans. It may be feasible to change the way a river acts, but this usually means taking on
costly and never-ending maintenance of those man-made changes; and, despite all the
maintenance, communities may remain still vulnerable to floods and other disasters. In
contrast, a community that has made sensible decisions on activities near the river can
avoid a costly maintenance burden while sustaining their community's use and
enjoyment of a healthy river system.

Understanding Your Watershed

How do you get oriented to what's happening in your watershed? Describe the
watershed such as:
• size of the watershed
o population
• current land uses by percentages
• villages in the watershed`
If you want to understand where these and other potential stressors are in the
watershed, you query the database for information such as:
• Population density
• Major roads
• Drinking water supplies
Why is it important to know about these human activities and where they occur in the
watershed? These human forces interact with the natural forces to directly shape the
condition of the land and water. For example,
• increasing impervious surfaces in the urban areas leads to increased water and
contaminant runoff;
• removing vegetation along drainage areas and increased stormflows lead to
erosion of soils which can change the landscape to more arid conditions;
• increasing the velocity of the water and contaminants it contains can be lethal to
living things or it can create health hazards, reducing our quality of life.
Once you've conducted a simple screening for potential stressors, you have a better
sense of where to do more in-depth investigations, including getting out in the
watershed to conduct stream walks, windshield surveys, and strategic water quality
sampling.
So watersheds are natural systems we can work with because
• they are practical, tangible management units that people understand, and
 • they help us understand and appreciate nature's interrelated processes and how
our actions can be tailored to complement rather than impact them.

Core Principle 2: Watershed management is continuous and needs a multi

disciplinary approach

Coordinating multi-disciplinary activities over a management cycle helps to

address continuous watershed management needs

Indeed, many management agencies and organizations are realizing that effective
resource management is
• never ending
• involves those affected by decisions
• reflects the integrated nature of nature itself
Watersheds are practical for integrating these efforts. The emerging watershed
framework builds on existing management programs and resources but has as its goal
watershed system integrity. When focusing on the watershed's integrated system,
people start thinking out of the programmatic or organizational boxes and start asking
themselves, "What are our common goals?"
Before we explore this emerging watershed management framework, let's define
exactly what we mean by "framework." A watershed framework is simply a lasting
process for partners working together. It's a support structure making it easier to
coordinate efforts--a structure made of agreed upon standard operating procedures,
timelines, and forums for communicating with each other. This is different than
a watershed management
plan that describes
environmental problems,
outlines specific restoration
and protection actions, and
documents where and how
actions will be taken and by
whom.
Essentially a coordinating
management framework leads
to coordinated management
plans.
The emerging framework isn't
one size fits all. It takes as a
given that you often need to work at different geographic scales, weigh multiple
management objectives, and address unique local concerns.
A state agency might be interested in major river basins since it's charged with
assessing and managing water quality state-wide. A local government wanting to
protect its drinking water supply may need to work with neighboring jurisdictions
throughout a medium sized watershed. A federal agency may need to implement a
multiple use management plan on a watershed in public ownership. A local watershed
association may be trying to solve a sedimentation problem in a small watershed. If
designed well, the watershed approach links all these initiatives with state, local, and
regional frameworks complementing and strengthening each other and individual
projects.

Core Principle 3: Watershed management framework supports partnering,

using sound science, taking well-planned actions and achieving results
When you're designing a house, you first think about all the functions you want it to
serve. The same is true for designing a watershed management framework. A strong
watershed framework
• uses sound science
• facilitates communication and partnerships
• fosters actions that are well-planned and cost effective
• stimulates actions and tracks results
In looking at watershed management efforts across the country, there are three
common elements of successful watershed management frameworks. At the center,
'geographic management units' are the watersheds themselves. Partners agree upon a
common set of units (i.e., watersheds) to provide a functional, practical basis for
integrating efforts. Stakeholders are involved throughout the process, with clearly
defined roles and responsibilities.
When we say stakeholder we mean
anyone who can impact or is
impacted by a decision in the
watershed. There are two general
categories of stakeholders: first, there
are those people who work together
on a daily or weekly basis. We call
these people watershed partners.
Then there are some citizens who live
and work in the watershed who just
want to be consulted and to provide
input periodically. Partners agree on
a management cycle, including
activities they will work on together
and a fixed time schedule for
sequencing these activities. Importantly, the cycle signals that watershed management
is a never ending job.
Some key features of this cycle are:
• it's repeated at fixed intervals (usually five years)
• it acknowledges change. The aim is not the perfect plan, but doing what you can
do this cycle knowing you can address other issues in the next cycle
• there is public input all along the way
• it takes a triage or strategic approach to watershed management, using strategic
monitoring and assessment to make the most of limited resources
• every step is aimed at taking action and tracking results
Does it sound like a simple cure-all or panacea? It isn't! There will always be crises and
new issues. There are also, of course, management responsibilities like spill response
and responding to new permit applications—that shouldn't be synchronized with this
time cycle. You should also take into account the fact that coordination takes time. The
key question to ask in designing a watershed management framework is:
Does this element of the framework make our job more effective and more efficient?

That leads us to the last core principle.

Core Principle 4: A flexible approach is always needed

The true meaning of this final core principle is that one should never look for a rigid,
step-by-step "cookbook recipe" for watershed management. Even neighboring
watersheds can have major differences in geology, land use, or vegetation that imply
the need for very different management strategies. Different communities vary in
the benefits they want from their watersheds. Moreover, watersheds change
through time. Eastern watersheds cleared of their forests in the first half of the 20th
century had specific management needs during regrowth in the second half of the
century, but management needs will likely change again in the 21st century. Changes
can even occur on more immediate time scales, due for example to the appearance of
 a serious forest pest or disease, a change in water use patterns, or the arrival of a
new community industry or enterprise. Watershed management is a dynamic and
continually readjusting process that is built to accommodate these kinds of changes.
Let's review the four core principles:
1. Watersheds are natural systems that we can work with.
2. Watershed management is continuous and needs a multi disciplinary approach.
3. A watershed management framework supports partnering, using sound science, taking
well-planned actions and achieving results.
4. A flexible approach is always needed.
Benefits of a Watershed Approach
Now take a few minutes to think about how operating with these principles could
benefit your watershed management efforts and make your responsibilities easier. Here
are some benefits others have found who have used the watershed approach:
1. It provides a context for integration
• using practical, tangible management units that people understand
• focusing and coordinating efforts
• finding common ground and meeting multiple needs
2. It provides a better understanding and appreciation of nature
• understanding nature’s interrelated processes
• helping answer the question, “What are we trying to protect?”
• linking human activities to nature’s response
• appreciating how nature’s processes can benefit people
• identifying ways we can work with watershed processes
3. It yields better management
• generating ecologically-based, innovative, cost-effective solutions
• forging stronger working relationships
• supporting consistent, continuous management
TOP 10 WATERSHED LESSONS LEARNED:
1. The Best Plans Have Clear Visions, Goals, and Action Items
2. Good Leaders are Committed and Empower Others
3. Having a Coordinator at the Watershed Level is Desirable
4. Environmental, Economic, and Social Values are Compatible
5. Plans Only Succeed if Implemented
6. Partnerships Equal Power
7. Good Tools Are Available
8. Measure, Communicate, and Account for Progress
9. Education and Involvement Drive Action
10. Build on Small Successes
Steps to Effective Watershed Management
Watershed Planning Is an Interactive Process
Process of creating and implementing a watershed plan is dynamic and iterative by
nature . Because the variables involved in developing the plan are always changing, your
plan will change with them. You might collect data and find answers you didn’t expect to
find. You’ll revisit your goals, assess the situation, and make changes as necessary. Once
you implement your plan, the feedback collected during your evaluation will give you
the information you need to update your plan and continue to document water quality
improvements and make progress toward attaining water quality standards. Do not be
discouraged if all your intended results are not met in the first or second cycle of your
planning

This section uses six basic steps to describe how to develop and implement an effective
watershed plan. These steps provide a road map for you to follow to achieve your
watershed goals
Notice that in the picture above the road includes a loop. That is because watershed
planning is an iterative process: As you collect new information, you should refine or
modify your approach and incorporate lessons learned into your planning and
implementation program. The remainder of Section I proceeds through each of the six
steps and includes case studies and relevant tools and resources you can access for
more information.

Step 1. Build Partnerships

The first step in the watershed planning process Step 1: Build Partnerships
is to build partnerships. The very nature of
working at a watershed level means you should • Identify key stakeholders
work with local stakeholders and other • Identify issues of concern
• Set preliminary goals
partners. New ideas and input provided by
• Develop indicators
partners not only provide a more solid • Conduct public outreach
commitment to solutions but also help to pool
resources and skill sets. The stakeholders that you involve in the watershed plan
development process will help you identify critical issues, set preliminary goals based
on areas of mutual concern, and develop an initial set of indicators that will be crucial in
monitoring progress. This step will also help you to develop an effective
information/education component, which is one of the nine minimum elements
(discussed in Step 4). Stakeholder involvement also increases the probability of long-
term success through trust, commitment, and personal investment.
Identify Key Stakeholders
Stakeholders are those who make and implement decisions, those who are affected by
the decisions made, and those who can assist or impede implementation of the
decisions. Key stakeholders also include those who can contribute resources and
assistance to the watershed planning effort and those who are working on similar
programs that can be integrated into a larger effort. It is important to remember that
stakeholders are more likely to get involved if you can show them a clear benefit to their
participating.
In general, there are at least five categories of participants to consider when identifying
stakeholders:
• Those who will be responsible for implementing the watershed plan
• Those who will be affected by implementation of the watershed plan
• Those who can provide information on the issues and concerns in the watershed
• Those who have knowledge of existing programs or plans that you might want to
integrate into your plan (e.g., soil and water conservation districts, irrigation
districts)
• Those who can provide technical and financial assistance in developing and implementing the
plan (e.g., state and central government department, colleges and universities).

Identify Issues of Concern

It is important for stakeholders to assist in identifying issues of concern in the
watershed. They often have a historical perspective on problems in the watershed and a
sense of whether conditions are improving or deteriorating. These issues will help
shape the overall goals of the watershed plan and determine what information is
needed to accurately define and address the concerns. This step will also help
determine the geographic scope of your watershed planning effort on the basis of where
the problems are located and areas that need to be protected.

Set Preliminary Goals

A fundamental step in the partnership-building process is to ask stakeholders to list
their long-term goals for the watershed. These goals will be refined throughout the
planning process to represent shared goals among the stakeholders. Concrete objectives
with measureable targets and indicators to measure progress will then be developed for
each goal the stakeholder group selects.
Develop Preliminary Indicators
Indicators are direct or indirect measurements of a component in a system. For
example, an indirect indicator to demonstrate the improved water clarity of a lake
might be the depth at which you can see your white sneakers as you wade into the lake.
A direct indicator would be total suspended solids samples taken quarterly at
predetermined depths. Indicators provide a powerful means of communicating to
various audiences about the watershed status, and they are used throughout the
planning and implementation process. Stakeholders should be actively involved in
selecting the indicators, and they should be asked to identify for each goal how progress
toward that goal will be measured. Just as the preliminary goals will be refined
throughout the watershed planning process, the indicators selected will be refined to
ensure they are quantifiable and include environmental, social, and programmatic
examples.
Conduct Public Outreach
Information/education activities should be initiated at the outset of the watershed
planning effort to familiarize potential partners and stakeholders with the issues,
outline the watershed planning process, and Step 2: Characterize Watershed
enlist their participation. Developing an
information/education component is one of the • Gather existing data
nine minimum elements; it is discussed further • Create a watershed inventory
in Step 4 of the watershed planning process • Identify data gaps
• Collect additional data if needed
Step 2. Characterize the Watershed • Analyze data
• Identify causes and sources of
Characterizing the watershed, its problems, and impairments
pollutant sources provides the basis for • Estimate Pollutant Load
developing effective management strategies to
meet water quality goals. The characterization and analysis process helps to focus
management efforts on the most pressing needs within the watershed.
Gather Existing Data and Create a Watershed Inventory
You will first identify existing information through reports and data sets. Data needed
for watershed planning include the following:

Physical & Land Use and Waterbody Waterbody Depletion

Natural Population Conditions Monitoring Causes
Features Characteristics Data

Watershed Land use, land Source water Water quality, Reasons for
Boundaries, cover, existing assessments, Flow, biology, depleting
Hydrology, management, reports, etc geomorphology, water bodies
topography, etc etc
soils, etc

