Métis: English: French

7/26/2021 Métis - Wikipedia
Métis
The Métis (English: /meɪˈtiː(s)/; French: [metis]) are Indigenous
peoples in the three Prairie Provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Métis
Alberta), as well as parts of Ontario, British Columbia, the Michif

Northwest Territories, and the Northern United States[3][4] who are Métis
unique in being of mixed Indigenous and European (primarily
French) ancestry. In Canada, they are considered a distinct culture,
and are one of three groups of Canadian Indigenous peoples
referenced in the Constitution.
Since the late 20th century, Métis in Canada have been recognized as
a distinct Indigenous people under the Constitution Act of 1982 and
have a population of 587,545 as of 2016.[1]
Smaller communities self-identifying as Métis exist in Canada and

Total population
the United States,[5] such as the Little Shell Tribe of Montana. The
Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indians are recognized as Indian. 587,545[1] (2016[2], census)
There is debate even within the Little Shell as to whether the Métis Canada 587,545[1]
should even be allowed to enroll. While there is much history and
United States Unknown
territory shared between the Ojibwe and Montana's Métis, Métis in
parts of Canada and the United States remain unrecognized. The Languages
Métis ethnogenesis began in the fur trade and they have been an Michif, Cree, Canadian French,
important group in the history of Canada, as well as the foundation American English, Canadian
of the province of Manitoba.[6] The Métis Nation have the homeland
English, Hand Talk, Bungee, other
in Montana, as well as in Western Canada, that have been separated
indigenous languages
by the drawing of the U.S.-Canada border at the 49th parallel North.
Alberta is the only province in Canada with a recognized Métis
Nation land base; the eight Métis Nation Settlements, with a
population of approximately 5,000 people on 1.25 million acres
(5060 km2).[7]
Contents
Etymology
Louis Riel's writings
Métis people in Canada
Distribution
Self-identity and legal status
View of identity
Lack of a legal definition
Definitions used by Métis representative organizations Métis flag
Cultural definitions
History
Origin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Métis#Métis_people_in_the_United_States 1/29
Land ownership
Métis settlements of Alberta – a distinct Métis identity
Organizations
Culture
Language
Flag
Distinction of lowercase m versus uppercase M
Distribution
Genocide
Métis people in the United States
Geography
History
Current population
Louis Riel and the United States
The Medicine Line (Canada–U.S. border)
See also
Citations
General bibliography
Canada
Further reading
Canada
United States
External links
Etymology
Métis is the French term for "mixed-blood". The word is a cognate of
the Spanish word mestizo and the Portuguese word mestiço. Michif
([mɪˈtʃɪf]) is the name of the mixed language spoken by the Métis
people of Western Canada and adjacent areas of the United States,
mostly a mix of Plains Cree with Canadian French noun phrases.
The word derives from the French adjective métis, also spelled
metice, referring to a hybrid, or to someone of mixed
ancestry.[8][9]:1080 In the 16th century, French colonists used the
term métis as a noun to refer to people of mixed European and Métis drivers and Red River carts
indigenous American parentage in New France (which extended
from southern Quebec through the Great Lakes to the Mississippi
River, thence southward to Mississippi and Alabama). At the time, it applied generally to French-
speaking people who were of partial ethnic French descent.[8][10] It later came to be used for people of
mixed European and Indigenous backgrounds in other French colonies, including Guadeloupe in the
Caribbean;[11] Senegal in West Africa;[12] Algeria in North Africa;[13] and the former French Indochina in
Southeast Asia.[14] The spelling Métis with an uppercase M refers to the distinct Indigenous peoples in
Canada and the U.S., while the spelling métis with a lowercase m functions as an adjective. There are
many different spellings of the word Métis that have been used interchangeably, including métif, michif;
currently the most agreed-upon spelling is Métis, however some prefer to use Metis as inclusive of
persons of both English and French descent.[15] The definition of the word is often disputed, as some
people attempt to use métis in the archaic sense of having an indigenous ancestor or being mixed. The
majority of indigenous groups and legal scholars define Métis as the people who live on the Métis
homeland and have a direct connection to the original Métis of the Red River Colony.
The Métis of Canada and the Métis of the United States adopted parts of their Indigenous and European
cultures while forming customs and traditions of their own, as well as developing a common
language.[16] Some argue that the ethnogenesis of the Métis began when the Métis organized politically
at the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816, while others argue that the ethnogenesis began prior to this battle,
before fur traders emigrated from the Great Lakes region to the Western plains.[17]
Louis Riel's writings

The Métis political leader Louis Riel wrote extensively. In The Métis, Louis Riel's Last Memoir: The
Métis of the North-West, Riel wrote:
The Métis have as paternal ancestors the former employees of the Hudson's Bay and North-West
Companies, and as maternal ancestors Indian women belonging to various tribes.
The French word Métis is derived from the Latin participle mixtus, which means "mixed"; it
expresses well the idea it represents.
Quite appropriate also, was the corresponding English term "Half-Breed" in the first generation of
blood mixing, but now that European blood and Indian blood are mingled to varying degrees, it is no
longer generally applicable.
The French word Métis expresses the idea of this mixture in as satisfactory a way as possible, and
becomes by that fact, a proper race name suitable for our race.
A little observation in passing without offending anyone.
Very polite and amiable people, may sometimes say to a Métis, “You don't look at all like a Métis. You
surely can't have much Indian blood. Why, you could pass anywhere for pure White.”
The Métis, a trifle disconcerted by the tone of these remarks, would like to lay claim to both sides of
his origin. But fear of upsetting or totally dispelling these kind assumptions holds him back. While he
is hesitating to choose among the different replies that come to mind, words like these succeed in
silencing him completely. "Ah! bah! You have scarcely any Indian blood. You haven't enough worth
mentioning." Here is how the Métis think privately.
"It is true that our Indian origin is humble, but it is indeed just that we honour our mothers as well as
our fathers. Why should we be so preoccupied with what degree of mingling we have of European and
Indian blood? No matter how little we have of one or the other, do not both gratitude and filial love
require us to make a point of saying, 'We are Métis.' "
Louis Riel, The Métis, Louis Riel’s Last Memoir, in AH de Tremaudan, l'Histoire de la nation métisse
dans l'Ouest,[18] translated by Elizabeth Maguet as Hold High Your Heads[19]
Métis people in Canada

Métis (/meɪˈtiː/; Canadian French: [meˈt͡ sɪs], European French: [meˈtis]; Métis
Michif: [mɪˈtʃɪf]) people in Canada are specific cultural communities
who trace their descent to First Nations and European settlers,
primarily the French, in the early decades of the colonisation of
Canada. Métis peoples are recognized as one of Canada's aboriginal
peoples under the Constitution Act of 1982, along with First Nations
and Inuit peoples. The April 8, 2014, the Supreme Court of Canada Total population
Daniels v Canada appeal held that "Métis and non status Indians
587,545 (2016)
are 'Indians' under s. 91(24)", but excluded the Powley test as the
1.7% of the Canadian population[20]
only criterion to determine Metis identity. Canadian Métis represent

