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Table of Contents
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Management in antiquity and pioneer contributors ..................................................................5
1.2 Early Management Pioneers ......................................................................................................6

1.2.1 Management Thought ............................................................................................................7

1.2.2 Classical Management Theories ......................................................................................7
1.2.3 Administrative management theory .................................................................................9
1.2.4 Behavioral Management Theory....................................................................................10
1.2.5 Modern Approach to Management ...............................................................................12
Summery .......................................................................................................................................15
Reference ......................................................................................................................................17

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 Introduction
Management is the most important element of any organization. No organization can achieve goals
without proper management. Therefore, management is the heart of any organization. It is essential to be
aware of management theories for leadership and management success. The organizations should deal
with many challenges in modern era. Schools and colleges as typical organizations should be equipped
with the science of management and management theories to deal with challenges and use maximum
resources and outputs in an efficient and economical manner. Classical management theories are very
important among management theories. These are foundation of all theories of management. Therefore,
this article discussed classical management theories. In this article, the basic science, strengths and
weaknesses of classical management theories were discussed. This article is useful for young scientists
in the field of management, managers and organizers by providing a brief review of classical management
theory
The term management stems from the Latin word Manu agree meaning leadership by hand, which refers
to giving direction. It also suggests that the leader goes where he wants to send his followers for the first
time(1). Peter Drucker (1974) stated that management refers to undertaking tasks with the help of other
people and resources. In other words, management represents the process of completing tasks with the
help of other people. Weijrich and Koontz (1993) stated that management showsthe process of planning,
leading, organizing and controlling people in a group in order to achieve goals. In addition, it is essential
to lead and control the activities to implement a plan. This shows the necessity of a definite plan for
effective management (2). According to this definition, it can be concluded that management is a process
of strategic planning, goal setting, resource management and development of necessary human and
financial assets in order to achieve goals and measured outcomes. This also includes recording facts and
information for later use with respect to the needs. Management and leadership are two similar terms that
confuse many people. Therefore, the term leadership should be

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2.1 Management in antiquity and pioneer contributors
Management in antiquity

1. Used written rules and regulations for governance

2. Used management practices to construct pyramids
3. Used different governing systems for cities and state control the seas
4. Used organized structure for communication and control
5. Used extensive organization structure for government agencies and the arts
6. Used organization design and planning concepts to

PIONEERS OF MANAGEMENT
The study of management as a discipline is relatively new, especially when compared with other
scientific disciplines. Therefore, management pioneers may be easily placed along a historical
timeline. Using the work of Daniel Wren as a guide, the following categories are employed:
 Early management thought;
 The scientific management era;
 The social man era.
 The modern era.
 Early management thought; the economic facet
Adam Smith and James Watt have been identified as the two men most responsible for destroying
the old England and launching the world toward industrialization. Adam Smith brought about the
revolution in economic thought and James Watt's steam engine provided cheaper power that
revolutionized English commerce and industry. In doing so, they also laid the foundation for
modern notions of business management theory and practice.
 EARLY MANAGEMENT THOUGHT:

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  MANAGEMENT PIONEERS IN THE FACTORY SYSTEM
The division of labor, combined with the advances in technology, provided the economic rationale
for the factory system. However, the factory system brought new problems for owners, managers,
and society. Four management pioneers proposed solutions for coping with the pressures of the
new large-scale industrial organizations. They were Robert Owens, Charles Babbage, Andrew Ure,
and Charles Dupin.

ROBERT OWENS.
Robert Owens (1771–1858) was a successful Scottish entrepreneur and a utopian socialist who
sowed the first seeds of concern for the workers. He was repulsed by the working conditions and
poor treatment of the workers in the factories across Scotland. Owen became a reformer. He
reduced the use of child labor and used moral persuasion rather than corporal punishment in his
factories. He chided his fellow factory owners for treating their equipment better than they treated
their workers. Owen deplored the evils of the division of labor and in his ideal system believed
each man would do a number of different jobs switching easily from one job to another.
Additionally, Owen hated the modern factory system, so he decided to revolutionize it. In 1813 he
proposed a factory bill to prohibit employment of children under the age of ten and to limit hours
for all children to 10 1 /2 hours per day with no night work. The bill became law six years later,
but was limited to cotton mills, reduced the age limit to nine, and included no provision for
inspections; therefore, the law had little impact.
Feeling frustrated in his attempts to reform Britain, Owen traveled to America in 1824. He
continued on to New Harmony, Indiana, where he had purchased a large plot of land. New
Harmony was the first and most famous of sixteen U.S.-based Owenite communities appearing
between 1825 and 1829. None, however, lasted more than a few years as full-fledged socialist
communities.