Reports and data should be obtained from local governments (city and district planning
offices, environmental departments, soil and water conservation districts), state natural
resource agencies, and central government departments. You will then create a
watershed inventory to organize the data into a common format (in a spreadsheet or
database) for further analysis.
Watersheds is also classified into different categories based on area that the watersheds
contain:

Sr. No Type of Watershed Area Covered

1 Micro Watershed 0 to 10 ha

2 Small Watershed 10 to 40 ha

3 Mini Watershed 40 to 200 ha

4 Sub Watershed 200 to 400 ha

5 Macro Watershed 400 to 1000 ha

6 River basin above 1000 ha

In India

S.NO Category Size (Lakh Ha)

1 Region Above 300

2 Basin 30-300

3 Catchments 10-30

4 Sub catchments 2-10

5 Watershed 0.5-2

6 Sub watershed 0.1-0.5

7 Milli watershed 0.01-0.1 (1000-10000Ha)

8 Micro watershed 0.001-0.01 (100-1000 ha)

9 Mini watershed 0.0001-0.001 (10-100 ha)

Identify Data Gaps and Collect Additional Data if Necessary

There will always be more data to collect, but you need to keep the process moving
forward and determine whether you can reasonably characterize watershed conditions
with existing information. This process may involve:
Conducting a data review of your watershed inventory to examine data quality and
identify any significant temporal or spatial data gaps
Examining the data to determine whether you can link the impairments seen in the
watershed to the causes and sources of pollutants
Considering whether you have gathered data of the right types and of adequate quality.
If you determine that you need to collect additional data, first develop a sampling plan.
This will save you time and resources down the road, and you might be able to use
portions of the sampling plan to construct the long-term monitoring program discussed
in Step 4.
Analyze Data
Once you have gathered existing and newly collected data and consolidated the data
into a database or spreadsheet, you will analyze the information to identify watershed
pollutant sources and causes of any impairments, as well as important areas to protect.
In this phase of the watershed planning process, you will identify the causes and
sources of pollutants that need to be controlled. It is critical to have an understanding of
the watershed conditions and reasons for depletion.
Identify Causes
Together with the input from stakeholders and their local knowledge of the watershed,
analyzing your data should lead you to an understanding of where and when problems
occur in your watershed and what could be causing the problems. Pollutant sources,
along with associated pollutants, timing, and impact on the watershed, are critical to
developing an effective management strategy. It is also important to identify critical
areas (i.e., those that generate the most pollution) to focus on and to give priority to
conservation practice implementation.
In identifying the sources, you will begin to identify the critical areas to address with
targeted management strategies. The location of pollutant sources and the associated
critical areas will feed into selecting the management measures needed to control the
sources. “A description of the nonpoint source management measures that will need to be
implemented to achieve load reductions and a description of the critical areas in which
those measures will be needed to implement this plan.” The critical areas for each primary
source can be indicated on a map. In the next step you will quantify the magnitude of
the pollutant loads.
Estimate Pollutant Loads
A quantified estimate of pollutant loads and the related sources of those loads are often
missing from watershed plans, and filling this gap is critical to effectively control
sources, develop the load reductions needed to meet watershed goals, and restore
watershed health.
Various approaches can be used to conduct the loading analysis. The most appropriate
method depends on several factors, including water quality parameters, time scale of
the analysis, source types, data needs, and user experience. First check whether a
previous study that required the development of loading estimates, such as a TMDL or a
Clean Lakes study, was conducted. Such studies can often be used as a basis to provide
loading estimates appropriate for developing the watershed plan.
TMDLs describe the allowable point and nonpoint source load reductions or allocations
that will be necessary to meet water quality standards. The TMDL sets maximum
pollutant loads for the most critical conditions to ensure that the applicable water
quality standards will be attained at all times and will also provide a loading scenario
that addresses all seasonal conditions. The TMDL analysis also describes the pollutant
load from natural or background sources and establishes a margin of safety to ensure
the standards will be met. In some cases, there might be an opportunity to trade
pollution allocations or develop local ordinances or other programs to achieve equitable
and effective pollutant reductions from all sources. In any watershed analysis where
both point and nonpoint sources are present, it is important to determine the regulatory
requirements for the point sources and the feasibility of controlling the nonpoint
sources using existing local, state, tribal, and federal programs. This aspect of the TMDL
(referred to as reasonable assurance) provides a degree of certainty for achieving the
needed pollutant reductions.
Some loading analyses are focused on determining how much load is acceptable,
whereas others are focused on source loads that attribute loading to each category of
sources in the watershed. There are two general types of techniques for estimating
pollutant loads: (1) techniques that use actual monitoring data or literature values and
(2) techniques that use models to predict the estimated pollutant loads. Monitoring data
or literature values are fairly simple approaches that provide a coarse estimate of the
pollutant loads entering a waterbody. These techniques are best suited to conditions
where fairly detailed monitoring and flow gauging are available and the major interest
is in total loads from a watershed.
Models provide another approach for estimating loads, providing source load estimates,
and evaluating various management alternatives. They can be used to forecast or
estimate conditions that might occur under various scenarios. In some cases, landscape
and loading models are developed, and they can be supplemented with a receiving
water model as well. Although you might not be the person who will run the model, you
should have an understanding of what types of questions you want answered so that the
most appropriate model is used. Typical questions you might want a watershed model
to address include:
• Will the management actions result in meeting water quality standards?
• •Which sources are the main contributors to the pollutant load targeted for
reduction (e.g., landuse or land cover types)?
• •What are the loads associated with the individual sources (e.g., point sources
versus nonpoint sources)?
• •Which combination of management actions will most effectively meet the
identified loading targets (e.g., storm water management, wastewater treatment,
best management practices (BMPs) for croplands)?
• •When does the impairment occur? Is it seasonal or flow-dependent?
• •Will the loading or impairment get worse under future land use conditions?
• •How can future growth be managed to minimize adverse impacts?
• •How can the watershed plan ensure that downstream water quality is also
protected?
The modeling approaches developed are ultimately designed to support decision-
making. Essential to decision-making is the application of the model to identify
various alternatives. How you use the model to support decision-making is as
important as the various steps that go into building and testing the model.
Regardless of what model you use, the analysis should be field-checked before you
use the results.

Step 3. Set Goals and Identify Solutions

Now that you have characterized and quantified the problems in the watershed, you
need to refine the preliminary goals and develop more detailed objectives, measurable
targets, and indicators.
Set Overall Goals and Management Objectives
You identified preliminary goals and
associated environmental indicators with
your stakeholders earlier in the
characterization process, but now you will
refine those goals on the basis of your data
analysis. You will also establish more
detailed objectives and targets that will
guide the development of your management
strategies.
Step 3: Set Goals and Identify
Solutions
• •Set overall goals and management
objectives
• •Develop indicators/targets
• •Determine load reductions needed
• •Identify critical areas
• •Develop management measures to
achieve goals

For example, a preliminary goal developed

during the scoping phase, in Step 1 of the watershed planning process, might have been
to “restore aquatic habitat.” Based on the information collected during data analysis, in
Step 2 of the watershed planning process, you might determine that the causes
contributing to poor aquatic habitat include upland sediment erosion and delivery,
streambank erosion, and near-stream land disturbance (e.g., livestock, construction)
In this case, appropriate management objectives could include (1) reducing sediment
loads from upland sources and (2) improving riparian vegetation and limiting livestock
access to stabilize streambanks.
Develop Indicators/Targets
Next you will develop indicators and numeric targets to quantitatively measure whether
you are meeting your objectives. You identified indicators with your stakeholders
earlier to determine the current health of the watershed; now you will refine the
indicators to measure implementation. When developing your indicators and targets,
also work to establish interim milestones that will measure the implementation of
activities in your watershed plan, including the costs associated with those activities.
Refer to the Milestones section of Step 4 of this Quick Guide for more information
It is important to use different types of indicators to reflect where you are in the
watershed management process and the audience with which you are communicating.
You’ll first select environmental indicators to measure the current conditions in the
watershed and help to identify the stressors and the pollutant sources. Environmental
indicators are a direct measure of the environmental conditions that plan
implementation seeks to achieve. As you develop your management objectives and
actually assemble your watershed plan, you will add performance indicators, such as
social and programmatic indicators, to help measure progress toward meeting your
goals. An example of each type of indicator is provided in Table 1.

Environmental Programmatic Social

Number (or percentage) of Number of public water •Increase in the number of

river/stream miles that
fully meet all water quality
standards
•Reduction in pollutant
loadings from nonpoint
systems with source water
protection plans
•Number of management
measures implemented in a
watershed (e.g.,number of
acres under nutrient
residents signing
watershed stewardship
pledge
•Rates of participation in
education programs
specifically directed toward
sources management, number of solving particular non point
riparian buffers created) source pollution problems

Determine Load Reductions Needed

Using the load estimates from Step 2, you must determine the extent to which the
pollutant loads need to be reduced to meet watershed goals. For waters for which EPA
has approved or established TMDLs, the plan should identify and incorporate the
TMDLs. The estimate should account for reductions in pollutant loads from point and
nonpoint sources identified in the TMDL as necessary to attain the applicable water
quality standards. The load reduction estimates are based on the planned management
measures to be implemented in the critical areas. Elements b and c of the nine minimum
elements are directly linked:
Element b states that the watershed plan should include “An estimate of the load
reductions expected for the management measures described in element (c) below.”

Element c states that you should include “A description of the NPS management
measures that will need to be implemented to achieve the load reductions estimated in
element (b) above, and an identification (using a map or a description) of the critical
areas in which those measures will be needed to implement this plan.”
To estimate the load reductions expected once the management measures are
implemented, you need to understand the cause-and-effect relationship between
pollutant loads and the waterbody response. Establishing this link allows you to
evaluate how much of a load reduction from watershed sources is needed to meet
waterbody targets. As with your approach for quantifying pollutant loads, selecting the
appropriate approach will depend on several factors, including availability, pollutants,
waterbody type, types of sources, time frame, and spatial scale. Most important, the
approach must be compatible with the method used to quantify loads and must be able
to predict the necessary load reductions to meet targets
Numerous models are available to determine which BMPs are more appropriate for
reducing pollutant loads and to aid in selecting the locations most likely to achieve the
greatest load reductions. All models have limitations that you must document to ensure
decision-makers understand them before using the data.
Identify Management Practices to Achieve Goals
Process to Select Management
In general, management practices are Practices
implemented immediately adjacent to the
waterbody or upland to address the sources of
pollutant loads. As part of your screening process, 1. Inventory existing management
efforts in the watershed, taking
you will want to identify which management into account local priorities and
practices can be implemented in the critical areas institutional drivers.
that you identified as part of Step 2. 2. Quantify the effectiveness of current
management measures.
In most parts of the country, land uses are 3. Identify new management
changing, and you will need to understand how opportunities.
these changes affect pollution loads and water 4. Identify critical areas in the
quality. Some watershed pollution models allow watershed where additional
management efforts are needed.
you to factor in various development and
5. Identify possible management
agricultural scenarios as well as changing practices.
climate. Watershed planning is an 6. Identify relative pollutant reduction
opportunity to work with new partners to Step 4:efficiencies.
Design Implementation
identify actions that reduce pollution, 7. Develop screening criteria to
Program
identify opportunities and
restore damaged ecosystems, and protect constraints.
valuable habitat. 8. Rank alternatives and develop
•Develop an implementation
candidate management
You can then use screening criteria to screen scheduleopportunities.
potential practices, narrowing the options
down to those which are the most effective •Develop interim milestones to
and acceptable. These criteria are based on track implementation of
factors such as pollutant reduction management measures
efficiencies, legal requirements, and physical •Develop criteria to measure
constraints. Once you have identified and progress toward meeting
screened various management options, watershed goals
calculate the effectiveness of the
•Develop monitoring
management practices, compare the costs
component
and benefits, and select the final
management strategies that will be the most •Develop
effective in achieving the load reductions information/education
needed to meet the goals for your watershed component

