materials
Article
Characterisation of Geogrid and Waste Tyres as Reinforcement
Materials in Railway Track Beds
Lihua Li, Yanan Fang, Bowen Cheng, Na Chen *, Mi Tian and Yiming Liu






Citation: Li, L.; Fang, Y.; Cheng, B.;
Chen, N.; Tian, M.; Liu, Y.
Characterisation of Geogrid and
Waste Tyres as Reinforcement
Materials in Railway Track Beds.
Materials 2021, 14, 4162. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma14154162
Academic Editor: Sérgio Manuel
Rodrigues Lopes
Received: 2 May 2021
Accepted: 26 June 2021
Published: 27 July 2021
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Materials 2021, 14, 4162. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154162
School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology,
Wuhan 430068, China; lilihua466@163.com (L.L.); zhumengcivil@163.com (Y.F.);
chengbowen0926@163.com (B.C.); mitian0525@gmail.com (M.T.); ymliu@hbut.edu.cn (Y.L.)
* Correspondence: cn_research@hbut.edu.cn
Abstract: The engineering behaviour of ballast is an important factor to determine the stability and
safety of railway tracks. This paper examines the stress–strain, shear strength, peak deflection stress
and reinforcement strength ratio of different reinforcement materials and reinforcement locations in
ballast track bed layers based on large scale static triaxial shear tests. The results show that geogrid
and waste tyre reinforcement have a significant effect on the peak deviator stress of railway track
bed layers and the stress–strain relationship is strain-hardened. The peak deviator stress and shear
strength of geogrid reinforcement are greater under the same conditions compared with waste tyres.
The reinforcement of geogrid and waste tires increases the shear strength of the track bed significantly.
The more layers of geogrid reinforcement, the more energy is required for the deformation of the
track bed. The energy required for deformation is greater in the centre of the waste tyre than in the
other reinforced forms, and the energy required for deformation is minimal in the fully reinforced
form. Excessive tyre reinforcement changes the stiffness of the track bed layer, leading to an increase
in the settlement rate. The reinforcement strength ratio between geogrid and waste tyre increases
significantly with the increasing of the confining pressure and reinforcement layers. Moreover, the
reinforcement strength ratio of the geogrid is significantly higher than that of the waste tyre.
Keywords: railway track bed reinforcement; triaxial test; stress–strain; shear strength; reinforcement
strength ratio
1. Introduction
The ballast railway track bed structure is composed of a ballast layer and a sub-ballast
layer, which is filled with ballast particles of different grain sizes. In addition to its drainage
function, ballast is an important substructure component of the track, providing lateral
support and load transfer for the railway track, as shown in Figure 1. The track bed layer is
based primarily on the interlocking of ballast aggregate particles to distribute the wheel
loads to the top of the track bed, or to the subgrade beneath it, to an acceptable level.
Excessive load of the running train will cause the vertical and lateral displacement of the
railway track bed, which will eventually lead to excessive settlement and instability of
the track bed. The railway department must take effective measures to solve the above
problems, which may cause a series of safety problems such as train derailment and
track misalignment.
Methods of controlling roadbed deformation and settlement by reinforcement in
railway or road engineering are gaining increasing attention [1–5]. Geogrids are commonly
used in roads and railways to isolate, reinforce and reduce uneven settlement, and limit
deformation [6,7]. The shear strength and modulus properties of the ballast layer can
be improved and the lateral movement of ballast particles can be limited by geogrid
reinforcement in ballast layers. The geogrids in the track bed also perform a stabilization
function, and vertical settlement and lateral displacement are also reduced by effective
interlocking of the geogrid and the ballast [8,9]. The use of a waste tyres in the capping
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16

forcement in ballast layers. The geogrids in the track bed also perform a stabilization func-
Materials 2021, 14, 4162 tion, and vertical settlement and lateral displacement are also reduced by effective 2inter- of 16

locking of the geogrid and the ballast [8,9]. The use of a waste tyres in the capping layer
provides considerable lateral confinement to the infilled materials, thus contributing to a
reduction
layer in lateral
provides spreading
considerable andconfinement
lateral vertical settlement of particles
to the infilled [10,11].
materials, In contributing
thus addition, us-
ing waste tires as reinforcement material can make effective use of solid waste material,
to a reduction in lateral spreading and vertical settlement of particles [10,11]. In addition,
reduce environmental pollution and effectively solve the problem of its disposal
using waste tires as reinforcement material can make effective use of solid waste material, in piles.
reduce environmental pollution and effectively solve the problem of its disposal in piles.