(including persons of partial Métis
the majority of people who identify as Métis, although there are a
number of Métis in the United States. In Canada, the population is parentage)
587,545 with 20.5 percent living in Ontario and 19.5 percent in Regions with significant
Alberta.[24] The Acadians of eastern Canada, another francophone populations
group, claims to have mixed French and Indigenous origins,[25] are
not Métis, according to Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, the Canada
Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and United States
Nehiyaw women of western and west central Canada.
Languages
While the Métis initially developed as the mixed-race descendants of English
early unions between First Nations and colonial-era European
Métis French • Français métchif
settlers (usually Indigenous women and French settler men), within
generations (particularly in central and western Canada), a distinct Scottish Gaelic • Gàidhlig
Métis culture developed. The women in the unions in eastern Michif
Canada were usually Algonquin, and in Western Canada they were Bungee
Saulteaux, Cree, Ojibwe, Nakoda and Dakota/Lakota or of mixed
descent from these peoples. Their unions with European men Chipewyan • Dëne Sųłıné Yatıé
engaged in the fur trade in the Old Northwest were often of the type Scots
known as marriage à la façon du pays ("according to the custom of Siksiká • ᓱᖽᐧᖿ
the country").[26]
Dakota • Dakhótiyapi
After New France was ceded to Great Britain's control in 1763, there Cree • ᓀᐦᐃᓇᐤ
was an important distinction between French Métis born of
Crow • Apsáalooke
francophone voyageur fathers and the Anglo-Métis (known as
"country born" or Mixed Bloods, for instance in the 1870 census of Religion
Manitoba) descended from English or Scottish fathers. Today these Ojibwe, Cree and Christianity
two cultures have essentially coalesced into location-specific Métis (Protestantism and
traditions. This does not preclude a range of other Métis cultural
Catholic)[21][22][23]
expressions across North America.[27][28] Such polyethnic people
were historically referred to by other terms, many of which are now Related ethnic groups
considered to be offensive, such as Mixed-bloods, Half-breeds, Bois- Métis in the United States
Brûlés, Bungi, Black Scots and Jackatars.[29]
French
While people of Métis culture or heritage are found across Canada, Cree
the traditional Métis "homeland" (areas where Métis populations Ojibwe
and culture developed as a distinct ethnicity historically) includes
much of the Canadian Prairies. The most commonly known group Amerindians
are the "Red River Métis", centring on southern and central parts of Scots
Manitoba along the Red River of the North.
Closely related are the Métis in the United States, primarily those in English
border areas such as Northern Michigan, the Red River Valley and Irish
Eastern Montana. These were areas in which there was considerable
Aboriginal and European mixing due to the 19th-century fur trade. Anglo-Métis
But they do not have a federally recognized status in the United Mestizo
States, except as enrolled members of federally recognized tribes. [30]
Although Métis existed farther west than today's Manitoba, much less is known about the Métis of
Northern Canada.
Distribution
Data from this section from Statistics Canada, 2016.[31]
Percentage of self-identified Métis
Province / Territory
(out of total population)
Canada — Total 1.7%
Newfoundland and Labrador 1.5%
Prince Edward Island 0.6%
Nova Scotia 2.8%
New Brunswick 1.5%
Quebec 0.8%
Ontario 1.0%
Manitoba 7.3%
Saskatchewan 5.2%
Alberta 2.9%
British Columbia 2.0%
Yukon 2.9%
Northwest Territories 7.1%
Nunavut 0.5%
Self-identity and legal status
In 2016, 587,545 people in Canada self-identified as Métis. They represented 35.1% of the total
Aboriginal population and 1.5% of the total Canadian population.[32] Most Métis people today are
descendants of unions between generations of Métis individuals and live in urban areas. The exception
are the Métis in rural and northern parts that exist in close proximity to First Nations communities.
Over the past century, countless Métis have assimilated into the general European Canadian
populations. Métis heritage (and thereby Aboriginal ancestry) is more common than is generally
realized.[33] Geneticists estimate that 50 percent of today's population in Western Canada has some
Aboriginal ancestry.[34] Most people with more distant ancestry are not part of the Métis ethnicity or
culture.[34]
Unlike among First Nations peoples, there is no distinction between Treaty status and non-Treaty status.
The Métis did not sign treaties with Canada, with the exception of an adhesion to Treaty 3 in Northwest
Ontario. This adherence was never implemented by the federal government. The legal definition is not
yet fully developed. Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982 recognizes the rights of Indian,
Métis and Inuit people; however, it does not define these groups.[26] In 2003, the Supreme Court of
Canada defined a Métis as someone who self-identifies as Métis, has an ancestral connection to the
historic Métis community, and is accepted by the modern community with continuity to the historic
Métis community.[35]
View of identity
The most well-known and historically documented mixed-ancestry population in Canadian history are
the groups who developed during the fur trade in south-eastern Rupert's Land, primarily in the Red
River Settlement (now Manitoba) and the Southbranch Settlements (Saskatchewan). In the late
nineteenth century, they organized politically (led by men who had European educations) and had
confrontations with the Canadian government in an effort to assert their independence.
This was not the only place where intermixing (métisser) between European and Indigenous people
occurred. It was part of the history of colonization from the earliest days of settlements on the Atlantic
Coast throughout the Americas.[36]:2, 5 But the strong sense of ethnic national identity among the mostly
French- and Michif-speaking Métis along the Red River, demonstrated during armed resistance
movements led by Louis Riel, resulted in a specific use of the term "Métis" throughout Canada.
Continued organizing and political activity resulted in "the Métis" gaining official recognition from the
national government as one of the recognized Aboriginal groups in S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982,
which states:[37]
35. (1) The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the Aboriginal People of Canada are hereby
recognized and affirmed.
(2) In this Act, "Aboriginal Peoples of Canada" includes the Indian, Inuit, and Métis
Peoples of Canada.
...
— Constitution Act, 1982
Section-35(2) does not define criteria for an individual who is Métis. This has left open the question of
whether "Métis" in this context should apply only to the descendants of the Red River Métis or to all
mixed-ancestry groups and individuals. Many members of First Nations may have mixed ancestry but
identify primarily by the tribal nation, rather than as Métis. Since the passage of the 1982 Act, many
groups in Canada who are not related to the Red River Métis have adopted the word "métis" as a
descriptor.[36]:7
Lack of a legal definition
It is not clear who has the moral and legal authority to define the word "Métis". There is no
comprehensive legal definition of Métis status in Canada; this is in contrast to the Indian Act, which
creates an Indian Register for all (Status) First Nations people. Some commentators have argued that
one of the rights of an Indigenous people is to define its own identity, precluding the need for a
government-sanctioned definition.[36]:9–10 The question is open as to who should receive Aboriginal
rights flowing from Métis identity. No federal legislation defines the Métis.
Alberta is the only province to have defined the term in law under the Métis Settlements Act (MSA),
which defines a Métis as "a person of Aboriginal ancestry who identifies with Métis history and culture".
This was done in the context of creating a test for legal eligibility for membership in one of Alberta's
eight Métis settlements. The MSA, together with requirements at the community level (Elder &
community acceptance) create the legal requirements for residency on the Métis Settlements. In Alberta
law, belonging to a "Métis Association" (Métis National Council or any of its affiliates, Métis Federation
of Canada, Congress of Aboriginal People) does not grant one the rights granted to members of the
Alberta Métis Settlements. The MSA test excludes those people who are Status Indians (that is, a
member of a First Nation), an exclusion which was upheld by the Supreme Court in Alberta v.
Cunningham (2011).[36]:10–11
The number of people self-identifying as Métis has risen sharply since the late 20th century: between
1996 and 2006, the population of Canadians who self-identify as Métis nearly doubled, to approximately
390,000.[36]:2 Until R v. Powley (2003), there was no legal definition of Métis other than the legal
requirements found in the Métis Settlements Act of 1990.
The Powley case involved a claim by Steven Powley and his son Rodney, two members of the Sault Ste.
Marie, Ontario Métis community who were asserting Métis hunting rights. The Supreme Court of
Canada outlined three broad factors to identify Métis who have Hunting Rights as Aboriginal
peoples:[38]
self-identification as a Métis individual;