Step 4. Design an Implementation

Program
By the end of Steps 1, 2, and 3, you should have reached out to stakeholders and
identified watershed goals, characterized the sources of pollutants in the watershed
(element a), estimated pollutant loads and the necessary reductions to meet your goals
(element b), and identified the types and locations of management practices in the
watershed that will achieve the required load reductions (element c). Now you must
design an implementation program that shows how you will implement your watershed
plan.
Develop an Implementation Schedule
The schedule component of a watershed plan involves turning goals and objectives into
specific tasks. The schedule should include a timeline of when each phase of the step
will be implemented and accomplished, as well as the agency/ organization responsible
for implementing the activity. In addition,
your schedule should be broken down into
increments that you can reasonably track Example Milestones
and review. For example, the time frame for
implementing tasks can be divided into Short-Term (< 2 years) : Achieve 5
quarters. It is important to include an percent reduction in sediment load on
estimate of when water quality standards 1,000 acres of agricultural land in the
will be achieved, even if that date extends Cross Creek subwatershed by
beyond the project period. implementing rotational grazing
practices.
Milestones Eliminate direct sources of organic
When designing your implementation waste, nutrients, and fecal coliform
bacteria to the stream by installing
schedule, you should establish interim 5,000 feet of fencing to exclude direct
milestones that will help you measure the access to cattle along Cross Creek.
implementation of activities in your Mid-Term (< 5 years): Reduce
watershed plan “A description of interim stream bank erosion and sediment
measureable milestones for determining loading rate by 15 percent by
whether nonpoint source management reestablishing vegetation along 3,600
measures or other control actions are being feet of Cross Creek.
implemented.” It usually helps to develop Long-Term (5 years or longer):
milestones using relevant time scales like Achieve the fecal coliform water quality
standard in the upper section of Cross
the following: short-term (1 to 2 years), Creek above Highway 64.
mid-term (2 to 5 years), and long-term (5 to
10 years or longer). When developing
schedules and interim milestones, be sure to
account for weather and seasonal factors
when implementing BMPs or performing other field work.
First, outline the subtasks involved and the level of effort and funding requirements
associated with each to establish a baseline for time estimates. Then provide milestones
that can be reasonably accomplished within those short-term, mid-term, and long-term
time frames.
Benchmarks to Measure Progress
As you implement your watershed plan, you will need benchmarks to track progress
through monitoring. These interim targets can be direct measurements that reflect a
water quality condition (e.g., fecal coliform concentrations, dissolved oxygen content,
pounds of nitrogen) or indirect indicators of load reduction (e.g., number of beach
closings, pounds of trash removed, length of stream corridor revegetated).
You should also indicate how you’ll determine whether the watershed plan needs to be
revised if interim targets are not met. These revisions need to focus on changing
management practices, updating/reevaluating critical source areas/loading analyses,
and reassessing the time it takes for pollution concentrations to respond to treatment;
they should not focus on changing the plan’s goals.
A set of criteria that can be used to determine whether loading reductions are being
achieved over time and substantial progress is being made toward attaining water
quality standards.”
Monitoring Program
Your monitoring program will address element i, which states that you should include “A
monitoring component to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation efforts over
time, measured against the criteria established under item h.”
Monitoring programs can be designed to track progress in meeting load reduction goals
and attaining water quality standards and other goals. Measurable progress is critical to
ensuring continued support of watershed projects, and progress is best demonstrated
with the use of monitoring data that accurately reflect water quality conditions relevant
to the identified problems. Monitoring programs should include baseline (before),
project-specific (during), and post-project (after) monitoring.
When developing a monitoring design to meet your objectives, it is important to
understand how the monitoring data will be used. Ask yourself questions like the
following:
• •What questions are we trying to answer?
• •What techniques will be used?
• •What statistical accuracy and precision are needed?
• •Can we account for the effects of weather and other sources of variation?
• •Will our monitoring design allow us to attribute changes in water quality to the
implementation program?
Information/Education Component
Every watershed plan should include an information/education component that
involves the watershed community. Because many water quality problems result from
individual actions and the solutions are often voluntary practices, effective public
involvement and participation promote the adoption of management practices; help to
ensure the sustainability of the watershed management plan; and, perhaps most
important, encourage changes in behavior that will help you achieve your overall
watershed goals. This phase of the watershed planning process will address element e,
which calls for 
“An information and education component used to enhance public understanding of the
project and encourage their early and continued participation in selecting, designing,
and implementing the nonpoint source management measures that will be
implemented.”
The objectives of the public outreach program should directly support your watershed
management goals and implementation of the watershed management plan. They
should also include measurable indicators for tracking progress. The
information/education component of your watershed plan should build on the outreach
efforts you initiated in Step 1 as part of building partnerships. To develop an effective
information/education plan, you should use the following steps:
•Define information/education goals.
•Identify and analyze the target audiences.
•Create the messages for each audience.
•Package the message for the various audiences.
•Distribute the messages.
•Evaluate the information/education program.
Evaluation Process
There are two primary reasons to evaluate your watershed program. First, you want to
be able to demonstrate that by implementing the management measures, you are
achieving your watershed goals. Second, you want to be able to continually improve
your program in terms of efficiency and quality.
In general, you will evaluate three major components of your watershed
implementation program— inputs, outputs, and outcomes (Figure 2). Your evaluation
framework should include indicators to measure each component. A brief description of
each component is included below:
• •Inputs—the elements of the process used to implement your program (i.e.,
resources of time and technical expertise, stakeholder participation)
• •Outputs—the tasks conducted and the products developed (i.e., implementation
activities such as installing management practices)
• •Outcomes—the results or outcomes realized from implementation efforts (i.e.,
environmental improvements like water quality).

Identify Technical and Financial Assistance

A critical factor in turning your watershed plan into action is the ability to fund
implementation. Funding might be needed for multiple activities, such as management
practice installation, information/education activities, monitoring, and administrative
support. In addition, you should document what types of technical assistance are
needed to implement the plan and what resources or authorities will be relied on for
implementation, in terms of both initial adoption and long-term operation and
maintenance. The identification and estimation of financial and technical assistance
should take into account the following:
•Administration services, including salaries, regulatory fees, supplies, and in-kind
services
•information/education efforts
•Installation, operation, and maintenance of management measures
•Monitoring, data analysis, and data management activities.
Provide an estimate of the amounts of technical and financial assistance needed,
associated costs, and/or the sources and authorities that will be relied upon to
implement this plan.”
Keys to Successful Implementation
Although there is no single component that defines success, several factors, if
implemented, will enhance your chances of a successful watershed implementation
plan:
• •Measurable goals and objectives
• •Dedicated staff to carry out administrative duties
• •Consistent, long-term funding
• •Involvement of stakeholders in planning efforts
• •Dedicated individuals who are supported by local government agencies
• •Local ownership of the watershed plan
• •A method for monitoring and
evaluating implementation
strategies
Step 5: Implement the
• •Open communication between Watershed Plan
organization members.

Step 5: Implement the Watershed •Prepare work plans

Plan •Implement management
Although much of the watershed planning strategies
process is focused on developing the plan,
•Conduct monitoring
results will not happen until the plan is
actually implemented. Implementation •Conduct information/education
activities should follow the road map
developed in your plan. This means that
individual projects should be coordinated
by a plan-designated project manager or implementation team to ensure that BMPs are
not just implemented but also fit the schedules, achieve specific milestones, and are
integrated with various monitoring and outreach efforts.
Prepare Work Plans
You will use your overall watershed plan as the foundation for preparing work plans,
which will outline the activities in 2- to 3-year time frames. Think of your watershed
plan as a strategic plan for long-term success and annual work plans as the specific to-
do lists to achieve that vision. Work plans can also be useful templates for preparing
grant applications to fund implementation activities. Depending on the time frame
associated with your funding source, your work plans might need to be prepared
annually with quarterly reporting.
Implement Management Strategies
Implementing the watershed management plan involves a variety of expertise and
skills, including project management, technical expertise, group facilitation, data
analysis, communication, and public relations. The management practices you identified
in your plan will probably include a combination of structural and nonstructural
controls. Be sure to set and track the milestones to measure the rate of progress in
implementing the management strategies. Your tracking should include the progress
made in BMP implementation, maintenance activities, and (if applicable) point source
treatment improvements and monitoring of social indicators.
Conduct Monitoring
As part of the development of your watershed plan, you should have developed a
monitoring component to track and evaluate the effectiveness of your implementation
efforts. There are many ways to monitor water conditions. To monitor the constituents
in water, sediments, and fish tissue—such as levels of dissolved oxygen, suspended
sediments, nutrients, metals, oils, and pesticides—monitoring specialists perform
chemical measurements. Physical measurements of general conditions such as
temperature, flow, water color, and the condition of streambanks and lakeshores are
also important. Biological measurements of the abundance and variety of aquatic plant
and animal life and the ability of test organisms to survive in sample water are also
widely used to monitor water conditions. In addition to government monitoring
programs, trained volunteers have been able to provide important data for watershed
management.
Analyze Your Data
Two types of analyses should be considered during the implementation phase: (1)
routine summary analysis that tracks progress, assesses the quality of data relative to
measurement quality objectives (i.e., whether the data are of adequate quality to
answer the monitoring questions), and provides early feedback on trends, changes, and
problems in the watershed and (2) intensive analysis to determine status, changes,
trends, or other issues that measure the response to watershed plan implementation.
In general, intensive data analysis should be conducted at least annually in a multiyear
watershed plan. The types of data analyses you perform on the monitoring data depend
on the overall goals and objectives, the management approach, and the nature of the
monitoring program; several types of analyses might be appropriate depending on the
monitoring questions. Where analysis and evaluation of management practices are the
focus of monitoring, it might be feasible to use relatively simpler analyses, such as t-
tests comparing indicator levels before and after implementation, levels above and
below implementation sites, or pollutant levels in areas where management options
were implemented and areas where they were not. Where adequate pre-
implementation data are not available, trend analysis can be used to look for gradual
changes in response to your implementation program. In some cases, more
sophisticated statistical techniques such as analysis of covariance might be required to
control for the effects of variations in weather, stream flow, or other factors.
Conduct Information/Education Activities
Although it is important to let people know about the water quality problems in the
watershed, sometimes simply informing and educating people on the issues is not
enough to encourage adoption of practices over time. First, audiences should be made
aware of the issue. Then they should be educated on the problems facing the watershed.
Finally, they should learn what actions they can take to help address those problems.
Share Results
Continuous communication is essential to building the credibility of and support for the
watershed implementation process. As part of your information/education activities,
you should be highlighting key activities and results to the stakeholders and the larger
community. This helps to keep them engaged and to show them how their participation
is making a difference.

Step 6. Measure Progress and Make Step 6: Measure Progress and

Make Adjustments
Adjustments
You will periodically review the implementation
activities outlined in your work plan, compare the •Track progress
results with your interim milestones, provide •Make adjustments
feedback to stakeholders, and determine whether
you want to make any corrections. The adaptive
management approach is not linear but circular, to allow you to integrate results back
into your program. You need to create decision points at which you will review
information and then decide whether to make changes in your program or stay the
course.
Track Progress
As part of your plan implementation, you will track progress in several areas, such as
meeting the milestones you set for management practice implementation. You will also
analyze monitoring data to determine water quality improvements. It is helpful to set
time frames for the review and assessment of your watershed plan. Simple basic data
analysis should be done routinely as part of the review process. Your review should also
address several key areas:
The process being used to implement your program
• Progress on your work plan
• Implementation results
• Feedback from landowners and other stakeholders.
Make Adjustments
If you have determined that you are not meeting the implementation milestones or
interim targets that you set for load reductions and other goals, you need to make
adjustments. Perhaps you have determined that you need additional management
measures or you need to apply the management measures in another location. Be sure
to ask the right questions before making any changes. In some cases you might not have
met your milestones because of weather conditions, or perhaps you lacked the funding
to implement some of the measures.
The Water Cycle(3.1.4 Watershed Manual)

Water Balance Identity (3.1.5 Watershed Manual)

Rain or precipitation (P) that falls is partly absorbed by the surface of the soil and is
held as stored soil moisture (ST). The water that flows over the land is called surface
runoff (RO). Part of the rain that percolates into the soil goes deeper and merges with
the stock of groundwater as groundwater recharge (GW). Evaporation (E) takes place
from all wet surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. Plants drink up a portion of soil
moisture for their consumptive use and ultimately transpire it to the atmosphere while
producing biomass. In areas with vegetative cover, water movement into atmosphere
takes place both from the leaves (transpiration) and from the wet surface below
vegetation (evaporation). It is difficult to separate the two. The combined impact of this
evaporation and transpiration is called evapo-transpiration (ET). The water balance
identity can therefore, be written as,
P = E + ET + RO + GW + ST
Measuring Rain (3.1.6 Watershed Manual)
Rainfall is measured all over the world in millimeters or inches. Rain falling onto any
point on a horizontal surface accumulates to a certain height. If this height is 10mm,
then it is said that the ‘depth’ of rainfall is 10 millimeters (‘depth’ or ‘height’ here is just
a point of view - we always look at water from above, rarely from below, so ‘depth’ it is
for rainfall too). We can see for ourselves that if we left flat bottomed, cylindrical
beakers of different diameters out in the rain, water would fill up to almost the same
level in them. Volume of Rain Received in a year- How much rain an area receives in a
year is easily calculated by multiplying the annual rainfall with the area over which it
falls. This gives us the volume of rain in cubic meters.
Volume of Rainfall in cubic metres = Rainfall in meters × Area in square metres
For instance if our watershed has an area of 1000 hectares and the region receives an
average annual rainfall of 600mm, we can calculate the volume of rainfall received in
our watershed area using this formula. For this first convert both rainfall and area into
metres.
Since 1,000 mm = 1m, therefore 600 mm = 0.6m
Also we know that 1 hectare = 10, 000 sq.m
Thus, 1,000 ha = 1, 000 × 10, 000 = 1, 00, 00, 000 sq.m
Thus, Volume of rainfall our watershed receives in a year
= 0.6m × 1, 00, 00, 000 sq.m = 60, 00, 000 cu.m.