Figure1.1. Ballast
Figure Ballast track
trackstructure.
structure.

Geogrids and
Geogrids and waste
waste tyres
tyres are
are used
used as asreinforcing
reinforcingmaterial
material in inthetherailway
railwaytrack
trackbedbed
layer in many studies. They can decrease the settlement and
layer in many studies. They can decrease the settlement and deformation of the railway deformation of the railway
track
trackbed,
bed,thus
thusreducing
reducingrailway
railwaytracktrackmaintenance
maintenance costs
costsduring
during railway
railway operation
operation [12–17].
[12–
Some scholars
17]. Some have have
scholars carried out experimental
carried out experimental research on theon
research track
the bed
trackstructure reinforced
bed structure rein-
by geogrid:
forced SadeghiSadeghi
by geogrid: et al. [18]etconducted a large straight
al. [18] conducted a large shear
straighttestshear
showing that geogrid
test showing that
reinforcement significantly
geogrid reinforcement increased the
significantly shear strength
increased the shear and verticaland
strength stiffness of the
vertical contam-
stiffness of
inated ballast layer. Hussaini et al. [19] showed that the geogrid
the contaminated ballast layer. Hussaini et al. [19] showed that the geogrid reinforcement reinforcement prevented
the lateral displacement
prevented of ballast particles
the lateral displacement of ballast andparticles
reduced and the vertical
reducedsettlement
the vertical of the ballast
settlement
layer through cyclic tests. Brown et al. [20] described a series of tests
of the ballast layer through cyclic tests. Brown et al. [20] described a series of tests of ge- of geogrid reinforce-
ment
ogridofreinforcement
railway ballast, of which
railway increased the shear
ballast, which strengththe
increased of geogrid-reinforced ballast by
shear strength of geogrid-re-
50% and the
inforced stiffness
ballast by 50% by 2.5%.
and the Woodward
stiffness et byal. [21],Woodward
2.5%. using polymer-reinforced
et al. [21], using cyclic tests,
polymer-
showed that the load increase for a given polymer-reinforced ballast
reinforced cyclic tests, showed that the load increase for a given polymer-reinforced bal- particle may be about
40%. Kennedy
last particle mayet be
al. about
[22] obtained results from
40%. Kennedy et al. experimental
[22] obtained tests results showing that the 3D
from experimental
geocell
tests showing that the 3D geocell reinforced ballast layer significantly reducedstructure.
reinforced ballast layer significantly reduced the settlement of the track the settle-
mentInofaddition,
the tracksome scholars have conducted research on the structure of the track bed
structure.
reinforced with waste
In addition, sometires: Gong
scholars haveet al. [23] conducted
conducted research a straight shear testofthat
on the structure the used
track tire
bed
chips with a mixture of railroad ballast filler, and the results showed
reinforced with waste tires: Gong et al. [23] conducted a straight shear test that used tire that tire chip-reinforced
ballast reduced
chips with the breakage
a mixture of railroadof ballast
ballast particles.
filler, andEsmaeili
the results et al. [24] added
showed tirechip-rein-
that tire spacers
under sleeper pads, resulting in reduced track settlement and ballast
forced ballast reduced the breakage of ballast particles. Esmaeili et al. [24] added tire spac- particle fragmentation
index. Mohajerani et al. [25] performed seismic simulations in which rubber–soil mixtures
ers under sleeper pads, resulting in reduced track settlement and ballast particle fragmen-
were used as the foundation and structural interface, which reduced ground acceleration by
tation index. Mohajerani et al. [25] performed seismic simulations in which rubber–soil
60–70% in both vertical and horizontal directions. Indraratna et al. [26] studied rubber tire-
mixtures were used as the foundation and structural interface, which reduced ground ac-
reinforced ballast layers in triaxial tests, and the results showed that rubber tire reinforced
celeration by 60–70% in both vertical and horizontal directions. Indraratna et al. [26] stud-
ballast layers can reduce ballast degradation and the particle movement of the track
ied rubber tire-reinforced ballast layers in triaxial tests, and the results showed that rubber
substructure. Li et al. [27] studied waste tire-reinforced construction waste soil, and the test
tire reinforced ballast layers can reduce ballast degradation and the particle movement of
proved that the lateral binding force provided by the waste tire can enhance the mutual
the track substructure. Li et al. [27] studied waste tire-reinforced construction waste soil,
occlusion of soil and reduce the accumulated strain in the axial direction. Akbulut et al. [28]
and the test proved that the lateral binding force provided by the waste tire can enhance