ancestral connection to an historic Métis community; and
acceptance by a Métis community.
All three factors must be present for an individual to qualify under the SCC legal definition of Métis. In
addition, the court stated that
[t]he term Métis in s. 35 does not encompass all individuals with mixed Indian and European
heritage; rather, it refers to distinctive peoples who, in addition to their mixed ancestry,
developed their own customs, ways of life, and recognizable group identity separate from
their Indian or Inuit and European forebears.[36]:9 The court was explicit that its ten-point
test is not a comprehensive definition of Métis.
Questions remain as to whether Métis have treaty rights; this is an explosive issue in the Canadian
Aboriginal community today. It has been stated that "only First Nations could legitimately sign treaties
with the government so, by definition, Métis have no Treaty rights."[39] One treaty names Métis in the
title: the Halfbreed (Métis in the French version) Adhesion to Treaty 3. Another, the Robinson Superior
Treaty of 1850, listed 84 persons classified as "half-breeds" in the Treaty, so included them and their
descendants.[40] Hundreds, if not thousands, of Métis were initially included in a number of other
treaties, and then excluded under later amendments to the Indian Act.[39]
Definitions used by Métis representative organizations
Two main advocacy groups claim to speak for the Métis in Canada: the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples
(CAP) and the Métis National Council.(MNC). Each uses different approaches to define Métis
individuals. The CAP, which has nine regional affiliates, represents all Aboriginal people who are not
part of the reserve system, including Métis and non-Status Indians. It does not define Métis and uses a
broad conception based on self-identification.
The Métis National Council broke away from the Native Council of Canada, CAP's predecessor, in 1983.
Its political leadership of the time stated that the NCC's "pan-Aboriginal approach to issues did not allow
the Métis Nation to effectively represent itself".[36]:11 The MNC views the Métis as a single nation with a
common history and culture centred on the fur trade of "west-central North America" in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. This position has been subject to much debate and controversy.[41][42]
In 2003, MNC had five provincial affiliates:
Métis Nation of Ontario Secretariat,

Manitoba Métis Federation Incorporated,
Métis Nation of Saskatchewan,
Métis Nation of Alberta Association, and the
Métis Nation of British Columbia.
The Metis Nation of Alberta Association adopted the following "Definition of Métis":
Métis means a person who self-identifies as a Métis, is distinct from other aboriginal peoples,
is of historic Métis Nation ancestry, and is accepted by the Métis Nation.[43]
Several local, independent Métis organizations have been founded in Canada. In Northern Canada
neither the CAP nor the MNC have affiliates; here local Métis organizations deal directly with the federal
government and are part of the Aboriginal land claims process. Three of the comprehensive settlements
(modern treaties) in force in the Northwest Territories include benefits for Métis people who can prove
local Aboriginal ancestry prior to 1921 (Treaty 11).[36]:13
The federal government recognizes the Métis National Council as the representative Métis group.[44] In
December 2016, Prime Minister Trudeau made a commitment to the leaders of the Assembly of First
Nations, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, and the Métis National Council to have annual meetings. He also
committed to two other initiatives aimed at heeding the Calls to Action of the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (TRC) which examined abuses at Indian Residential Schools.[44]
Indigenous Affairs Canada, the relevant federal ministry, deals with the MNC. On April 13, 2017 the two
parties signed the Canada-Métis Nation Accord, with the goal of working with the Métis Nation, as
represented by the Métis National Council, on a Nation to Nation basis.[45]
In response to the Powley ruling, Métis organizations are issuing Métis Nation citizenship cards to their
members. Several organizations are registered with the Canadian government to provide Métis cards.[46]
The criteria to receive a card and the rights associated with the card vary with each organization. For
example, for membership in the Métis Nation of Alberta Association (MNAA), an applicant must provide
a documented genealogy and family tree dating to the mid 1800s, proving descent from one or more
members of historic Métis groups.[47]
The Métis Nation of Ontario requires that successful applicants for what it calls "citizenship", must "see
themselves and identify themselves as distinctly Métis. This requires that individuals make a positive
choice to be culturally and identifiable Métis".[48] They note that "an individual is not Métis simply
because he or she has some Aboriginal ancestry, but does not have Indian or Inuit status".[48] It also
requires proof of Métis ancestry: "This requires a genealogical connection to a 'Métis ancestor' from the
Métis Homeland– not an Indian or aboriginal ancestor".[48]
Cultural definitions
Cultural definitions of Métis identity inform legal and political ones.
The 1996 Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples stated:
'Métis' means a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples,
is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation. [36]:12 Many
Canadians have mixed Aboriginal/non-Aboriginal ancestry, but that does not make them
Métis or even Aboriginal … What distinguishes Métis people from everyone else is that they
associate themselves with a culture that is distinctly Métis. [36]:14
Traditional markers of Métis culture include use Aboriginal-European languages, such as Michif
(French-Cree-Dene) and Bungi (Cree-Ojibwa-English); distinctive clothing, such as the arrowed sash
(ceinture flêchée); and a rich repertoire of fiddle music, jigs and square dances, and practising a
traditional economy based on hunting, trapping, and gathering. However, these cultural markers do not
exclude Métis that do not partake in them.[36]:14–15
History
Origin
During the height of the North American fur trade in New France
from 1650 onward, many French and British fur traders married
First Nations and Inuit women, mainly Cree, Ojibwa, or Saulteaux
located in the Great Lakes area and later into the north west. The
majority of these fur traders were French and Scottish; the French
majority were Catholic.[34] These marriages are commonly referred
to as marriage à la façon du pays or marriage according to the
"custom of the country."[49]
At first, the Hudson's Bay Company officially forbade these

relationships. However, many Indigenous peoples actively
encouraged them, because they drew fur traders into Indigenous
kinship circles, creating social ties that supported the economic Métis fur trader, c. 1870
relationships developing between them and Europeans. When
Indigenous women married European men, they introduced them to
their people and their culture, taught them about the land and its resources, and worked alongside them.
Indigenous women paddled and steered canoes, made moccasins out of moose skin, netted webbing for
snowshoes, skinned animals and dried their meat for pemmican,

split and dried fish, snared rabbits and partridges, and helped to
manufacture birchbark canoes. Intermarriage made the fur trade
more successful.[50]
The children of these marriages were often introduced to

Catholicism, but grew up in primarily First Nations societies.[50]
They were thought of as the familial bond between the Europeans
and First Nations and Inuit peoples of North America. As adults, the
men often worked as fur-trade company interpreters, as well as fur
trappers in their turn.[34] Many of the first generations of Métis lived
within the First Nations societies of their wives and children, but
also started to marry Métis women.
By the early 19th century, marriage between European fur traders