But, it is not enough to know how much rain falls in a year. We have to know how fast it
will fall – how much rain will fall at one go - in a day, in an hour, in a second! It is like the
municipal water supply - we have to be prepared with our buckets to catch it because
we know that the entire day’s water will only come for an hour
Intensity of Rain
So the crucial part is to know how much rain will fall and how fast it will fall in one
time-period. It may rain for days on end, or just for an hour. This is known as the
intensity of rainfall and is expressed in ‘millimeters per hour’ (remember here that we
have to keep converting this into ‘meters per hour’ most of the time). Knowing the
intensity of rainfall has a critical bearing on the size of the structures we design. It is just
like uncertain municipal water supply. It may come for 10 minutes or an hour - if one
does not have enough buckets to store all of it in, tap water runs down the drain.
Similarly, the capacity of watershed structures is designed to catch as much of the rain
that is ‘supplied’ or falls at one time.

Runoff (3.1.7 Watershed Manual)

As we have seen in the water balance identity, a lot happens to rain. Rainfall is
intercepted by foliage before it reaches the ground. The water that remains to flow
onthe surface of the land, after being soaked up by the soil or taken up by plants, is
called the surface run-off. It is the water that we can see on the ground when it rains –
sweeping and swirling, soaking our feet, making puddles and rivulets, gurgling down
streams.

Co-efficient of Run-off (C) (3.1.8 Watershed Manual)

The quantum or volume of rain that will actually flow as “run-off” on the surface will be
less than the total rain that fell. This will mainly depend on the kind soil on which it falls,
nature and extent of vegetation there is on the land (land-use type) and the slope of the
land. This drag placed on flowing water is sought to be captured by what we call the Co-
efficient of Run-off (C). Where the lay of the land is such that a lot of the rain that falls,
also runs off the surface, the co-efficient of run-off is said to be high. This will be in
impermeable soils, with high slopes and low vegetative cover. On the other hand, if the
land flat, the soil is permeable and there is a lot of green cover on it, the co-efficient of
run-off will be low.. Runoff Coefficient is the ratio of between the peak runoff rate and
intensity of rainfall.
The Rational Method is based upon following Two Assumptions:
1. Rainfall occurs at uniform intensity for duration at least equal to the time of
concentration of watershed.
2. Rainfall occurs at a uniform intensity over the entire area of watershed.
The value of ‘C’ runoff coefficient in the rational formula should be taken from
following table.
To put it simply, if a hundred buckets of rain have poured from the skies and forty
buckets flow off the ground, then the co-efficient of run-off is:
40 buckets
---------------- = 0.4
100 buckets
Thus, the co-efficient of run-off is a percentage, which tells us how much of the rain will
run off the surface. For the same kind of soil and land-use, if the slope is higher, the
value of C will rise. Again for the same slope and same soil, higher the green cover, the
lower will be the value of C. And so on. This is captured in Table
vegetative cover and land
Slope Soil Texture

Sand Loam Clay and Silt Loam Silty Clay

1. Wood Land

0 - 5 % slope 0.10 0.30 0.40

5 - 10% slope 0.25 0.35 0.60

10 - 30% slope 0.30 0.50 0.60

2. Pasture land

0 - 5 % slope 0.10 0.30 0.40

5 - 10% slope 0.16 0.36 0.55

10 - 30% slope 0.22 0.42 0.60

3. Cultivated Land

0 - 5 % slope 0.30 0.50 0.60

5 - 10% slope 0.40 0.60 0.70

10 - 30% slope 0.52 0.72 0.82

Annual Volume or Quantum of Run-off in a Watershed (Surface Water

Yield) 3.1.9
Therefore it is clear that if we want to calculate the annual rain that will run-off a
certain area, we will need to multiply the annual rainfall with the area on which it falls
and the coefficient of run off for that area.
Thus Q = C × R × A
where Q = annual volume or quantum of surface run-off (in cubic meters)
C = is the co-efficient of run-off
R = is the annual rainfall (in metres) and,
A = is the area on which the rain falls (in square meters)
This is also known as the surface water yield of a watershed
Introduction to Runoff
Over the land surface, for the generation of runoff, the primary source of water is
Rainfall. A part of rainfall that intercepted by the vegetation, buildings and other objects
and prevented to reach them on grand surface is called as interception. Part of rainfall
stored in the surface depressions which in due course of time gets infiltrate or
evaporated is referred as depression storage [ Initial detention).

When these entire loses are satisfied then excess rainfall moves over land surface is
known as overland flow and draining the same into channel or stream is termed as
“Runoff”.

Definitions:
Runoff:
Runoff is that portion of the rainfall or irrigation water [or any other flow]. Applied
which leaves a field either as surface or as subsurface flow.
When rainfall intensity reaching the soil surface is less than the infiltration capacity, all
the water is absorbed in to the soil. As rain continues soil becomes saturated and
infiltration capacity is reduced, shallow depression begins to fill with water, then the
over flow starts.
Surface detention/ Detention storage:
The amount of water on the land surface in transit to words stream channels is called
detention storage/surface detention.
Surface Runoff:
The runoff which travels over the ground surface to the channels of watershed
Subsurface Runoff:
The portion of unfiltered water which penetrated to shallow depth travels laterally and
is intercepted by channels.
Runoff Cycle:
It is that part of hydrological cycles which galls between the phase of precipitation and
its subsequent discharge in the stream channels or direct return to the atmosphere
through evaporation and evapotranspiration.
Conditions Associated With Runoff Cycle:
1 This refers to the end of day period and beginning of the intense and isolated
storm.
2 It is the stage after beginning of rainfall causes the overland flow, base flow, and
development of channel storage.
3 It refers to the condition approaching the end of all isolated intense storm.
4 This is the stage indicating after end of rainfall where rainfall causes the overland
low, base plot and development of channel storage.
Types of Runoff:
a. Surface runoff
b. Sub-surface runoff
c. Base flow

a. Surface Runoff:

That portion of rainfall which enters the stream immediately after the rainfall. It occurs
when all loses is satisfied and rainfall is still continued and rate of rainfall [intensity] in
greater than infiltration rate.
b. Sub-Surface Runoff:
That part of rainfall which first leaches into the soil and moves laterally without joining
the water table, to the stream, rivers or ocean is known as sub-surface runoff. It is
usually referred is inter-flow.
c. Base flow:
It is delayed flow defined as that part of rainfall, which after falling on the ground the
surface, infiltrated into the soil and meets to the water table and flow the streams, ocean
etc. The movement of water in this is very slow. Therefore it is also referred a delayed
runoff.

Total runoff = Surface runoff + Base flow (including subsurface runoff)

Factors Affecting runoff

Runoff arte and volume from an area mainly influenced by following two factors
A. Climatic factors.
B. Physiographical Factors.

A. Climate factors:
It is associated with characteristics of which includes.
1.Types of Precipitation:
It has great effect on the runoff. E.g. A precipitation which occurs in the form of rainfall
starts immediately as surface runoff depending upon rainfall intensity while
precipitation in the form of snow does not result in surface runoff.
2. Rainfall Intensity:
If the rainfall intensity is greater than infiltration rate of soil then runoff starts
immediately after rainfall. While in case of low rainfall intensity runoff starts later. Thus
high intensities of rainfall yield higher runoff.
3. Duration of Rainfall:
It is directly related to the volume of runoff because infiltration rate of soil decreases
with duration of rainfall. Therefore medium intensity rainfall even results in
considerable amount of runoff if duration is longer.
4. Rainfall Distribution:
Runoff from a watershed depends very much on the distribution of rainfall. It is also
expressed as “distribution coefficient” mean ratio of maximum rainfall at a point to the
mean rainfall of watershed. There fore, near outlet of watershed runoff will be more.
5. Direction of Prevailing Wind:
If the direction of prevailing wind is same as drainage system, it results in peak low. A
storm moving in the direction of stream slope produce a higher peak in shorter period
of time than a storm moving in opposite direction
6. Other Climate Factor:
Other factors such as temperature wind velocity, relative humidity, annual rainfall etc.
affect the water losses from watershed area.
B Physiographic Factors:
It includes both watershed and channel characteristics, which area as follows,
1. Size of Watershed:
A large watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to outlet than smaller
watershed and vise-versa.
2. Shape of Watershed:
Runoff is greatly affected by shape of watershed. Shape of watershed is generally
expressed by the term “form factor” and “compactness coefficient”.
Form Factor= Ratio of average width to axial length of watershed
= B/1 or A/1/1= A/I2
Compactness Coefficient:
Ratio off perimeter of watershed to circumference of circle whose area is equal to area
of watershed
Two types of shape:

a. Fun shape [tends to produce higher runoff very early]

b. Fern shape [tend to produced less runoff].

3. Slope of Watershed:
It has complex effect. It controls the time of overland flow and time of concentration of
rainfall. E.g. sloppy watershed results in greater runoff due to greater runoff velocity
and vice-versa.
4. Orientation of Watershed:
This affects the evaporation and transpiration losses from the area. The north or south
orientation, affects the time of melting of collected snow.
5. Land Use:
Land use and land management practices have great effect on the runoff yield. E.g. an
area with forest cover or thick layer of mulch of leaves and grasses contribute less
runoff because water is absorbed more into soil.
6. Soil moisture:
Magnitude of runoff yield depends upon the initial moisture present in soil at the time of
rainfall. If the rain occurs after along dry spell then infiltration rate is more, hence it
contributes less runoff.
7. Soil type:
In filtration rate vary with type of soil. So runoff is great affected by soil type.
8. Topographic characteristics:
It includes those topographic features which affects the runoff. Undulate land has
greater runoff than flat land because runoff water gets additional energy [velocity] due
to slope and little time to infill rate.
9. Drainage Density:
It is defined as the ratio of the total channel length [L] in the watershed to total
watershed area [A]. Greater drainage density gives more runoff
Drainage density = L/A
OR

Factors Affecting Runoff

The various factors which affect the runoff from a drainage basin depend upon the
following characteristics.
1. Rainfall characteristics:
a. Type of storm and season
b. Intensity
c. Duration
d. Arial Distribution
e. Frequency
f. Antecedent precipitation
g. Direction of storm movement
2. Metrological factors:
a. Temperature,
b. Humidity
c. Wind velocity
d. Pressure difference
3. Watershed Factor:
a. Size
b. Shape
c. Altitude
d. Topography
e. Geology [Soil type]
f. Land use [vegetation], Orientation
g. Type of drainage network
h. Proximate to ocean and mountain range
4. Storage Characteristics:
a. Depressions
b. Ponds, lakes and pools.
c. Stream
d. Channels.
e. Check dams in gullies
f. Upstream reservoirs or tanks.
g. Ground water storage in deposits/aquifers
Direct Runoff and Time of Concentration
Direct Runoff
The part of runoff which enters the stream quickly after the rainfall or snow melting.
To design soil conservation structure with proper capacity it is necessary to estimate
peak runoff rate.