CHARLES BABBAGE.
Charles Babbage (1792–1871) is known as the patron saint of operations research and management
science. Babbage's scientific inventions included a mechanical calculator (his "difference engine"),
a versatile computer (his "analytical engine"), and a punch-card machine. His projects never
became a commercial reality; however, Babbage is considered the originator of the concepts
behind the present day computer.
Babbage's most successful book, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers, described the
tools and machinery used in English factories. It discussed the economic principles of
manufacturing, and analyzed the operations; the skills used and suggested improved practices.
Babbage believed in the benefits of division of labor and was an advocate of profit sharing. He
developed a method of observing manufacturing that is the same approach utilized today by
operations analysts and consultants analyzing manufacturing operations.

ANDREW URE AND CHARLES DUPIN.

Andrew Ure (1778–1857) and Charles Dupin (1784–1873) were early industrial educators. Ure
provided academic training at Anderson's College in Glasgow for managers in the early factory
system. He published a text in 1835 that dealt mainly with the technical problems of manufacturing
in the textile industry, but also dealt with problems of managing.

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Obviously pro-management, Ure advocated an "automatic plan" to provide harmony and to keep
any individual worker from stopping production. He was a defender of the factory system and
believed workers must recognize the benefits of mechanization and not resist its introduction.
Dupin was a French engineer and professor who pioneered industrial education in France. He is
credited with having a great influence on the writings of Henri Fayol. Dupin published Discours
sur le Sort Des Ouvriers, translated Discourse on the Condition of the Workers, in 1831. This
manuscript included concepts such as time study and the need to balance workloads after
introducing division of labor. He wrote of the need for workers to receive concise instructions and
the need to discover and publish the best way to perform work with the least amount of worker
energy.
 The SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ERA
Since management relied heavily on engineers for advice in the new factories, it is not surprising
that associations of engineers were some of the first to examine and write about management
problems. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was founded in 1880 and was
one of the first proponents of the search for scientific management.

HENRY TOWNE.
Henry Towne, president of the Yale and Towne Manufacturing Company, began applying
systematic management practices as early as 1870. In 1866 he wrote a paper, The Engineer as an
Economist that suggested that ASME become a clearinghouse for information on managerial
practices, since there was no management association. Towne also published several papers and a
book, Evolution of Industrial Management, on the use of "gain sharing" to increase worker
productivity. In his last book Towne contrasted the status of scientific management in 1886 and in
1921, noting the establishment of industrial management courses, and crediting Frederick Taylor
as the apostle of the scientific movement.
 The emergence of administrative theory
HENRI FAYOL.
Two contributors to the administrative theory of management are Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and
Max Weber (1864–1920). Both wrote during the scientific management era in America, but neither
was accorded the full measure of his contribution until some decades after his death.
2.2 Early Management Pioneers
Adam Smith
 A renowned economist
 Writer of the book
 Wealth of Nations (1776)
 Division of work for economic advantage
 Increasing individual worker’s skill and dexterity
Robert Owen (1771–1858);- British industrialist who was one of the first managers to recognize
the importance of human resources and the welfare of workers.

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Charles Babbage (1792-1871);- English mathematician who focused on creating efficiencies of
production through the division of labor, and the application of mathematics to management
problems

2.3 Management Thought?

Management is defined as the art of getting things done by making the best use of available
resources. Over the passing centuries, organizational structure has undergone radical changes, and
simultaneously the process of management as well. Hence, several theories were propounded over
centuries which were considered crucial for understanding business operations. These, when
clubbed together, are called Management Thought.

Pre-classical Contributors:
These contributors presented their ideas before the late 1800s.
1. Robert Owen(1771-1858) was a British factory owner who advocated concern for the
working and living conditions of workers, many of them young children. Many of his
contemporaries thought he was a radical for such ideas.