and First Nations or Inuit women started to decline as European fur
The Trapper's Bride by Alfred Jacob
traders began to marry Métis women instead, because Métis women
Miller, 1837
were familiar with both white and Indigenous cultures, and could
interpret.[50]
According to historian Jacob A. Schooley, the Métis developed over at least two generations and within
different economic classes. In the first stage, "servant" (employee) traders of the fur trade companies,
known as wintering partners, would stay for the season with First Nations bands, and make a "country
marriage" with a high-status native woman. This woman and her children would move to live in the
vicinity of a trading fort or post, becoming "House Indians" (as they were called by the company men).
House Indians eventually formed distinct bands. Children raised within these "House Indian" bands
often became employees of the companies. (Foster cites the legendary York boat captain Paulet Paul as
an example). Eventually this second-generation group ended employment with the company and became
commonly known as "freemen" traders and trappers. They lived with their families raising children in a
distinct culture, accustomed to the fur-trade life, that valued free trading and the buffalo hunt in
particular. He considered that the third generation, who were sometimes Métis on both sides, were the
first true Métis. He suggests that in the Red River region, many "House Indians" (and some non-"House"
First Nations) were assimilated into Métis culture due to the Catholic church's strong presence in that
region. In the Fort Edmonton region however, many House Indians never adopted a Métis identity but
continued to identify primarily as Cree, Saulteaux, Ojibwa, and Chipweyan descendants up until the
early 20th century.[51][52]
The Métis played a vital role in the success of the western fur trade. They were skilled hunters and
trappers, and were raised to appreciate both Aboriginal and European cultures.[53] Métis understanding
of both societies and customs helped bridge cultural gaps, resulting in better trading relationships.[53]
The Hudson's Bay Company discouraged unions between their fur traders and First Nations and Inuit
women, while the North West Company (the English-speaking Quebec-based fur trading company)
supported such marriages. Trappers often married First Nations women too, and operated outside
company structures.[54] The Métis peoples were respected as valuable employees of both fur trade
companies, due to their skills as voyageurs, buffalo hunters, and interpreters, and their knowledge of the
lands.
By the early 1800s European immigrants, mainly Scottish farmers, along with Métis families from the
Great Lakes region moved to the Red River Valley in present-day Manitoba.[55][56] The Hudson's Bay
Company, which now administered a monopoly over the territory then called Rupert's Land, assigned
plots of land to European settlers.[57] The allocation of Red River land caused conflict with those already
living in the area, as well as with the North West Company, whose
trade routes had been cut in half. Many Métis were working as fur
traders with both the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay
Company. Others were working as free traders, or buffalo hunters
supplying pemmican to the fur trade.[34] The buffalo were declining
in number, and the Métis and First Nations had to go farther and
further west to hunt them.[58] Profits from the fur trade were
declining because of a reduction in European demand due to
changing tastes, as well as the need for the Hudson's Bay Company
to extend its reach farther from its main posts to get furs.
Rupert's Land, showing location of
Most references to the Métis in the 19th century applied to the Plains York Factory
Métis, but more particularly the Red River Métis.[51] But, the Plains
Métis tended to identify by occupational categories: buffalo hunters,
pemmican and fur traders, and "tripmen" in the York boat fur brigades among the men;[51] the moccasin
sewers and cooks among the women. The largest community in the Assiniboine-Red River district had a
different lifestyle and culture from those Métis located in the Saskatchewan, Alberta, Athabasca, and
Peace river valleys to the west.[51]
In 1869, two years after Canadian Confederacy, the Government of

Canada exerted its power over the people living in Rupert's Land
after it acquired the land in the mid-19th century from the Hudson's
Bay Company.[59] The Métis and the Anglo-Métis (commonly known
as Countryborn, children of First Nations women and Orcadian,
other Scottish or English men),[60] joined forces to stand up for their
rights. They wanted to protect their traditional ways of life against
an aggressive and distant Anglo-Canadian government and its local
colonizing agents.[57] An 1870 census of Manitoba classified the
Métis drivers with Red River carts, population as follows: 11,963 total people. Of this number 558 were
c. 1860 defined as Indians (First Nations). There were 5,757 Métis and
4,083 English-speaking Mixed Bloods. The remaining 1,565 people
were of predominately European, Canadian or American
background.[61]
During this time the Canadian government signed treaties (known as the "Numbered Treaties") with
various First Nations. These Nations ceded property rights to almost the entire western plains to the
Government of Canada. In return for their ceding traditional lands, the Canadian government promised
food, education, medical help, etc.[62] While the Métis generally did not sign any treaty as a group, they
were sometimes included, even listed as "half-breeds" in some records.
In the late 19th century, following the British North America Act (1867), Louis Riel, a Métis who was
formally educated, became a leader of the Métis in the Red River area. He denounced the Canadian
government surveys on Métis lands[63] in a speech delivered in late August 1869 from the steps of Saint
Boniface Cathedral.[34] The Métis became more fearful when the Canadian government appointed the
notoriously anti-French William McDougall as the Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories on
September 28, 1869, in anticipation of a formal transfer of lands to take effect in December.[34] On
November 2, 1869 Louis Riel and 120 men seized Upper Fort Garry, the administrative headquarters of
the Hudson's Bay Company. This was the first overt act of Métis resistance.[63] On March 4, 1870 the
Provisional Government, led by Louis Riel, executed Thomas Scott after Scott was convicted of
insubordination and treason.[64][65] The elected Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia[66] subsequently sent
three delegates to Ottawa to negotiate with the Canadian government. This resulted in the Manitoba Act
and that province's entry into the Canadian Confederation. Due to the execution of Scott, Riel was
charged with murder and fled to the United States in exile.[57]
In March 1885, the Métis heard that a contingent of 500

North-West Mounted Police was heading west.[67] They
organized and formed the Provisional Government of
Saskatchewan, with Pierre Parenteau as President and
Gabriel Dumont as adjutant-general. Riel took charge of
a few hundred armed men. They suffered defeat by
Canadian armed forces in a conflict known as the North
West Rebellion, which occurred in northern
Saskatchewan from March 26 to May 12, 1885.[57]
Gabriel Dumont fled to the United States, while Riel,
Poundmaker, and Big Bear surrendered. Big Bear and
Poundmaker each were convicted and received a three-
year sentence. On July 6, 1885, Riel was convicted of Copy of the "Warrant To Apprehend" Riel and
high treason and was sentenced to hang. Riel appealed Lépine, issued in Winnipeg
but he was executed on November 16, 1885.[57]
Land ownership
Issues of land ownership became a central theme, as the Métis sold most of the 600,000 acres
(2430 km2) they received in the first settlement.[68][69]
During the 1930s, political activism arose in Métis communities in Alberta and Saskatchewan over land
rights, and some filed land claims for the return of certain lands.[70]
Five men, sometimes dubbed "The
Famous Five", (James P. Brady, Malcolm Norris, Peter Tomkins Jr., Joe Dion, Felix Callihoo) were
instrumental in having the Alberta government form the 1934 "Ewing Commission", headed by Albert
Ewing, to deal with land claims.[71] The Alberta government passed the Métis Population Betterment Act
in 1938.[71] The Act provided funding and land to the Métis. (The provincial government later rescinded
portions of the land in certain areas.)[71]
Métis settlements of Alberta – a distinct Métis identity

"Our People, Our Land, Our Culture, Our Future" – Métis
settlements motto
The Métis settlements in Alberta are the only recognized land base
of Métis in Canada. They are represented and governed collectively
by a unique Métis government known as the Métis Settlements
General Council (MSGC),[72] also known as the "All-Council". The
MSGC is the provincial, national, and international representative of
the Federated Métis Settlements. It holds fee simple land title via Letters Patents to 1.25 million acres
(5060 km2) of land, making the MSGC the largest land holder in the province, other than the Crown in
the Right of Alberta. The MSGC is the only recognized Métis Government in Canada with prescribed
land, power, and jurisdiction via the Métis Settlements Act. (This legislation followed legal suits filed by
the Métis Settlements against the Crown in the 1970’s).
The Métis settlements consist of predominantly Indigenous Métis populations native to Northern
Alberta – unique from those of the Red River, the Great Lakes, and other migrant Métis from further
east. However, following the Riel and Dumont resistances some Red-River Métis fled westward, where
they married into the contemporary Métis settlement populations during the end of the 19th century and
into the early 20th century. Historically referred to as the "Nomadic Half-breeds", the Métis of Northern
Alberta have a unique history. Their fight for land is still evident today with the eight contemporary
Métis settlements.
Following the formal establishment of the Métis settlements, then called Half-Breed Colonies, in the
1930s by a distinct Métis political organization, the Métis populations in Northern Alberta were the only
Métis to secure communal Métis lands. During renewed Indigenous activism during the 1960s into the
1970s, political organizations were formed or revived among the Métis. In Alberta, the Métis settlements
united as: The "Alberta Federation of Métis Settlement Associations" in the mid-1970s. Today, the
Federation is represented by the Métis Settlements General Council.[73]
During the constitutional talks of 1982, the Métis were recognized as one of the three Aboriginal peoples
of Canada, in part by the Federation of Métis Settlements. In 1990, the Alberta government, following
years of conferences and negotiations between the Federation of Métis Settlements (FMS) and the
Crown in the Right of Alberta, restored land titles to the northern Métis communities through the Métis
Settlement Act, replacing the Métis Betterment Act.[71] Originally the first Métis settlements in Alberta
were called colonies and consisted of:
Buffalo Lake (Caslan) or Beaver River