Peak runoff Rate:

It is the maximum rate of flowing runoff per unit time.

Rational Method:
This is the most common method to predict the peak runoff rate. The peak runoff may
be defined as the capacity to be given a structure that must carry the runoff
1. in FPS:
Q = CIA
Where,
Q = Design runoff the ft3/sec.
I = Rainfall Intensity Inches/hr
A = Watershed area in acres.
2. in MKS:
Q = CIA/36 = [0.0276x CIA ]
Where,
Q = Peak runoff rate m3/sec
C = Runoff coefficient
I = rainfall intensity [cm/hr ] for duration equal to time of Concentration and for a
given recurrence interval
A = Watershed area, [ Hectare ].
Time of Concentration:
It is the time required for the runoff water to flow from the most remote point of the
area to the outlet.
Rainfall Intensity:

Rainfall intensity is defined as the rate of fall of precipitation, expressed in depth per
time [mm/hr]
I = P/T
Where, I = Rainfall Intensity, mm/hr
P = Amount of rainfall, mm
T = duration of rainfall, hr
Particle Sizes of Constituents of Soil
Material Particle Size (mm)

Stones and Gravel >2

Coarse Sand 2 - 0.2

Fine Sand 0.2 - 0.02

Silt 0.02 - 0.002

Clay <0.002

Soil Erosion 3.2.6

Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and transportation of soil particles by natural
agents like water and air. Soil erosion depends on the type of soil, extent of vegetative
cover, intensity of rainfall and topography. Sandy soils have larger particle size but
lower cementing between particles. Hence, they can be detached easily from one
another but it is difficult for running water to transport them. On the other hand
particles of clayey soils tend to flock together, making them less detachable. However,
once detached from each other, these lighter particles are easily carried away by
running water. Clayey soils are, hence, considered highly erodable. One of the main aims
of the work to be done under NREGA is to reduce the rate of soil erosion. Soil erosion
has degraded nearly 51% of India's geographical area. It is estimated that about 5334
million tonnes of soil (16.35 tonnes/ha) are eroded annually in India. Of this, nearly
30% (1572 million tonnes) is lost into the sea forever and another 10% gets deposited
in reservoirs of dams, resulting in the loss of their storage capacity.
Types of Erosion
It broadly classified in to two:

A. Geologic erosion &

B. Accelerated Erosion:
1. Wind Erosion
2. Water Erosion.
• Raindrop/ splash erosion.
• Sheet erosion.
• Rill erosion.
• Gully erosion.
• Stream erosion.

C. Other types of Soil erosion:

• Glacial erosion
• Snow erosion
• Organic erosion
• Anthropogenic erosion

A. Geologic erosion:
It refers to the formation of and loss of soil simultaneously which maintain the balance
between formation and various losses.
It is normal process which represents the erosion of soil in its normal conduction
without influence of human being. It is also known as natural or normal erosion. The
various topographical features such as existing of stream channels, valleys, etc. are the
results of geologic erosion.

B. Accelerated erosion:
It is an excess of geologic erosion. It is activated by naturals and man’s activities due is
changes in natural cover and soil conditions.
Accelerated erosion takes place by the action of water, wind, gravity and glaciers.
Various forces involved in this are:
• Attacking force of water or wind which remove and transport the soil particle
from one place to another.
• Retarding forces which resists the erosion. In general accelerated erosion is
known as soil erosion or erosion.
It is sub classified as:
1. Water erosion:

• Rain drop erosion

• Sheet erosion
• Rill erosion
• Gully erosion
• Stream erosion
2. Wind erosion:
It is the process of detachment transportation and deposition of soil particles by the
action of wind. Basic cause of wind erosion is:
• Soil is loose, finely divided and dry
• Soil surface is smooth and bare.
• Wind is strong to detach the soil particles from soil surface.

Raindrop Erosion: It is also known as splash erosion. It results from soil splash caused
by the impact of falling raindrops.
Factor influencing the rate of erosion are:
• Climate, Rainfall, temperature.
• Soil its resistance to dispersion and its infiltration rate.
• Topography – steepness and length of slope.
• Plant cover—living or dead vegetation.
Falling raindrops breaks soil aggregate and detach soil particles from soil mass. Fine soil
particles are taken into suspension and the splash thus become muddy. The major effect
of surface flow of water is to carry off the soil loosened by splash erosion.
Sheet erosion:
Sheet erosion may be defined as: Removal of the fairly uniform layer of soil from the
land surface by the action of rainfall and runoff
More or less uniform removal of soil in the form of thin layer or in sheet form by flowing
water from a given width of sloping land
Two basic erosion processes are involved.
• Soil particles are detached from the soil surface by falling rain drop.
• The detached soil particles are transported away by runoff from their original
place.
The eroding and transporting power of sheet flow are dependant upon the depth and
velocity of sheet flow for a given size, shape and density of soil particle.
Rill Erosion:
It is sometime known as micro channel erosion. It is the removal of soil by running
water with the formation of a areas of small branching channels. There is no sharp time
of demarcation where sheets erosion ends and more readily visible than sheet erosion.
It is regarded as a transition stage between sheet erosion and gully. Rill of small depth
can be ordinary form tillage.
Gully erosion:
It is removal of soil by excessive concentration of running water, resulting in the
formation of channels ranging in the formation of channels ranging in size from 30cm to
10m or gully is to a large ton be filled by normal tillage practice.
Stream Bank erosion:
Stream channel [bank] erosion is the sourcing of material from the side and bottom of a
stream or water channel and the cutting of bank by running water. It is mainly due to
removal of vegetation, over grazing or cultivation on the area near to the streams banks.
Other forms of erosion:
1. Glacial erosion [due to mass of ice moving very slowly].
2. Snow erosion [due to slow and creeping movement of snow towards slope.]
3. Anthropogenic erosion [ due to activities of human being]
Factors Affecting Soil & Water Erosion
Factors Affecting Soil Erosion
Factors such as rainfall, runoff, wind soil, slope, plant cover and presence or absence of
conservation measures are responsible for soil erosion. But mainly three following
factors affect the erosion.
1. Energy:
It include The potential ability of rainfall, runoff and wind to course erosion and other
factor which affects the power of erosive agents such as reduction in length of runoff or
wind blow through construction of terrace, bunds etc. in case of water erosion and wind
breaks or shelter belts incase of wind erosion.
2. Resistance:
It is referred to that factors which affect soil erodibility and soil erosion. Mechanical and
chemical properties of soil are responsible for infiltration rate of soil which reduces
runoff and decreases soil erodibility. Cultivation decreases the erodibility of clay but
increases erodibility of sandy soils.
[Erodibility—susceptibility of soil to get erosion]
[Erosivity—Ability of rain to cause erosion]
3. Protection:
It refers to plant covers which intercept the raindrop falling on ground surface reducing
their impact on soil. Plant cover also reduces the runoff and wind velocity, there by soil
erosion. Different plant cover offers different protection so suitable cover can be
developed to control erosion.
Factors affecting Water Erosion:
Water erosion is due to dispersive and transporting power of water. Factors affecting
are:
1. Climatic factors:
This includes rainfall characteristics, atmospheric temperature and wind velocity
2. Soil characteristic:
This affect infiltration rate of soil, Infiltration rate depends upon permeability of soil,
surface condition and presence of moisture in it.
3. Vegetation:
It creates the obstacle for raindrops as well as glowing runoff. A good vegetative cover
completely reduces the effect of rainfall on soil erosion.
4. Topographic effect:
The land slope, length of slope and shape of slope are main factors which influences soil
erosion. As slope of land increases from mild to steep, erosion increases
Measures for Soil and Water Conservations
It is the technique in which deterioration of soil and it looses is reserve by using it
within its capabilities and applying conservation technique for production as well as
improvement of soil.

Soil and Water Conservation Measures

Agronomical Measure ( Biological) Engineering Practices

1. Contour cultivation 1. Terracing

2. Strip Cropping a. Diversion terrace:

a. Contour strip cropping i. Magnum type.

b. Field strip cropping ii. Nichols type.

c. Buffer strip cropping iii. Broad based type

d. Wind strip cropping iv. Narrow based type

3. Tillage practices b. Retention Terrace

c. Bench terrace

a. Mulch Tillage

b. Vertical mulching 2. Banding

c. Minimum tillage a. Contour banding

d. Conventional tillage

e. Listening i. Narrow based

ii. Broad based

4. Soil management practices

5. Supporting Practices (Interplanting,

fertilizer application) c. Side bunds

6. Vetiver grass planting d. Lateral bund

 e. Supplemental bunds

f. Marginal bund

g. Shoulder bund

A. Agronomical measures:
Agronomical measures or practice if growing vegetation non mild sloppy land to cover
them and to control the erosion from there. Agronomical measures include contouring,
strip cropping and tillage practices to control the soil erosion. The use of these
measures is entirely dependant upon the soil types, land slope and rainfall
characteristic. It plays second line of defense after mechanical or engineering measures.
It is more economical, long lasting and effective.

1. Contour cultivation:
It refers to all the tillage practices, mechanical treatments like planting, tillage and
intercultural, performed nearly on the contour of the area applied across the land slope.
Inflow rainfall regions the primary purpose of contour cultivation is to conserve the rain
water in to soil as much as possible.
In humid regions its basic purpose is to reduce the soil erosion or soil loss by retarding
the overland flow. In this system, the furrows between the ridges made on the contours
hold the runoff water and stored them into the soil. Thus they reduce the runoff and soil
erosion.

2. Strip Cropping:
It is also a kind of agronomical practice, in which ordinary crops are planted or grown in
form of relatively narrow strips across the land slope. These strips are so arranged, that
the strips crops should always be separated by strips of close-growing and erosion
resistance crops. Strip cropping check the surface runoff and forces them to infiltrate in
to the soil, which facilitates to the concentration of rain water. It is more effective than
contouring [about twice effective as contouring] but it does not effect on soil erosion.
Stages:
Controls erosion by
• Reducing the runoff flowing through the close growing sod strips.
• Increasing the infiltration rate of soil under cover condition.
• Types of strip cropping:
• Contour strip cropping.
• Field strip cropping.
• Buffer strip cropping.
• Wind strip cropping.
3. Tillage practices:
It is defined as mechanical manipulation of soil to provide a favorable environment for
good germination of seed and crop growth, to control the weeds, to maintain infiltration
capacity and soil aeration. Tillage practice protects and maintains a strong soil structure
to fight against erosion.
Types of tillage operation [practices]
a. Mulch tillage:[ application of many plant residues or other material to cover top soil
surface ].
• Mulching material: Cut grasses, straw material, wood chips. Saw dusts, paper and
sand stones, glass wools, metal foils and stone plastic.
• Types of Mulch: Natural, synthetic, petroleum, conventional, Inorganic, organic.
b. Vertical Mulching:
• Insertion of stuffed plant residue vertically into subsoiler marks to keep the slot
open.
c. Minimum Tillage:
• Preparation of seedbed with minimum disturbance of soil
d. Conventional tillage:
• Ploughing, secondary cultivation with harrowing and planting
e. Listing:
Used for controlling soil erosion.
i. Hard ground listing.
ii. Loose ground listing.
4. Soil management practices:
• Various soil and land management practices are –
• Those practice which helps to maintain the soil filtration rate at high level to
reduce runoff to a negligible amount.
• Practices which helps in safe disposal of runoff from field.
• The cultural practices which are helpful for creation of high infiltration rate are
essential based on farming techniques, tillage or minimum tillage and use of
cover crops. Where as the safe disposal of runoff from the field is carried out by
physical manipulation of soil surface. Including land shaping, leveling
construction of ridges, bunds and water ways
5. Supporting Practices:
• It involves application of fertilizers to soil either to make more fertile or to
recover the fertility loss during different physical action. Application of fertilizer
plays sometimes a significant role to developed abundance vegetative growth e.g.
grass waterways and terrace outlet are generally established on low – fertile sub
soil.
 • Inter planting refers to seeding of grass or legume crops in combination of maize
or other crops to achieve better result on erosion control.
6. Vetiver Grass Planting:
• It is most effective vegetative material foe soil and water conservation, land
rehabilitation and embankment stabilization. Vegetative hedge formed with thick
growth of vetiver grass forms a protective barrier across slope which slows
down sheet erosion and deposit the slit behind hedges.