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 2. Charles Babbage(1792-1871) is considered to be the “father of modern computing.” He
foresaw the need for work specialization involving mental work. His management ideas
also anticipated the concept of profit sharing to improve productivity.
3. Henry E. Towne (1844-1924) called for the establishment of a science of management
and the development of management principles that could be applied across management
situations.
An assessment of the pre-classical contributors indicates that their efforts were fragmentary. By
and large they applied their efforts towards developing specific techniques or solutions. They laid
the groundwork for major management theories which came later.
2.2.2 Classical Management Theories
Management theories can be classified into classical management theory, humanistic management
theory, situational management theories, modern management theories, etc. Classical management
theories are discussed in this paper. Classical management theories are developed to predict and
control behaviors in the organizations. Unique features of classical management theories are as
follows:
a) Chain of command: management is divided into three levels in classical management theories.
 Top-level management: this is generally the government (executive), which includes the board
of directors, general manager in business enterprises, the president, directors, deputy of directors,
heads of universities, etc. Top-level managers are responsible for development of long-term
strategic goals in line with organizational goals. Planning, organizing and directing are major
responsibilities of top-level managers
 Middle-level management level: this is between top level and low-level managers. Middle-
level managers are responsible for coordinating activities of the supervisors, developing and
formalizing policies and plans with respect to high-level strategic policies. Middle-levels managers
in the department of education are supervisor of a group, deputy and assistant of the manager,
deputy and assistant of supervisor of examinations, registrar and deputy of department of education
in the district, officials and teachers, deputy of director. Middle-level managers are managers
(production manager, administrative managers, financial managers, etc.), deputy and assistant of
managers in enterprises
 First-level Management: this includes supervisors also called supervision management.
Policies and plans are implemented at this stage. Activities are monitored day by day. Teachers
are first-level managers in the department of education. Foreman, supervisors, shift assigners, etc.
are first-level managers in enterprises
b) Division of labor: this is the second key feature of classical management theories. Complex
tasks are divided into more simple tasks that can be easily undertaken by workers
c) One-sided Top-Down influence: There is one communicational route in classical management
theories of communication. Decisions are made at top-level and sent to low-level (Weijrich And
Koontz, 1993).

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 d) Authoritarian leadership styles: authoritarian leadership style is another feature of classical
management theories. Management was impressed by the church in older days. Therefore,
authoritarian style belonged to those times and was the dominant culture. In other words, the
managers made decisions and directed (commanding and organizing) the entire management
system. It was believed that the workers should be treated as machines in order to increase
efficiency. The workers were strictly controlled. Three classical management theories are properly
founded as scientific management theory, administrative theory and bureaucratic theory
2.2.3 Administrative management theory
Administrative management theory Administrative management theory is another well-known
classical management theory developed by Henry Fayol in 1916. Fayol was a senior manager. He
has developed this theory based on personal experience. The theory encompasses business
management (business) and general management. His main focus was on management. He
introduced six functions and fourteen management principles in his theory. Six management
functions are predicting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, monitoring
Fourteen principles of Management are discussed as follows.

1) Division of labor: Fayol believed that work specialization is the best way to use human
resources. He believed that the work should be divided among individuals and groups to ensure
that effort and attention are focused on specific parts of the work
2) Authority: Fayol discussed authority as the right to give orders and the ability to exactly obey
and do what was ordered. Responsibility properly models authority, which covers accountability.
In other words, responsibility is a part of authority. Responsibility is allocated to an individual
simultaneously with the authority
3) Discipline: Discipline is essential for success of an organization. Workers should be fined in
case of ignoring discipline in the organization. This is because success requires joint effort of all
workers
4) Unity of command: unity of command should be observed in the organization, so that the
workers would be given orders just by an individual
5) Unity of direction: Fayola believed that unity of direction should be observed in successful
organization. In other words, the entire organization needs to move towards a common goal in a
common direction.
6) Focusing on individual interests rather than public interests: general interests and profits
of the organization should be prioritized compared with individual interests
7) Remuneration: salaries of the workers should not be determined based on workers’
productivity. Instead, salaries of the workers should be determined based on many variables such
as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel, general business conditions and success in the
business.