Cold Lake
East Prairie (south of Lesser Slave Lake)
Elizabeth (east of Elk Point)
Fishing Lake (Packechawanis)
Gift Lake (Ma-cha-cho-wi-se) or Utikuma Lake
Goodfish Lake
Kikino
Kings Land
Marlboro
Paddle Prairie (or Keg River)
Peavine (Big Prairie, north of High Prairie)
Touchwood
Wolf Lake (north of Bonnyville)
In the 1960s, the settlements of Marlboro, Touchwood, Cold Lake, and Wolf Lake were dissolved by
Order-in-Council by the Alberta Government. The remaining Métis Settlers were forced to move into one
of the eight remaining Métis Settlements – leaving the eight contemporary Métis Settlements.
The position of Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians was created in 1985 as a portfolio
in the Canadian Cabinet.[74] The Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development is officially
responsible only for Status Indians and largely with those living on Indian reserves. The new position
was created in order provide a liaison between the federal government and Métis and non-status
Aboriginal peoples, urban Aboriginals, and their representatives.[74]
Organizations
The Provisional Government of Saskatchewan was the name given by Louis Riel to the independent state
he declared during the North-West Rebellion (Resistance) of 1885 in what is today the Canadian
province of Saskatchewan. The governing council was named the Exovedate, Latin for "of the flock".[75]
The council debated issues ranging from military policy to local bylaws and theological issues. It met at
Batoche, Saskatchewan, and exercised real authority only over the Southbranch Settlement. The
provisional government collapsed that year after the Battle of Batoche.
The Métis National Council was formed in 1983, following the

recognition of the Métis as an Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, in
Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982. The MNC was a
member of the World Council of Indigenous (WCIP). In 1997 the
Métis National Council was granted NGO Consultative Status with
the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The MNC's first
ambassador to this group was Clement Chartier. MNC is a founding
member of the American Council of Indigenous Peoples (ACIP).[76]
Councillors of the Métis Provisional
The Métis National Council is composed of five provincial Métis Government, 1870. Louis Riel sits in
the centre.
organizations,[77] namely,
Métis Nation British Columbia

Métis Nation of Alberta
Métis Nation-Saskatchewan
Manitoba Métis Federation
Métis Nation of Ontario
The Métis people hold province-wide ballot box elections for political positions in these associations,
held at regular intervals, for regional and provincial leadership. Métis citizens and their communities are
represented and participate in these Métis governance structures by way of elected Locals or Community
Councils, as well as provincial assemblies held annually.[78]
The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (CAP) and its nine regional affiliates represent all Aboriginal people
who are not part of the reserve system, including Métis and non-Status Indians.
The Woodland Métis are not affiliated with the Métis Nation of Ontario (MNO) and MNO President
Tony Belcourt said in 2005 that he did not know who OMAA members are, but that they are not
Métis.[79] In a Supreme Court of Canada appeal (Document C28533, page 17), the federal government
states that "membership in OMAA and/or MNO does not establish membership in the specific local
aboriginal community for the purposes of establishing a s. 35 [Indigenous and treaty] right. Neither
OMAA nor the MNO constitute the sort of discrete, historic and site-specific community contemplated
by Van der Peet capable of holding a constitutionally protected aboriginal
right".[80]
Culture
Language
A majority of the Métis once spoke, and many still speak, either Métis French or an Indigenous language
such as Mi'kmaq, Cree, Anishinaabemowin, Denésoliné, etc. A few in some regions spoke a mixed
language called Michif which is composed of Plains Cree verbs and French nouns. Michif, Mechif or
Métchif is a phonetic spelling of the Métis pronunciation of Métif, a variant of Métis.[81] The Métis today
predominantly speak Canadian English, with Canadian French a strong second language, as well as
numerous Aboriginal tongues.[82] Métis French is best preserved in Canada.
Michif is most used in the United States, notably in the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation of North
Dakota. There Michif is the official language of the Métis who reside on this Chippewa (Ojibwe)
reservation.[83] After years of decline in use of these languages, the provincial Métis councils are
encouraging their revival, teaching in schools and use in communities. The encouragement and use of
Métis French and Michif is growing due to outreach after at least a generation of decline.[84]
The 19th-century community of Anglo-Métis, more commonly known as Countryborn, were children of
people in the Rupert's Land fur trade; they were typically of Orcadian, other Scottish, or English paternal
descent and Aboriginal maternal descent.[84] Their first languages would have been Aboriginal (Cree
language, Saulteaux language, Assiniboine language, etc.) and English. The Gaelic and Scots spoken by
Orcadians and other Scots became part of the creole language referred to as "Bungee".[85]
Flag
The Métis flag is one of the oldest patriotic flags originating in Canada.[86] The Métis have two flags.
Both flags use the same design of a central infinity symbol, but are different colours. The red flag was the
first flag used. It is currently the oldest flag made in Canada that is still in use. The first red flag was
given to Cuthbert Grant in 1815 by the North-West Company as reported by James Sutherland. Days
before the Battle of Seven Oaks, "La Grenouillère" in 1816, Peter Fidler recorded Cuthbert Grant flying
the blue flag. The red and blue are not cultural or linguistic identifiers and do not represent the
companies.[86]
Distinction of lowercase m versus uppercase M
The word "métis" is originally a French adjective from “métisser” used to refer to mixed-race children of
the union of French colonists from France and women from the colonized area, throughout France's
worldwide colonies.[8][10] The first records of "métis" were made by 1600 on the East Coast of Canada in
the first colonies, where French exploration and settlement started.
As French Canadians followed the fur trade to the west, they made more unions with different First
Nations women, including the Cree. Descendants of English or Scottish and natives were historically
called "half-breeds" or "country born". They sometimes adopted a more agrarian culture of subsistence
farming and tended to be reared in Protestant denominations.[87] The term eventually evolved to refer to
all 'half-breeds' or persons of mixed First Nations-European ancestry, especially those descended from
the historic Red River Métis Settlements.
Lowercase 'm' métis refers to those who are of mixed native and other ancestry, recognizing the many
people of varied racial ancestry. Capital 'M' Métis refers to a particular sociocultural heritage and an
ethnic self-identification that is based on more than racial classification.[88]
Most academic scholars and Métis people believe that only the descendants of the Red River Métis
should be constitutionally recognized, as they had developed the most distinct culture as a people in
historic times.[89] There have been claims made that such a limitation would result in excluding some of
the Maritime, Quebec, and Ontario people who cannot obtain citizenship with the Métis National
Council because they believe that having a single indigenous ancestor is enough or they do not fit the
resident requirement defined by the federally recognized Métis organizations , classifying them simply
by the lowercase m métis status. In a recent decision (Daniels v Canada (Indian Affairs and Northern
Development), 2016 SCC 12 (https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/2016/2016scc12/2016scc12.html)),
the Supreme Court of Canada has stated in para 17:[90]
Distribution
According to the 2016 Canada Census, a total of 587,545 individuals self-identified as Métis.[91]
However, it is doubtful that all such individuals would meet the objective tests laid out in the Supreme
Court decisions Powley and Daniels and therefore qualify as "Métis" for the purposes of Canadian law.
Genocide
In 2019, the final report, Reclaiming Power and Place,[92] by the National Inquiry into Missing and
Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls stated “The violence the National Inquiry heard amounts to a
race-based genocide of Indigenous Peoples, including First Nations, Inuit and Métis, which especially
targets women and girls.”
Métis people in the United States