B. Engineering Practices:
It is used to control the soil erosion in highly sloped areas
1. Terracing
a. Diversion terrace
• Magnum type.
• Nichols type
• Broad based type.
• Narrow based type.
b. Retention terrace
c. Bench terrace.
2. Banding:
a. Contour banding
• Narrow based
• Broad based
• b. Graded banding
• Narrow based
• Broad based
c. Side bunds [formed at extreme ends of contour bunds running along the slopes of
land]
d. Lateral Bund [Constructed between two side bunds along slope].
e. Supplemental bunds (between two contour bund so as to limit horizontal spacing)
f. Marginal bund [Formed at margin points of watershed]
g. Shoulder bund [Formed at outer edge of terrace]
Session 2:
Sustainability considerations in watershed management
Participation in watershed management
Importance of Participatory Approach
The Watershed Development Program to be successful must involve the participation of
the concerned people and must be related to the environment in which they live, and on
which they depend for their needs. This involves the following :
It has to be focused on the regeneration and equitable use of the resources in the
particular environment on which the village depends for its needs. A watershed
provides a naturally occurring hydrological unit and is also the area on which the
inhabitants depend for survival. It thus becomes a common issue drawing the people
together, giving rise to a common interest and fostering a common purpose.
The people voluntarily must come together and accept full responsibility for
regenerating their environment from concept to planning, implementation, supervision,
maintenance of project measures and associated practices. This would imply consensus
in arriving at a common understanding regarding rules and regulations and the setting
up of mechanisms for organisation of works, sharing of benefits and resolution of
conflicts.
To make the project sustainable, it is necessary for all the key actors, like the Watershed
Community, NGOs, Banks, Government Institutions and Technical Service Organisations,
to participate actively and in close coordination with each other.
Participatory watershed development must be implemented on a “large enough scale”
at different places to create many success stories, each of which can act as nuclei,
becoming a source of inspiration and demonstration for neighbouring villages. This
would provide a major impetus for the unfolding of a “people’s movement” for
regeneration of environment.

Identify and Engage Relevant Stakeholders and Local Issues

Successful development and implementation of the watershed plan will depend
primarily on the commitment and involvement of community members. Therefore, it is
critical to build partnerships with key interested parties at the outset of the watershed
planning effort. People and organizations that have a stake in the outcome of the
watershed plan are called stakeholders (Figure 8). Stakeholders that participate in the
decision-making process are more willing to share in the responsibility to implement
those decisions. Stakeholders are important to the process for several reasons,
including ensuring that all concerns are factored into the plan that is developed
It is essential that all categories of potential stakeholders are identified and included,
not just those who volunteer to participate. Key stakeholders also include those who
can contribute resources and assistance to the watershed planning effort and those who
are working on similar programs that can be integrated into a larger effort. Keep in
mind that stakeholders are more likely to get involved if you can show them a clear
benefit to their participation.
Success depends on involving a good mix of people and organizations to put together
and implement the plan. You will need to find people to play a number of roles including
the following:
 Technical  Education
 Community and Learning  Leadership
 Communication  Public Policy
 One way to identify key stakeholders is to chart them. The worksheet shown below in
Figure here below will help you strategically target your outreach to potential partners.
Plot the entire watershed stakeholder you think of on the chart below – based upon how
influential they are likely to be on the success of the watershed project and how
interested they presently are in the project. Develop a plan to engage each of those in
the upper left quadrant
Most Least influential
influential

Least Interested Most Interested

Strategies for Success
Building a successful partnership takes skill, time and patience (Figure 11). Here are
some specific strategies that will help your watershed group's chances of succeeding.
•  Identify and involve the right people; those who are affected by and interested
in watershed protection.
•  Select leadership from within and allow these leaders to emerge from among
the members of the partnership.
•  Build a common purpose by developing a concise purpose statement that
defines general goals and responsibilities of the partnership.
•  Focus on the future in setting clear and attainable goals.
• Make best use of talents by building the partnership around members’
interests and strengths.
•  Encourage communication and participation, which will promote a spirit of
trust and cooperation.
•  Set up a flexible organization, allowing your group to determine how the
partnership should function.
•  Know your capacities, skills, and financial resources; carefully consider the
resources that are available to the group both from within the group and outside
the group.
•  Cultivate trust and develop a process for working together that feels
comfortable — a process in which leadership and talents can flourish in an
atmosphere of trust and productivity.
Information on Why Partnerships Succeed or Fail
Why Partnerships Succeed? Partnerships are successful for a number of reasons. Your
challenge is to determine what motivates people and make sure these motivations are
addressed. As described in the Conservation Technology Information Center’s
publication, Building Local Partnerships, key reasons partnerships succeed include the
following:
•  Members enjoy working with others.
•  Partnership provides opportunities to meet new challenges.
•  Potential for professional and personal growth.
•  Sense of accomplishment.
•  External factors motivate involvement (e.g., public expectations, organizational
mandate, job description).
•  Members see a chance to address new challenges or expand their skills.
•  Members want to demonstrate broader abilities to their home organizations.
•  Community interest and support for the group runs high.
 •  Additionally, informal social interaction can provide the glue that holds a
partnership together. Encourage these types of interactions and build on the
motivations.
Why Partnerships Fail? Most people agree with the notion of partnership, at least in
principle. However, partnerships can be unsuccessful for a variety of reasons, including
the following:
•  Past failures.
•  Lack of commitment and financial support.
•  Worry about lost independence.
•  Lack of credit for own contributions.
•  Personality conflicts.
•  Power struggles or turf battles.
•  Disagreement on realistic roles and responsibilities.
•  Differences in cultural and personal values.
•  Low or controversial community interest and support for the group.
•  Rigid attitudes about the problems or possible solutions.
•  Misunderstandings and incomplete communication
Overcoming Potential Obstacles
Some of the potential obstacles to success can be overcome by getting started on the
right foot Some helpful hints include

Pay particular attention to the early meetings and activities First impressions mean
a lot. People are often skeptical at the first meeting and might be suspicious of other
partners. Incorporate ice breaker activities into your first meeting to encourage
conversation and alleviate any tension.
•  Set ground rules The group will probably need to set some specific ground
rules related to meeting participation, discussion, confidentiality, constructive
feedback and expected contributions.
•  Start with a few short-term tasks that have a good chance for success Be
sure that early projects are realistic and will be seen as winners in the eyes

Challenge the group regularly with fresh facts and information New information
(that you will be gathering as a partnership) will help to better understand your
situation and improve your effectiveness.
•  Spend time together It will take time to get the partnership working
effectively. Spend time (outside of meetings if possible) to get to know each
other.
 •  Use the power of positive feedback, recognition and reward People
respond to positive incentives in the partnership setting just as they do as
individuals.
Getting Stakeholders Involved
Once you’ve identified the categories of stakeholders that need to be involved in your
watershed planning effort, you then need to determine the roles and responsibilities of
the stakeholders. How will decisions be made? Will they be responsible for developing
work products or just reviewing plans?
Next you might need to organize larger groups of stakeholders into some kind of
structure to facilitate participation. Options for structuring your group range from
informal, ad hoc groups to highly organized groups with multiple committees. The
method you choose will likely depend on the makeup of the stakeholders willing to
participate, the time and financial resources available, and your capabilities with
respect to facilitating the plan development effort. You also need to identify the skills
and resources that each member brings to the table. A wide range of technical and
people skills are needed for most planning initiatives.
Stakeholders might have access to datasets, funding sources, volunteers, specialized
technical expertise, and communication vehicles. As stakeholders begin to show an
interest, you’ll likely note that the type and degree of effort that individuals or
organizations are willing to put forth will vary. Some stakeholders will want to be
directly involved in the detailed technical planning process, whereas others will simply
want to be periodically updated on progress and asked for feedback. Still others won’t
want to plan at all, but instead will want to know what they can do now to take actions
that will make a difference. The last step to get stakeholders involved is conducting
outreach activities.
Outreach activities are key to building support for the watershed planning effort and
helping to implement the plan. Outreach activities are needed at the very beginning of
the watershed planning effort to make potential partners and stakeholders aware of the
issues, recruit them to participate, and educate them on the watershed planning
process. Once your group is established, you might want to form an outreach committee
to design outreach materials and to plan future outreach efforts in the community and
within each stakeholder’s peer group.
Collaborating with Existing Programs
Watershed plans will most likely involve a combination of at least some local, state,
tribal and federal partners. Therefore, it is important to identify any potential programs
and activities that might be relevant to your watershed planning effort and to determine
if you want to try to partner with them (e.g., existing monitoring programs in your
watershed, point sources, Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) completed in the
watershed, Clean Water Act 319 Nonpoint Source grants, Farm Bill programs, etc.). Also,
if you are working in a watershed with hazardous waste issues, refer to EPA’s
Integrating Waste and Water Programs to Restore Watersheds:
b. Social, gender and institutional issues in watershed management
Gender and Watershed Development
- Dr. Marcella D’Souza, Director of Watershed Organisation Trust
I. INTRODUCTION:
Today watershed development is being promoted as an effective approach and an
instrument for poverty alleviation in rural areas. The underlying assumption is that
once the natural bases of production are regenerated and strengthened most of the
basic livelihood needs of the community living within that watershed would be met to a
large extent.
Since a long time now, much money and resources have been directed towards
conserving and regenerating natural resources along watershed lines. However, it was
found that once the externally initiated effort was completed, the benefits either did not
materialize as expected or did not continue for a substantial period beyond completion
of the project. Documentation of these efforts has revealed that this was largely because
the intended "beneficiaries" (local population) were hardly involved in its planning and
determination. They were merely used as labour or objects of largesse, and therefore
developed no stake either in the quality of the effort or in the maintenance of the
measures implemented.
Today however, in both developmental theory and practice, people are seen as the
subjects and protagonists of their own development and well-being. A successful
watershed development effort and management is only possible when the people living
in that area understand the relationship between the environment and their own social
and economic well-being, decide to come together and labour together to conserve,
regenerate and manage their environment appropriately in order to realize their plans
and hopes, i.e. they must "participate" in the fullest sense of the word.
As the former Sarpanch, Shri. Badhe of village Mendhwan of Sangamner Taluka, where
WSD was successfully undertaken, puts it : "Watershed development has brought us
together. We have put aside our differences; we do "shramdaan" (voluntary labour)
together; eat together from one plate and have decided to work together for the
development of our village".
In this paper we shall focus primarily on the impact WSD measures have on the lives of
women and on the relationships between men and women, namely, gender impacts. A
subsequent paper will explore a possible approach aimed at mitigating some of the
negative impacts of WSD while capitalizing on the possibilities and opportunities it
offers for building up the capabilities of women, namely, empowerment.

II. THE GENERAL SITUATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA :

The situation of women in rural India is generally characterised by hard work, both at
home and on the farm, primitive hygiene conditions, poor nutritional status, little access
to health and educational facilities, illiteracy and superstitiousness. They are entrusted
with responsibilities of attending to the well-being of the family (nutrition, health), and
are yet marginalized in matters pertaining to upbringing of children and village affairs.
They possess no assets, do not have their own funds and have little access to resources.
In the eyes of society the woman has a status secondary to that of man. This process has
been so internalised that even in her own eyes, her identity is derived either from that
of her father, her husband or her male children.
III. GENDER IN WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT :
Watershed development has often been described as anti-woman. It is alleged that
"women's participation" means that they do the laborious work - digging of soil, raising
bunds, planting trees and contributing "shramdaan" (voluntary labour) while men enjoy
the privilege of decision making and controlling the financial benefits.
Women are seen primarily as executors of decisions made by men and earners of
additional income to supplement the meager family kitty. Wherever watershed
development projects have been implemented it has been observed that the bulk of the
labour force constitutes women (even up to 70% in most cases), while they are hardly
represented in the decision-making processes relating to organization and
implementation. Moreover, implementation of a successful watershed development
effort involves considerable social discipline e.g. ban / control of free grazing, ban on
tree felling as well as local contribution towards costs which usually takes the form of
free labour (shramdaan). This shramdaan is largely contributed by women. The ban on
free grazing and tree felling increase her workload as it is her responsibility to feed the
cattle and to keep the home fires burning.
It therefore appears, prima facie, that watershed development is gender discriminative.
However, experiences gained from several projects have revealed a mixed picture.
While there are some immediate negative effects, there are also significant benefits that
accrue to women especially in the interim and long term. WSD also opens up several
fora and opportunities, which, if anticipated and handled sensitively, can lead to
empowerment and enhancement of the status of women within their community.
IV. IMPACTS OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT :
We shall now consider some of the impacts, both positive and negative, on women and
their lives as well as on gender relationships.