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8) Centralization: Fayol stated that centralization or decentralization of management should be
determined according to organizational requirement or culture. He defined concentration as
reducing the importance of rituals. The importance of decentralization lies in escalating rituals in
the organization.
9) Scalar chain (hierarchy): management hierarchy should be present in the organization.
Authority should be given to the managers with regard to their ranks in the hierarchy. High-level
managers should be given more authority regarding management hierarchy and vice versa. Low-
level managers should always inform toplevel managers of their activities
10) Order: activities should be operated in an effective and efficient manner in the organization.
All personnel and executives should hold their own position in the organization. In other words,
the individuals and agents should be at the right place at the right time
11) Personnel rights (equity): All employees should be treated fairly and properly. This shows
that basic rights, laws and regulations should be the same for all employees for success of an
organization. Justice should be established within the organization. It should also be noted that
equal rights and opportunities cannot be secured in the organization.
12) Stability of tenure of personnel: Fayol believed that salaries and other benefits should be
allocated to the employees based on their length of service in a successful organization. This is
because new recruitment necessitates additional costs and causes various problems.
13) Esprit de corps: Management should coordinate and encourage the employees, which
increase productivity. It can be stated that unity is powerful
This theory is very popular and is currently implemented in large organizations. This is also
effective in the army force. Management functions developed by Fayol are used in all
organizations and enterprises. The six functions are reduced to four, which are still running. These
are planning, organizing, leading and controlling. Giving the right authority and responsibility is
also practiced in the whole world. This shows the strength of administrative theory. Unfortunately,
the Management Matrix ignores two

2.2.4 Behavioral Management Theory

In the mid-twentieth-century, one theory was presented that has worked to completely remove
itself from scientific theory. It is, also known as the social science movement, uses the concept
that all approaches to the workplace should be in the best interest of both company and workers.
This theory was developed by Chester Barnhard, in the 1940’s, as a way for workers to be
viewed as psychological and social beings. Essentially, there is no separation between ‘human
being’ and ‘worker’ as they are one in the same, and that, by following this concept, it would
lead to success within a workplace.

The idea of behavioral management is about understanding the idea that managers should
comprehend human or worker needs within an organization. Many theorists wanted to find out
how the use of behavioral management theory would function within workplaces. One of the
main theorists being Elton Mayo, and his groundbreaking experiment: The Hawthorne Studies,
which will be discussed further in chapter ten about communication. The Hawthorne experiment

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 essentially used special privileges, pay rewards, even company provided lunches in ways to
increase employee psychological well-being, and eventually employee productivity.

Figure: The Hawthorne Study by Elton Mayo (Source: Gerald Kimani, Educational
Management)

Behavioral management theory had a great impact on learning organizations, as it provided a

new view on how administrators come into learning organizations. There are two factors which
are integral to the introduction of behavioral management within learning organizations, such as
administrators at colleges and universities

1. Administrators can emerge from different disciplines (i.e. business, social sciences, and the arts),
not specifically from education.
2. Along with specialized knowledge of education, administrators must have
an interdisciplinary grasp of social sciences, such as economics and government.

In most education faculties, both undergraduate and graduate students develop content that is
considered interdisciplinary (i.e. covering multiple branches of knowledge and understanding).
This allows educational administrators the ability to take on a more holistic approach, which will
lead to a better understanding of the ‘human-worker’. Even when administrators and professors
develop courses, interdisciplinary theory is used in development .

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Figure : Education course as a form of interdisciplinary study
2.2.5 Modern Approach to Management
Everything you need to know about the modern approach to management. The modern approach
to management was developed around the year 1950.
This approach is an improvement upon both the
 classical
 neo-classical approach to management.
Modern approach to management has three basic pillars:
I. Quantitative Approach
II. System Approach
III. Contingency Approach.