The Métis people in the United States are a specific culture and Métis
community of Métis people, who descend from unions between
Native American and early European colonist parents – usually
Indigenous women who married French (and later Scottish or
English) men, known as Freemen who worked as fur trappers
and traders during the 18th and 19th centuries at the height of
the fur trade. They developed as an ethnic and cultural group
from the descendants of these unions. The women were usually
Algonquian, Ojibwe and Cree.
In the French colonies, people of mixed Indigenous and French

ancestry were referred to by those who spoke French as métis,
meaning "mixture". Being bilingual, these people were able to
trade European goods, such as muskets, for the furs and hides at
a trading post. These Métis were found throughout the Great Paul Kane's oil painting Half-Breeds
Lakes area and to the west, in the Rocky Mountains. While the Running Buffalo, depicting a Métis
word in this usage originally had no ethnic designation (and was
buffalo hunt on the prairies of Dakota in
not capitalized in English), it grew to become an ethnicity in the
19th century. This use (of simply meaning "mixed") excludes June 1846.
mixed-race people born of unions in other settings or more Regions with significant populations
recently than about 1870.
United States
The Métis in the U.S. are fewer in number than the neighboring Languages
Métis in Canada. During the early colonial era, the border did not
English
exist between Canada and the British colonies and people moved
easily back and forth through the area. While the two Michif
communities come from the same origins, the Canadian Métis Métis French
have developed further as an ethnic group than those in the U.S.
Religion
Christianity
As of 2018, Métis people were living in Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, Related ethnic groups
Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana.[93] Métis in Canada
Anglo-Métis
Geography French
Cree
With exploration, settlement and exploitation of resources by
French and British fur trading interests across North America, Creoles
European men often had relationships and sometimes marriages Chippewa
with Native American women. Often both sides felt such
English
marriages were beneficial in strengthening the fur trade.
Indigenous women often served as interpreters and could Mestizos (United States and Latin
introduce their men to their people. Because many Native America)
Americans and First Nations often had matrilineal kinship Muskrat French
systems, the mixed-race children were considered born to the
Scottish
mother's clan and usually raised in her culture. Fewer were
educated in European schools. The métis men in the northern
tier typically worked in the fur trade and later hunting and as guides. Over time in certain areas,
particularly the Red River of the North, the Métis formed a distinct ethnic group with its own culture.
History
Between 1795 and 1815, a network of Métis settlements and trading posts was established throughout
what is now the US states of Michigan and Wisconsin and to a lesser extent in Illinois and Indiana. As
late as 1829, the Métis were dominant in the economy of present-day Wisconsin and Northern
Michigan.[94]
During the early days of territorial Michigan, Métis and French

played a dominant role in elections. It was largely with Métis
support that Gabriel Richard was elected as delegate to Congress.
After Michigan was admitted as a state and under pressure of
increased European-American settlers from eastern states, many
Métis migrated westward into the Canadian Prairies, including the
Red River Colony and the Southbranch Settlement. Others identified
with Chippewa groups, while many others were subsumed in an
ethnic "French" identity, such as the Muskrat French. By the late A Metis family poses with their Red
1830s only in the area of Sault Ste. Marie was there widespread River carts in a field in western
recognition of the Métis as a significant part of the community.[95] North Dakota.
Date of Original: 1883
Another major Métis settlement was La Baye, located at the present Credit Line: State Historical Society
site of Green Bay, Wisconsin. In 1816 most of its residents were of North Dakota (A4365)
Métis.[96]
In Montana a large group of Métis from Pembina region hunted there in the 1860s, eventually forming
an agricultural settlement in the Judith Basin by 1880. This settlement eventually disintegrated, with
most Métis leaving or identifying more strongly either as "white" or "Indian".[97]
Metis often participated in interracial marriages. The French in specific, viewed these marriages as
sensible and realistic. Americans, however, viewed interracial marriages as unsound as the idea of racial
purity was seen as the only option. Although it was legal, the result of these marriages generally resulted
in the loss of status for the spouse of the highest social class, as well as for any children produced during
the marriage. The French, however, seemed to motivate fur traders to participate in interracial marriages
with Indian tribes as they helped to be beneficial to the fur trade business and also to spread religion.
Generally speaking, these marriages were happy ones, that lasted and brought together differing groups
of people and benefitted the fur trade business.[98][99]
Current population
Mixed-race people live throughout Canada and the northern United States but only some in the US
identify ethnically and culturally as Métis. A strong Prairie Métis identity exists in the Métis Homeland
which existed in most of Rupert's Land but also extends south from Canada into Minnesota, Montana
and North Dakota, especially the land west of the Red River of the North.[100] A number of self-identified
Métis live in North Dakota, mostly in Pembina County.[101] Many members of the Turtle Mountain Band
of Chippewa Indians (a federally recognized Tribe) identify as Métis or Michif rather than as strictly
Ojibwe.[102]
Many Métis families are recorded in the U.S. Census for the historic Métis settlement areas along the
Detroit and St. Clair rivers, Mackinac Island and Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, as well as Green Bay in
Wisconsin. Their ancestral families were often formed in the early 19th-century fur trading era.
Métis persons have generally not organized as an ethnic or political group in the United States as they
have in Canada, where they had armed confrontations.
The first "Conference on the Métis in North America" was held in Chicago in 1981,[103] after increasing
research about this people. This also was a period of increased appreciation for different ethnic groups
and reappraisal of the histories of settlement of North America. Papers at the conference focused on
"becoming Métis" and the role of history in formation of this ethnic group, defined in Canada as having
Aboriginal status. The people and their history continue to be extensively studied, especially by scholars
in Canada and the United States.
Louis Riel and the United States
Riel had a significant impact on the Métis community in Canada, especially in the Manitoba region.
However he did also have a distinct relationship with the Métis in the United States and was in fact at
the time of his execution an American citizen.[104] Riel attempted to be a leader for the Métis community
in the United States and contributed immensely in the defence of the Métis rights, especially those who
occupied the Red River region throughout his life.
On October 22, 1844 Louis Riel was born in the Red River settlement known as the territory of
Assiniboia.[104] He was born with British background however as the Métis are a mobile community he
travelled a lot and had a transitional identity, meaning he would often cross the Canada and United
States border. During the 19th century there were few American born citizens living in Red River
altogether.
Riel greatly contributed to the defense of Métis justice, more specifically on November 22, 1869 Riel
arrived in Winnipeg to discuss with McDougall the rights of the Métis community. At the end of the
settlement McDougall agreed to guarantee a “List of Rights”.[104] That statement also incorporated four
clauses of the Dakota bill of rights. This Bill of rights was the rise of the American Métis influence during
the Red River Métis revolution and was an important milestone in Métis justice.
The following years saw a constant battle between the government in charge and the Métis people that
also created conflict involving citizenship of Métis leaders, such as Louis Riel, who was crossing the
border without proper notice. This caused repercussions for Riel who was now wanted by the Ontario
government. He was later accused for the Scott Death, a murder case which was decided without a
proper trial and by 1874 there was a warrant out for his arrest in Winnipeg.[104] Because of the warrant
accusations in Canada, Riel saw the United States as a safer territory for himself and the Métis people.
The following years led to Riel running from the Canadian government because of the murder
convictions and this is when he spent most of his time in the United States. Riel struggled with mental
health problems and decided in the following years that it was time to receive proper treatment in the
American northeast from 1875-1878. Once better decided to change his life by obtaining an American
residence and decided to complete the journey of the liberation of the Métis people that he first started
in 1869. With the help of the United States military, Riel wanted to invade Manitoba to obtain control.
However, because of the lack of desire to cause conflict with the Canadian military the American military
rejected his proposition. He then tried to create an international alliance between the Aboriginal and
Metis people, which wasn't a success either. In the end his main objective was to simply improve the
living conditions and rights of the Métis people in the United States. The failed attempts for Riel to
defend the Métis community lead to further mental breakdowns and hospitalization, now in Quebec.[104]
Riel returned to Montana from 1879 to continue on his mission to defend the Métis community in the
United States. Riel wanted the Métis and the Native people of the region to join forces and create a
political movement against the provisional government. Both parties denied this profound movement
and after yet another failed attempt to create a revolution he decided to officially become an American
citizen and declared “The United States sheltered me, The English didn’t care/what they owe they will
pay/! I am citizen”.[104] He then spent the next four years improving the conditions of the Montana
Métis in any way he could.
Riel stayed in the United States from 1880-1884 fighting to obtain official residency from the American
government but without success he finally departed for Saskatchewan in 1884. Riel concentrated his
public life on improving the situation of the Montana Metis and had a big impact on the Métis people in
the United States by attempting to address their rights and improve overall living conditions. The
following years was a constant battle to obtain official citizenship from the American government. In the
end, an American citizenship did not permit the protection from Canadian convictions. The American
officials did not confirm his American citizenship because of fear of further conflict with the Canadian
government and confirmed Riel's execution for treason in 1885.[104]
The Medicine Line (Canada–U.S. border)