noted that the addition of rubber tire fragments to clay soil resulted in an increase in the
the mutual occlusion of soil and reduce the accumulated strain in the axial direction. Ak-
shear modulus and cohesion of the reinforced soil mass. Rao et al. [29] conducted triaxial
bulut et al. [28] noted that the addition of rubber tire fragments to clay soil resulted in an
tests by changing the size and content of tire fragments. The results demonstrated that
increase in tyres
sand-waste the shear modulus
mixtures of upand cohesion
to 20% of the reinforced
concentration could besoil mass. Rao
a potential et al. [29]
material for
conducted triaxial tests by changing the size and content
highway construction and embankment construction projects reaching up to around 10 m of tire fragments. The results
in height.
Although there are a lot of research studies on geogrids and waste tyres, they both have
limitations. Most of the previous studies had a number of shortcomings: (1) reinforcement
tests were only carried out on the ballast layer or the sub-ballast layer alone; (2) some
 have limitations. Most of the previous studies had a number of shortcomings:
forcement tests were only carried out on the ballast layer or the sub-balla
alone; (2) some tests that simulate the actual track structure layer or field tests
test the effect of the reinforcing material at the ballast and sub-ballast interfac
Materials 2021, 14, 4162
effect of changes in the location and amount of geogrid and waste3tyre of 16
reinfo
on the entire track bed has not been tested. Therefore, it is necessary to establish
scale triaxial test that simulates the actual railway track bed structure, includin
tests that simulate the actual track structure layer or field tests usually test the effect of the
prehensive effect and mechanism of action on the different reinforcement mate
reinforcing material at the ballast and sub-ballast interface; (3) the effect of changes in the
different
location andreinforcement
amount of geogrid positions
and waste oftyre
thereinforcement
track bed. This paper
on the entiretakes
trackgeogrid
bed has and w
reinforced
not been tested.track bedsitas
Therefore, the objects
is necessary of study
to establish based on
a large-scale a large
triaxial static
test that triaxial test.
simulates
the actual railway track bed structure, including a comprehensive effect
were carried out by different perimeter pressures, reinforcement materials, reinfo and mechanism
of action on the different reinforcement materials and different reinforcement positions
forms and reinforcement material locations. Geogrids and waste tires were se
of the track bed. This paper takes geogrid and waste tyre reinforced track beds as the
ballast
objects reinforcement
of study materials
based on a large in the
static triaxial experiment,
test. The tests wereand theout
carried reinforcement
by different effe
compared
perimeter and analyzed.
pressures, Through
reinforcement reinforcement
materials, reinforcementatformsdifferent positions of the tr
and reinforcement
the effects
material of the
locations. reinforcement
Geogrids positions
and waste tires of the
were selected two materials
as ballast reinforcement and the amounts
materials
inforcement
the experiment, and the reinforcement effects were compared and analyzed.
on the strength and deformation characteristics of the track bed are di Through
reinforcement at different positions of the track bed, the effects of the reinforcement
positions of the two materials and the amounts of reinforcement on the strength and
2. Test Equipment
deformation andofMaterials
characteristics the track bed are discussed.
2.1. Test Equipment
2. Test Equipment and Materials
2.1. TestInEquipment
this study, the SZ30-4DAD large static triaxial test equipment for coarse
soilsIn was used,the
this study, as SZ30-4DAD
shown in Figure 2. The
large static equipment
triaxial consists
test equipment of computer host, st
for coarse-grained
pressure
soils stabilization
was used, system,
as shown in Figure pressure
2. The equipmentchamber,
consists confining
of computer pressure
host, static stabilizatio
axial
pressure stabilization system, pressure chamber, confining pressure stabilization
system, and automatic data acquisition system. The high-precision and low-spe control
system, and automatic data acquisition system. The high-precision and low-speed CNC
metering oil source speed regulation system was used to complete the axial st
metering oil source speed regulation system was used to complete the axial stress and strain
strain loading.
loading. The maximum Theaxial
maximum axial
static load was static
21 MPa,load was 21 MPa,
the maximum thepressure
confining maximum was confin
sure
4.0 MPa,wasand4.0
theMPa,
sampleand
sizethe
wassample
300 × 600 size
mm.was 300 × 600 mm.