Modern Approach to Management:

 Quantitative Approach,
 System Approach,
 Contingency Approach
 Other Approaches
The modern approach to management was developed around the year 1950. This approach is an
improvement upon both the classical and neo-classical approach to management.
This approach has three basic pillars:
I. Quantitative Approach,
II. System Approach, and

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III. Contingency Approach
I. Quantitative Approach:
The quantitative approach was propounded by C. W Churchman and his colleagues around the
year 1950. This approach is also known by the name of Operational Research or Operational
Analysis.
The classical approach lays stress upon the physical resources while the neo-classical approach
gives importance to human resources. Both these approaches are silent about some of the most
serious problems usually faced by the managers.
The quantitative approach to management makes some suggestions to solve different problems
facing the managers. It tells the managers to solve their problems with the help of the
mathematical and statistical formulas. Some special formulas have been prepared to solve
managerial problems.
For Example:
 Theory of Probability,
 Sampling Analysis,
 Correlation / Regression Analysis,
 Time Series Analysis,
 Ratio Analysis,
 Variance Analysis,
 Statistical Quality Control,
 Linear Programming,
 Game Theory,
 Network Analysis,
 (xi) Break-Even Analysis,
 (xii) Waiting Line or Queuing Theory,
 Cash-Benefit Analysis, etc.
The main objective of the quantitative approach is to find out a solution for the complex
problems facing the big companies. The help of a computer is usually taken in order to make use
of the above mentioned techniques.
The chief advantage of the approach is to solve complex problems quickly. But the chief
disadvantage is that this approach offers an alternative to decision and cannot take decision.
II. System Approach:
This is a newly developed approach which came existence in 1960. This approach was
developed by Chester I. Bernard, Herbert A. Simon and their colleagues.
The system approach means a group of small inter-related units. A group of different units which
means a complete unit is called a system, while the small units are themselves independent, but
somehow or the other is connected with the sub-systems of the related system. All the sub-

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systems influence one another. For example- a scooter is a system which has many sub-systems
in the form of engine, shaft, gear, wheels body, etc.
All these sub-systems are inter-related with one another and if one of them fails the whole
system stops working. Therefore, the success of the system depends on the cooperation and
efficiency of the sub-systems.
It can, therefore, be said that a system means different inter-related parts which work n cohesion
simultaneously to achieve a particular purpose.
According to the system approach, the whole organization is a system and its various
departments are its sub-systems. All the sub-systems work in unison. Then and only then the
objective of the organization can be achieved. Therefore, when manager taken some decision
regarding a particular sub-system, he should also take into consideration the defect of his
decision on the other sub-systems.

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Summery
The study of management as a discipline is relatively new, especially when compared with other
scientific disciplines. Therefore, management pioneers may be easily placed along a historical
timeline. Using the work of Daniel Wren as a guide, the following categories are employed

Adam Smith

 A renowned economist
 Writer of the book
 Wealth of Nations (1776) – Division of work for economic advantage
 Increasing individual worker’s skill and dexterity

Robert Owen (1771–1858) –British industrialist who was one of the first managers to recognize
the importance of human resources and the welfare of workers
Charles Babbage (1792–1871) –English mathematician who focused on creating efficiencies of
production through the division of labor, and the application of mathematics to management
problems.
Classical management theory is based on the belief that workers only have physical and
economic needs. It does not take into account social needs or job satisfaction, but instead
advocates a specialization of labor, centralized leadership and decision-making, and profit
maximization. Designed solely to streamline operations, increase productivity and enhance the
bottom line, this idea arose in the late 19th century and gained prominence through the first half
of the 20th century.
Administrative management is the process of managing information through people. This usually
involves performing the storage and distribution of information to those within an organization.
 Represent top level management pertaining thinking and planning functions.
 It performs the function of formulating of vision, mission and strategies. Henri Fayol was a
French mining engineer. Later he turned out to be a leading industrial and successful manager.
He wrote a monograph in French in 1916 titled “General and Industrial Administration
Henry fayol (1841-1925)

 He is considered as the He is considered as the Father of Administrative Management

Theory.
 Developed a general theory of business administration that is often called Fayola’s.
 Fayola’s- a theory of management that analyzed and synthesized the role of management
in organizations

Behavioral management theory the behavioral management theory is often called the human
relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of work. This theorists believed
that a better understanding of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict,
expectations, and group dynamics, improved productivity.
Modern approach William Ouchy’s Theory Z

 Assumes employees have an interest in good working relationships with management and
other employees

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 Management generally has high confidence in employees, who are encouraged to
participate in the management decision making.
 Employees are viewed as long-term assets who will stay with the same firm throughout
their careers. Long-term Employment

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Reference
 www.ijsr.net Licensed Und
 www.economicsdiscussion.net
 www.slideshear.com
 www.slideservice.com
 www.google.com
 courses.lumenlearning.com
 www.jstor.org

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