The Métis homeland existed before the implementation of the Canada–U.S. border and continues to
exist on both sides of this border today. The implementation of the border affected the Métis in a
multitude of ways, with border enforcement growing from relaxed to increasingly stronger over
time.[105] In the late 18th century, to early 19th century the Métis found that in times of conflict, they
could cross the 49th parallel North in either direction and the trouble following them would stop and so
the border was known as the Medicine Line. This began to change toward the end of the 19th century
when the border became more enforced and the Canadian government saw an opportunity to put an end
to the line hopping by using military force.[105] This effectively split some of the Métis population and
restricted the mobility of the People. The enforcement of the border was used as a means for
governments on either side of the Medicine Line in the grand prairies to control the Métis population
and to restrict their access to buffalo.[105] Because of the importance of kinship and mobility for Métis
communities,[16] this had negative implications and resulted in different experiences and hardships for
both groups.
Métis experience in the U.S. is largely coloured by unratified treaties and the lack of federal
representation of Métis communities as a legitimate people, and this can be seen in the case of the Little
Shell Tribe in Montana.[106] While experiences in Canada are also effected by the misrecognition of the
Métis, many Métis were dispossessed of their lands when they were sold to settlers and some
communities set up Road Allowance villages. These small villages were squatter's villages along Crown
land outside of established villages in the prairies of Canada.[107] These villages were often burned by
local authorities and had to be rebuilt by surviving members of the communities who lived in them.
See also
List of Métis people
Little Shell Band of Chippewa Indians
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General bibliography
Andersen, C. (2011). Moya `Tipimsook (“The People Who Aren't Their Own Bosses”): Racialization
and the Misrecognition of “Métis” in Upper Great Lakes Ethnohistory. Ethnohistory, 58(1), 37-63.
doi:10.1215/00141801-2010-063
Barkwell, Lawrence. "Métis Rights and Land Claims in Canada" Accessed September 1, 2019 (http
s://www.scribd.com/doc/18197649/Metis-Rights-and-Land-Claims-in-Canada), annotated
Bibliography
Barkwell, Lawrence J.; Dorion, Leah; Hourie, Audreen (2006). "Métis Legacy Michif Culture,
Heritage, and Folkways". Métis Legacy Series. 2. Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont Institute. ISBN 0-
920915-80-9.
Barkwell, Lawrence J.; Dorion, Leah; Prefontaine, Darren (2001). Métis Legacy: A Historiography
and Annotated Bibliography. Winnipeg: Pemmican Publications Inc. and Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont
Institute. ISBN 1-894717-03-1.
Barkwell, L. (n.d.). Metis Political Organizations. Retrieved from
http://www.metismuseum.ca/media/db/11913
Flanagan, T. (1990). The History of Metis Aboriginal Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy. Canadian
Journal of Law and Society, 5, 71-94. doi:10.1017/S0829320100001721
Hogue, M. (2002). Disputing the Medicine Line: The Plains Crees and the Canadian-American
Border, 1876- 1885. Montana: The Magazine of Western History, 52(4), 2–17.
MacKinnon, D. J. (2018). Metis pioneers: Marie Rose Delorme Smith and Isabella Clark Hardisty
Lougheed (First edition). Edmonton, Alberta: The University of Alberta Press.
Rea, J. e., & Scott, J. (2017, April 6). Manitoba Act. Retrieved November 29, 2019, from The
Canadian Encyclopedia website: https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/manitoba-act
Sawchuck, J. (2001). Negotiating an Identity: Métis Political Organizations, the Canadian
Government, and Competing Concepts of Aboriginality. American Indian Quarterly, 25(1), 73–92.
St-Onge, N., Macdougall, B., & Podruchny, C. (Eds.). (2012). Contours of a People: Metis family,
mobility, and history. Chapter 2, 22-58. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Vrooman, N. (2019). There are a Range of Identities with Being Little Shell, Just As the Wider
America. Distinctly Montana Magazine, pp 68–69. http://digital.distinctlymontana.com/i/1090885-
distinctly-montana-spring-2019
Canada
Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion and Darren Préfontaine. Métis Legacy: A Historiography and
Institute, 2001. ISBN 1-894717-03-1.
Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion, and Audreen Hourie. Métis legacy Michif culture, heritage, and
folkways. Métis legacy series, v. 2. Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont Institute, 2006. ISBN 0-920915-80-9.
Barkwell, Lawrence J. Women of the Métis Nation. Winnipeg: Louis Riel Institute, 2010. ISBN 978-0-
9809912-5-3.
Barnholden, Michael. (2009). Circumstances Alter Photographs: Captain James Peters' Reports
from the War of 1885. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks. ISBN 978-0-88922-621-0.
Dumont, Gabriel. GABRIEL DUMONT SPEAKS. Talonbooks, 2009. ISBN 978-0-88922-625-8.
Further reading
Andersen, C. (2011). "Moya 'Tipimsook ('The People Who Aren't Their Own Bosses'): Racialization
and the Misrecognition of 'Métis' in Upper Great Lakes Ethnohistory". Ethnohistory, 58(1), 37-63.
doi:10.1215/00141801-2010-063
Andersen, C. (2014). "More Than the Sum of Our Rebellions: Métis Histories Beyond Batoche".
Ethnohistory, 61(4), 619-633. doi:10.1215/00141801-2717795
Barkwell, L. (n.d.). "Metis Political Organizations" (http://www.metismuseum.ca/media/db/11913).
Flanagan, T. (1990). "The History of Metis Aboriginal Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy".
Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 5, 71-94. doi:10.1017/S0829320100001721 (https://doi.org/1
0.1017%2FS0829320100001721).
Hogue, M. (2002). "Disputing the Medicine Line: The Plains Crees and the Canadian-American
Border, 1876–1885". Montana: The Magazine of Western History, 52(4), 2–17.
Sawchuck, J. (2001). Negotiating an Identity: Métis Political Organizations, the Canadian
Government, and Competing Concepts of Aboriginality. American Indian Quarterly, 25(1), 73–92.
St-Onge, N., Macdougall, B., & Podruchny, C. (eds.). (2012). Contours of a People: Metis family,
mobility, and history. Chapter 2, pp. 22–58. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Teillet, Jean. The North-West Is Our Mother: The Story of Louis Riel's People, The Metis Nation,
2019
Canada
Andersen, Chris (2014) "Metis": Race, Recognition and the Struggle for Indigenous Peoplehood.
Vancouver: UBC Press.
Barkwell, Lawrence J. (2016), The Metis homeland: its settlements and communities. Winnipeg,
Manitoba: Louis Riel Institute. ISBN 978-1-927531129.
Barkwell, Lawrence J. (2010). The Battle of Seven Oaks: a Métis perspective. Winnipeg, Manitoba:
Louis Riel Institute. ISBN 978-0-9809912-9-1.
Barkwell, Lawrence J. (2011). Veterans and Families of the 1885 Northwest Resistance. Saskatoon:
Gabriel Dumont Institute. ISBN 978-1-926795-03-4
Hogue, Michel (2015). Métis and the Medicine Line: Creating a Border and Dividing a People.
Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Huel, Raymond Joseph Armand (1996), Proclaiming the Gospel to the Indians and the Métis (https://
books.google.com/books?id=cG8pBwgYJ28C&q=M%C3%A9tis&pg=PP1), University of Alberta
Press, ISBN 0-88864-267-9
Martha Harroun, Foster (2006), We Know Who We Are: Métis Identity in a Montana Community (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=JAI1vW_wyKAC&q=M%C3%A9tis&pg=PP1), University of
Oklahoma Press, ISBN 0806137053