1. THE CONTEXT

In what follows, the author draws upon firsthand experience obtained as well as
observations made from several watershed development projects particularly those
being implemented under the Indo-German Watershed Development Programme
(IGWDP) in Maharashtra.
The majority of the projects share the following common characteristics :
1. They are usually located in drought prone areas having an annual rainfall ranging from
150 mm - 800 mm. The average rainfall of the bulk of the projects varies from 250mm. to
500 mm.
2. There is an acute problem of drinking water during summer.
3. Hills and wastelands have sparse vegetative cover and are mainly barren and degraded.
4. The geological profile is that of the Basaltic Deccan Trap.
5. Agriculture is largely single cropped and rainfed.
6. Crops are mainly coarse cereals.
7. The watershed effort is supported by a reasonable external wage input as well as external
technical expertise. The people contribute a part of the costs by way of "Shramdaan".
8. The project is implemented by those living within the WS, organized by a Village
Watershed Committee (VWC), supported by an NGO. The VWC is a watershed level
representative body that is nominated by consensus by the Gram Sabha (village body).
9. A Ridge-to-valley approach is followed with emphasis on soil conservation and biomass
development. Controlled grazing and ban on tree felling are enforced on treated areas.
10. The watersheds generally range from 500 ha. up to 1500 ha.
11. The time taken for completion of implementation measures, which includes the
preparatory Capacity Building Phase (CBP) is between 5.5-6 years. For the purpose of
our analysis we shall divide this time spent into 3 periods - immediate (year 1);
intermediate (years 2 - 4), and long term (year 5 onwards).

2. THE BENEFITS.

We shall discuss the positive impacts of WSD in treated areas under the following
headings :
A. Physical and Economic Impacts :

(i) Employment and Income :

A sustained effort at WSD has a notable impact on employment, income generating
opportunities and length of the agricultural season.
In rain-fed agricultural rural areas, except for a few months, there are hardly any work
opportunities within the village. In fact, during the agricultural season too, especially in
drought prone areas, the entire demand for work cannot be met in the village itself.
Hence poor peasants and agricultural labourers have to go to towns or distant villages
in search of work (e.g. construction sites, sugarcane cutting, digging of wells, brick kilns
etc.). With wage supported watershed activities starting in the watershed, the people,
especially women, avail of this opportunity to enhance the family funds . This has a
direct bearing on the family welfare and stability.
Afforestation and pasture development require a large amount of planting material
(saplings and grass seeds). In order to meet this need, nurseries are usually developed
in situ wherever water is available. This is an activity that is most frequently associated
with women. In addition to generating substantial income, nursery raising equips
women with skills and knowledge which are an asset. Women can and do avail of this
opportunity to decide what saplings are to be grown to meet their needs. From the fifth
year onwards-horticultural operations enhance employment opportunities available to
women.
Similarly with an increase in soil moisture as well as increased availability of water, the
agricultural season lengthens specially from the third year onwards. Agriculture labour
opportunities, earlier limited, are now available for a longer period within the village
itself.
Depending on circumstances as well as markets, agro-based allied income generating
activities like dairy, stall-fed goat rearing, poultry etc. can also be undertaken
particularly from the third and fourth years.
(ii) Food Security
With a reasonable wage obtained on a regular basis as a result of watershed activities

In a tribal village Khodpakhindi of Yavatmal District, prior to WSD, the family diet in
general consisted mainly of jowar. They could afford to have meat once a month or
during feast days only. Today, two and a half years after the project started, their diet
has improved. Besides jowar they regularly have wheat, vegetables and oil. Now they
also have meat at least once a week.

(WSA), the family acquires additional purchasing power to augment the food intake.
With soil conservation measures and extension support, land and agricultural
productivity increases from the second or third year itself. Farm production increases in
terms of both food crops and farm products (e.g. eggs, chicken, dairy products, etc.).
When this is coupled with information and inputs on nutrition and nutrition oriented
agricultural practices, e.g. kitchen gardens, appropriate food crops etc. the nutritional
status of the family and village is progressively improved. Food security is thus a direct
consequence of watershed activities and provides the foundation for enhancement of
nutritional status provided the latter is specially addressed.
(iii) Fodder Availability :
Obtaining fodder is largely the responsibility of women. Fodder and forage is obtained
either from farmlands or Common Property Resources (CPR) i.e. village owned lands as
well as government/forest lands accessible to villagers or private wastelands or from
outside the watershed.
Largely due to indiscriminate grazing and poor quality of grasses there is an acute lack
of sufficient and nourishing fodder available throughout the year. This does not allow
for the rearing of high yielding productive animals. However, when free grazing is
banned on CPR, or private wastelands & pasture enhancement measures are
undertaken, good regeneration of naturally occurring grasses as well as establishment
of improved nutritious varieties occur in abundance. Then women will not be required
to go long distances in search of fodder.
Moreover, as the agricultural season lengthens and productivity increases, the
agricultural residues also increase. This, in fact, is usually evident from the third year of
project implementation onwards.
Wherever there is surplus fodder, the same can be sold, which further adds to the
income. The above is usually evident from the second year onwards.
 Khodpakhindi village of Nanded District, in the second year of project
implementation, harvested and stored sufficient grass to meet the fodder needs of
every family of the village for the entire summer season, even though the watershed
was only partially treated.

It has been observed that the increase in the fodder stock results not only in additional
livestock maintaining capacity, but also the rearing of high yielding productive cattle
and livestock.

Dongaon village of Nanded District, in the third year of the project, harvested
2,50,000 bundles of grass. The village has now taken bank loans and purchased 35
cross-bred cows.

In case the family does not have adequate amount of fodder, this can now be purchased
from within or outside the watershed from the wage income obtained due to work
available in the watershed as well as due to increased earnings from agriculture
By the end of the third year of project implementation, the number of crossbred cattle
had increased substantially in village Mendhwan. Fodder requirements outstripped
what was locally available and had to be met from external purchases. The villagers
leased in grasslands from a watershed 45 km away which had a better rainfall and soil
regime.
iv. Fuel availability :
With the environment bare and degraded, the woman has to go long distances to obtain
good firewood, failing which she has to take recourse to thorny bushes, brambles and
other poor quality fuel material. The search for fuel is her constant preoccupation. Much
of her time and energy is utilized to keep the home fires burning. Moreover whenever
WSD activities are seriously undertaken a ban on tree felling is usually enforced.
Now, however, with additional income from wages from the first year itself she is able
to augment her fuel stock by external purchase of wood or kerosene. Moreover, as a
result of increased agricultural output, agricultural wastes are now increased from the
second or third year itself. From year 5 - 6 onwards, as a result of afforestation and
natural regeneration of root stock on both CRP and private wastelands, biomass by way
of firewood, twigs and loppings augments fuel availability.
v. Savings and credit :
Women hardly have any savings and therefore in times of need have to borrow from the
money lenders who charge exorbitant rates of even 100 % or more per annum.. In the
case of sugarcane-cutting migrants the entire family is, as it were, "bonded" for the
following season due to the "timely" financial aid given by the contractors.
When women are motivated to form savings and credit groups, the money earned from
wages and other activities can easily be used to generate initial funds for internal
lending and utilization. This not only makes credit on demand available at reasonable
rates, but also strengthens the bonds among the women in the village, which empowers
them. This begins within the first year itself.

In Nandkheda village of Jalna District, the capacity building phase of the project
began in November '95. Because of motivation by the NGO, 60 women started
savings by January '96. Their savings and credit groups function well today. The
number of women in the savings groups have increased and their savings amount to
Rs. 13,600/. as on the 1st. March 1997
Usually banks do not like dealing individually with petty account holders because of
high transaction costs. However, if the savings groups generate substantial sums of
money, these become attractive and women can then, as a group, access banking
facilities. This is already possible from the third year onwards.
vi. Water availability :
The search for potable water specially in summer, breaks the backs of women who have
to trudge long distances and spend several hours each day to get water which is often
unfit for consumption. In drought prone areas, tankers with drinking water come once
in two days during the months of February to August, depending on the rains.
However, from the second year itself, in treated areas, which have experienced a
reasonable monsoon there is an appreciable increase in the ground water table, which
is reflected in an increased water level in the village wells. Clean drinking water is now
available as well as water for protective irrigation. This has considerable impact not
only on agriculture but also and particularly so on the quality of life and health of
women and the family. Her anxiety and workload are now reduced to a considerable
extent.
In village Mendhwan, district Ahmednagar, prior to 1993, every year during the months
of April to end August, tankers of drinking water were brought twice daily to the village.
In June 1996, despite 3 consecutive years of drought (rainfall of 170-200 mm drinking
water was still available in the village and no takers were required
B. Social Impacts :
Participatory Watershed Development (PWSD) has a definite impact on the social
situation and offers a variety of opportunities. Some impacts are a direct consequence of
Watershed Activities (WSA), e.g. stoppage / reduction of migration. Others occur only if
considerable efforts are made by way of social engineering towards achieving the
desired objectives, such as improvement in the educational status of the girl child as
well as the woman herself, health and hygiene and also increased involvement of
women in decisions concerning land use and other organisational matters.
i. Migration :
Usually after the agricultural season is over, a large number of families migrate in
search of work. This has serious consequences on the education of the children as well
as on the quality of life of the family. Now, with work being undertaken on a sustained
basis within their own watershed and which is adequately remunerated, migration is
either immediately or progressively reduced. This latter usually results due to earlier
contractual obligations. However by the third year migration stops almost completely.

As Ratanbai of Dongaon relates : "Formerly half of the population would migrate by the
month of December. This is now stopped because watershed development work is available
throughout the year. Even the harvesting of grass provides employment opportunities. Now
people do not migrate".

ii. Education :
Stoppage of migration provides a situation of stability. It has been observed in several
watersheds that this results in an increase in the number of school-going children and
an increase in the schooling period. Parents now send their children to school since they
do not migrate for work. Besides, they can afford it as they are now earning sufficiently
from project measures to do without the income-augmenting activities, which children
undertake, such as sheep and live-stock herding. Furthermore, once the ban on free
grazing and enclosure takes effect, free roaming cattle are reduced and replaced by high
yielding intensively managed livestock. Normally, unless there is protracted drought,
the returns thereof are substantially higher than those obtained from herding. Thus
children are enabled to continue their education.
The impact on the education of children is best noted among the tribal groups.

Pimpaldhara is a tribal hamlet of the Bhojdari Watershed consisting of about 25 families.

Three years ago, prior to the initiation of the project, not a single child registered in the
village school. Today 15 children (about 50%) now regularly attend primary school.