James Rodger Miller, "From Riel to the Métis" (2004). Reflections on Native-newcomer Relations:
Selected Essays (https://archive.org/details/reflectionsonnat0000mill). University of Toronto Press.
pp. 37 (https://archive.org/details/reflectionsonnat0000mill/page/37)–60., historiography
Peterson, Jacqueline; Brown, Jennifer S.H. (2001), The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Métis in
North America (https://books.google.com/books?id=q8qervZ6nakC&q=M%C3%A9tis&pg=PP1),
Minnesota Historical Society Press, ISBN 0-87351-408-4
Quan, Holly (2009), Native Chiefs and Famous Métis: Leadership and Bravery in the Canadian West
(https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ0YAEk3p8QC&q=M%C3%A9tis&pg=PP1), Heritage House,
ISBN 978-1-894974-74-5
Sprague, Douglas N (1988), Canada and the Métis, 1869–1885 (https://books.google.com/books?id
=D0BnHT9zHYIC&q=M%C3%A9tis&pg=PP1), Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 0-88920-958-8
Wall, Denis (2008), The Alberta Métis letters, 1930–1940: policy review and annotations (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=CPPI4aAkC-gC&q=M%C3%A9tis&pg=PP1), DWRG Press, ISBN 978-0-
9809026-2-4
Sylvia Van Kirk (1983). Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society, 1670–1870 (https://archive.
org/details/manytendertieswo00vank). University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1847-5.
Marcel, Giraud (1984), Le Métis canadien / Marcel Giraud; introduction du professeur J.E. Foster
avec Louise Zuk (in French), Saint-Boniface, Man. : Éditions du Blé, 1984., ISBN 0920640451
United States
Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion, and Audreen Hourie. Metis legacy Michif culture, heritage, and
folkways. Metis legacy series, v. 2. Saskatoon, SK: Gabriel Dumont Institute, 2006.
Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion and Darren Prefontaine. Metis Legacy: A Historiography and
Annotated Bibliography. Winnipeg, MB: Pemmican Publications and Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont
Institute, 2001.
Foster, Harroun Marther. We Know Who We Are: Métis Identity in a Montana Community. Norman,
OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006.
Peterson, Jacqueline and Jennifer S. H. Brown, ed. The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Metis in
North America. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.
St-Onge, Nicole, Carolyn Podruchny, and Brenda Macdougall (eds.), Contours of a People: Metis
Family, Mobility, and History. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012.
External links
The Rupertsland Institute (http://www.rupertsland.org) (Alberta) – A service dedicated to the research
and development, education, and training and employment of Métis individuals. It is affiliated with the
Métis Nations of Alberta. Along with providing financial aid, the Rupertsland Institute helps Métis
individuals acquire essential skills for employment.
The Métis Museum (http://www.metismuseum.ca/media/db/11913) – "Métis Political Organizations"
compiled by Lawrence Barkwell, Louis Riel Institute; Manitoba, Canada
"Metis Firsts in North America: Many Little Known Facts About the Metis" (https://www.academia.ed
u/39255006/Metis_Firsts_in_North_America_Many_Little_Known_Facts_About_the_Metis?email_wo
rk_card=title) compiled by Lawrence Barkwell, Manitoba Métis Federation; Canada, 2011.
Métis Nation (http://www.metisnation.ca/)
Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (https://web.archive.org/web/20060110133336/http://www.abo-peopl
es.org/)
Métis Museum (Gabriel Dumont Institute) (http://www.metismuseum.ca/)
Milan Métis Healing Art Project—MMHAP (http://www.milanart.ca)

Métis in the Courts (http://metisinthecourts.ualberta.ca). Site includes interviews with legal and
history experts on Métis issues.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Métis&oldid=1035162080#Métis_people_in_the_United_States"
This page was last edited on 24 July 2021, at 02:10 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

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7/26/2021 Métis - Wikipedia

Alberta), as well as parts of Ontario, British Columbia, the Michif

Smaller communities self-identifying as Métis exist in Canada and

Louis Riel's writings

A little observation in passing without offending anyone.

Métis people in Canada

only criterion to determine Metis identity. Canadian Métis represent

Percentage of self-identified Métis

Self-identity and legal status

Lack of a legal definition

self-identification as a Métis individual;

Definitions used by Métis representative organizations

In 2003, MNC had five provincial affiliates:

Métis Nation of Ontario Secretariat,

Cultural definitions of Métis identity inform legal and political ones.

The 1996 Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples stated:

At first, the Hudson's Bay Company officially forbade these

snowshoes, skinned animals and dried their meat for pemmican,

The children of these marriages were often introduced to

By the early 19th century, marriage between European fur traders

In 1869, two years after Canadian Confederacy, the Government of

In March 1885, the Métis heard that a contingent of 500

Métis settlements of Alberta – a distinct Métis identity

Buffalo Lake (Caslan) or Beaver River

The Métis National Council was formed in 1983, following the

Métis Nation British Columbia

Distinction of lowercase m versus uppercase M

Métis people in the United States

In the French colonies, people of mixed Indigenous and French

During the early days of territorial Michigan, Métis and French

Date of Original: 1883

Louis Riel and the United States

The Medicine Line (Canada–U.S. border)

86. "The Métis flag" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090304015251/http://www.metisresourcecentre.mb.c

Oklahoma Press, ISBN 0806137053

Milan Métis Healing Art Project—MMHAP (http://www.milanart.ca)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Métis&oldid=1035162080#Métis_people_in_the_United_States"

This page was last edited on 24 July 2021, at 02:10 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

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