Whenever encouraged and facilitated, women have also expressed a desire to be made
literate and informed on various matters affecting their lives.
Both the above two impacts have been observed from the second year itself.
iii. Status and Decision Making :
Wage supported WS measures enable women to acquire their own funds. The regular
cash income thus earned enhances their status in their own eyes as well as in that of the
family and society. It gives them a sense of security. This has an impact on gender
relationships. It has been observed that women gradually gain self- confidence and self-

Sunanda of the Darewadi WSDP emphasised the importance of woman's participation

together with their husbands in land use planning (LUP) when she said, "Men think in terms
of crops that fetch money; but we women would like crops that meet the household's food
requirements first while the rest of the land may be used for cash crops".

respect.
Participatory WSD (PWSD) necessarily involves organisational processes and
mechanisms and as such offers a number of opportunities for women. As most of the
effects of WSD have an impact on women's daily chores such as fuel and fodder
availability, water and food security it would be very beneficial, nay, important, that
women participate actively in decisions concerning land use, types of trees to be
planted as also in other organizational matters.
Wherever men leaders have been encouraged and nudged to give greater space to
women - and this is possible since women contribute the bulk of the labour force (60 -
70 % on an average), earn a regular income and are responsible for about 70% of farm
chores – women gradually and non-conflictually are being inserted into the institutional
decision making mechanisms of the village and the watershed development effort. It has
been observed that women acquire a greater status in society, respectability, more self-
confidence and a greater say in matters concerning the family. While these changes are
not drastic, they are nevertheless perceptible from the third year onwards as is evident
judging from the way women interact amongst themselves, with their men-folk and
often in the articulation of their hopes and dreams for their children and family.
iv. Basic Health and Hygiene :
This is a direct consequence of enhanced nutrition, access to clean drinking water,
improved living conditions, basic knowledge of promotive health and prevention of
diseases and access to basic facilities.
Watershed development results in increased availability of clean drinking water, food
security, as well as increased income from enhanced agricultural productivity, allied
activities as well as wages. If this is coupled with inputs on promotive health and
prevention of diseases, together with access to health facilities made possible due to
increased income, a definite improvement in the health and hygiene conditions is
possible especially from the third year onwards.
It has been observed that in several villages where such inputs were given, the number
of women visiting medical practitioners as well as the frequency of visits has increased
considerably. Minor aliments, which were ignored earlier, are now attended to.
We shall now present schematically the beneficial impacts on women and gender
relationships as discussed above.
Table I: WOMEN AND WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT: IMPACT ON KEY INDICATORS &
TIME FRAMES
3. THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON WOMEN:

While women do benefit from watershed development, their workload, as well as

hardships nevertheless increase considerably. Moreover, since successful watershed
development necessarily involves the participation of all groups in the village, should
conflicts arise, and the project stops, this group, namely, women, would be hardest hit.
This group constitutes the majority of the labour force and puts up with the greatest
amount of hardships resulting from adhering to the socio-cultural discipline involved in
successful participatory watershed development (e.g. ban on free grazing, tree felling
etc.). This therefore is the most vulnerable section of society and suffers from
considerable stress and insecurity.
A. Economic Impacts:

(1) Employment and Income Opportunities :

a. A woman's need for money and the availability of work in the village itself encourages
her to put in about 7 - 8 hours per day at the watershed site, besides the usual house
work. Her working hours/day then usually become 16 - 18 hours. Thus she does not
have time for relaxation or her own education. Besides she cannot give her children the
time they need.
b. With watershed development, agricultural productivity increases. With about 70 % of
the farm activities being done by women, specially the laborious and non-mechanised
works, her work load now increases. For instance, when 1 crop is harvested per year, at
least 3 months of women's labour is required: now with the possibility of a second crop,
6-8 months of women's labour is demanded. Thus increase in agricultural productivity
leads to an increase in the work load especially of the tedious kind.
c. With the increase in the availability of fodder as well as water, people feed
emboldened to undertake agro-based and allied activities such as animal husbandry and
the processing of agro products. Usually it is the women who work hard at the caring,
feeding and cleaning of the animals and the sheds. Furthermore, processing of agro
products is usually done by them. However, the marketing of milk and other produce is
controlled by men. So, while the labour is the women's, the control of the income is the
men's. Thus gender inequities are further endorsed and perpetuated.
(2) Food :
a. It is normally the man who decides what crops are to be grown on the farm. Wherever
there is increase in the availability of water, farmers tend to go in for cash crops instead
of food production. In addition to increasing the work load of women, the real danger is
that food and nutritional requirement of the family may not be adequately met from
home production. This has happened in the case of the successful cooperative dairy
industry in India.
b. In such circumstances, where household requirements are not met by one's own farm
production, the same would have to be purchased from others or from urban centres.
This leads to a depletion of the household savings and outflow of village income to
urban areas. These purchases are normally done by the women from the money they
earn, thus resulting in a decline in their financial position.
(3) Fodder :
a. With the ban on free grazing, it is usually the poor, and that too poor women, who are
often forced to graze their animals outside the watershed or pay compensation for
grazed plants. This often involves considerable travel, conflicts with competing grazers
or pasture owners and economic hardships. Often they would even have to sell their
animals either due to social pressure or if the fodder requirements cannot be met as
was the experience of Dongaon.

In the WS of Dongaon, in the first years of project implementation, villagers had to sell off
large herds of local cattle and goats primarily due to closure of pasture grounds. The same
experience has also been observed in other villages.

b. Furthermore, with introduction of stall feeding and cut-and-carry methods of fodder

access, hardships to women increase, as it is often the women who get the fodder and
not the men. This is specially true of small holders. The fodder grounds would usually
be about 0.5 - 1 km away from the habitations as they are usually located in the forest
and revenue wastelands, which border the villages.
(4) Fuel :
a. It is the man who usually decides on what species of trees are to be planted and he
will normally go in for "productive trees" (timber & fruit producing, implement making
etc.) rather than trees that could also respond to women's needs (e.g. fuel, fodder trees
etc.). Women's preferences are often given the go-by.
In village Nandora, initially the decision regarding the selection of plant species was in
the hands of the men who raised only one economic variety, namely teak. However
when women took over the nursery, they raised fuel, fodder and fruit species namely
zyzyphus, bamboo, awla, bor, sitaphal, bihada etc. One of the women described her
feelings thus," Now the nursery meets our needs".
b. The responsibility of keeping the family stove burning rests on women. With the ban
on tree felling, which is often wrongly interpreted as ban on loppings, she often has to
walk long distances, even outside the village, to get firewood. To augment her fuel stock,
valuable agricultural residues and dung are also burnt.
(5) Savings and Credit :
Usually the basic survival needs of a family are met mostly from the money women earn
and save. It is often the experience that they have little control over their hard earned
income and savings. Men impound it for purchase of assets, which are owned by them,
or for their own needs and at times even for wasteful purposes e.g. gambling and
drinking.
Moreover it is observed that when women have access to credit either through their
own SHGs or banks, their men folk tend to pressurize them to take loans for their own
purposes.

In village Jondhlewadi, some men pressurized their wives who were members of a women's
credit group to demand its liquidation so that they could get immediate lumpsum possession
of the money that was due to them.
(6) Water Availability :
With increase in water availability the tendency of farmers is to increase the area under
cultivation. Moreover, there is a tendency to go in for high value water consumptive
crops, e.g. sugarcane, grapes. If this is done unrestrainedly, the ground water level gets
rapidly depleted and the water situation quickly returns to the pre-project stage.
Adequate potable water within a reasonable distance from the home and water for
livestock are the first casualties.
Unless special care is exercised those who have access to resources can quickly exploit
augmented ground water reserves. Thus a limited few would capture a major share of
benefits. The losers are the rain dependent farmers especially the small ones. This leads
to the surfacing of a new power elite (which might also include some or all of the
elements of the existing ones) who take over decision making institutions, purchase
additional lands and are generally conservative and acquisitive. This would then result
in an increase in the number of landless, greater immiserization and marginalization of
the small rain-fed farmer. The consequence is increased hardships to women.
B. Social Impacts :

(a) Education :
While women do want to improve their educational and knowledge levels, the long
working days (16-18 hours) leaves them too tired and exhausted to really concentrate
on the acquisition of skills and knowledge. Thus even if they do have disposable income,
they are disadvantaged vis-à-vis men who, in a similar situation, generally enjoy some
leisure and are able to travel and be exposed to a variety of learning and enabling
opportunities.
During periods of drought when disposable income declines sharply, girls are the first
to be withdrawn from school.
(b) Status and Decision Making :
The process of integrating women into the dynamics and politics of village level projects
and institutions is by no means simple nor can be assumed. Access to income and own
funds can also be a source of tension and discord within a family if the men folk feel
threatened.

In Kadus Watershed, payment of wages is accompanied by a memo outlining details. Some

women requested that wages due to them for work done be paid to them in 2 parts with 2
separate memos - one in their own name and the other in the name of another person, usually
their married daughter or a relative living outside the village, in whom they have confidence.
They would hand over to their husbands their "own" memo and wages and keep the other
memo and wages to themselves. This they saved or invested to meet the needs of the family in
times of crisis or to give useful gifts to their married daughters when they visited.
If gender related issues are not handled sensitively, appropriately and with patience,
there could be a backlash, which may result in greater marginalisation and oppression
of women.
Furthermore, due to internalization of cultural restrictions and practices, women find it
difficult to openly and clearly state their expectations and points of view. Often, they
echo the views of their men-folk thus immediately reaffirming their current situation of
"obedient wives" , "handmaids" to their men.
(c) Basic Health and Hygiene :
As is the common trend in villages, boys are given preference in both education and
nutrition vis-à-vis girls. With an increase in disposable income and food availability,
while the absolute quantum available to both increases, boys gain relatively far more
than girls. Thus, girls lose out relatively, health-wise, physically and educationally.
During periods of protracted drought, or when food is in short supply, girls are the first
victims. Not only is their nutritional intake reduced relative to their male siblings, their
health problems also are attended to much later than that of their male counterparts.

V. WOMEN'S REACTION:

In my interaction with women, I have observed that despite the limitations and
hardships mentioned above, women nevertheless are willing to accept the extra work
load as well as the hardships for 3 primary reasons:
- They want to have access to a steady flow of income in order to enjoy food and
financial security especially for times of crises e.g. if abandoned by their
husbands or widowed.
- They want to ensure the future of their children by sending them to school,
because they realise that unless their children get educated, their lives would be
as filled with hardships as their own, if not more so.
- They want to participate in decision making at home (utilisation of funds,
upbringing of children, land use and village affairs) and thus be accepted and
respected by society.
In order, however, to lighten their burden and also ensure that their hopes are realized,
they have expressed the need for the following :
- training programs, opportunities for study (non-formal classes) and exposure
visits so as to broaden their horizons and improve their skills. Such visits also
serve the purpose of socialisation and relaxation.
- day care centres for children which would not only provide quality care for their
children but also free the parents for work.
Drudgery reducing alternatives e.g. by the use of alternate improved energy sources,
potable water sources, functioning and efficient pumps close to their homes, availability
of better fuel like kerosene, better agricultural implements etc.
- the possibility of saving securely as well as the availability of loans as and when
required and without much bureaucracy.
- access to health and hygiene facilities since nutritional deficiencies, intestinal
infections and other preventable diseases are a major cause of fatigue and
debility which affects intellectual and physical productivity as well as acts as a
drain on their meager income.
- reasonable assurance of a steady income through other income generating
projects even after the watershed development project is completed.
Thus, I have observed that there is a strong desire on the part of women to acquire a
sense of identity, which would be accepted by society and to move from creaturehood to
personhood.
Where such possibility exists, women are willing to accept the hardships involved.

VI. CONCLUSION:

Watershed Development by itself is not gender discriminative. It is the socio-economic

and cultural framework existing within a particular watershed that determines gender
relationships and discrimination. In the rural agrarian setting in India this framework is
definitely biased against women.
In such a system, any external infusion of resources (finance and technology) with no
reference to the underlying transfer and power mechanisms will necessarily strengthen
existing inequalities and biases.
Hence, if a particular initiative is not to become gender discriminative, thought must be
paid not only to the "control" and the "delivery mechanism" but also to the
"distributive" effect and mechanism.
Participatory Watershed Development, wherein space is created for women's active
involvement, not only addresses the core concerns of women, but also offers them the
possibility to get integrated into the socio-economic-political life as also the decision
making processes and institutions of the village and also matters pertaining to the
family.
Thus Participatory Watershed Development, which plans and allows for women's
empowerment can discriminate in favour of women especially in the interim and long
run even though initially, and for a time thereafter, women are saddled with additional
chores, burdens and responsibilities.

c. Institutionalizing and sustaining community-based watershed management programs

(case studies)

Concerning the Watershed Dwellers (villagers):

• Villagers must agree in principle to come together and take responsibility for project
execution and maintenance.
• They would have to commit themselves to the following :
- ban on free grazing and undertaking of social fencing on treated lands.
- ban on tree felling for non-household purposes.
- willingness to contribute at least 16 % of unskilled labour costs of the project by
way of “shramdaan” (voluntary labour).
• In order to concretize and institutionalize their intentions and commitments, they
have to set up a Village Watershed Committee (VWC), which is representative of all
social groupings and geographical areas of the watershed. This VWC is to be nominated
consensually during a Gram Sabha. It is this body, which is actually the key partner and
“legal project holder”, as it were.
d. Existing policies and institutional mechanisms to support watershed management
e. Managing resource conflicts in watersheds

Session 3:
Disaster Risk Reduction, Sustainable livelihood, Food security and Watershed
management linkages