Figure
Figure 2. SZ30-4DAD
2. SZ30-4DAD largetriaxial
large static static test
triaxial test equipment.
equipment.

2.2. Test Filler

2.2. Test Filler
The test railway ballast was taken from the graded gravel of the track bed at the track
The test
bed quarry railway
site, and ballast
the parent was
rock wastaken from
granite. Thethe graded
materials of gravel of the
the ballast track
layer and bed at
the sub-ballast layer were screened and prepared according to the “Code for
bed quarry site, and the parent rock was granite. The materials of the ballast Design of laye
Heavy-Duty Railways” (TB10625-2017) [30], and the real track bed particle gradation curve
sub-ballast layer were screened and prepared according to the “Code for Design o
was simulated, as shown in Figure 3. Through the heavy compaction test, the basic physical
Duty Railways”
parameters (TB10625-2017)
of the maximum dry density[30], and themoisture
and optimal real track bedofparticle
content gradation
the ballast and cu
sub-ballast materials are shown in Table 1.
 simulated,
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW as shown in Figure 3. Through the heavy compaction test, the basic
4 ofphysical
16
parameters of the maximum dry density and optimal moisture content of the ballast and
sub-ballast materials are shown in Table 1.

Materials 2021, 14, 4162 simulated, as shown in Figure 3. Through the heavy compaction test, the basic physical
4 of 16
parameters of the maximum dry density and optimal moisture content of the ballast and
sub-ballast materials are shown in Table 1.

Figure 3. Test ballast and sub-ballast grain size gradation curves.

Table 1. Physical properties of ballast and sub-ballast.

Testballast
Figure3.3.Test
Figure ballastand
andsub-ballast
sub-ballastgrain
grainsize
sizegradation
gradationcurves.
curves.
Packing Max Dry Optimum Water
1. Physical properties of−3and
ballast and sub-ballast. Cu Cc
Table 1.Table
Classification
Physical Density/(g·cm
properties of ballast ) sub-ballast.
Content/(%)
Packing Classification Maxballast
Packing ·cm−32.18
Dry Density/(gMax )
Dry Optimum
Optimum
0.79
Water Content/(%)
Water
6.32Cu C1.16
c
sub-ballast 1.87 4.8 C u 9.41 C c 2.6
ballast Classification Density/(g·cm )
2.18 −3 Content/(%)
0.79 6.32 1.16
sub-ballast ballast 1.87 2.18 0.79 4.8 6.32 9.41 1.162.6
2.3. Reinforcement
sub-ballast Materials
1.87 4.8 9.41 2.6
2.3. Reinforcement
In this paper, Materials
TGSG-3030 type geogrid and small electric vehicle tires are used as
large
2.3. triaxial
Reinforcement
In testMaterials
this paper, reinforcement
TGSG-3030 type materials, respectively.
geogrid and Geogrid
small electric vehicleand
tirestire
arewere
used placed
as largehor-
izontally
In this paper, TGSG-3030 type geogrid and small electric vehicle tires are used as4. The
triaxial testin the sample,
reinforcement and the
materials, layout of the
respectively. reinforcement
Geogrid and tire is shown
were placed in Figure
horizontally
in the
physical sample,
large triaxialand and the layout
mechanical
test reinforcement of
indexes theofreinforcement
materials, is shown
therespectively.
geogrid and wasteintire
Geogrid Figure
tire4.
andare The physical
shown
were in Tables
placed and
hor-2 and
mechanical
3.
izontally indexes of the geogrid and waste tire are shown in Tables 2
in the sample, and the layout of the reinforcement is shown in Figure 4. The and 3.
physical and mechanical indexes of the geogrid and waste tire are shown in Tables 2 and
3.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4. Test (a)
reinforcement
Test reinforcement material:(a)(a)geogrid;
material: geogrid; (b)
(b)(b) tyres.
tyres.
Figure 4. Test reinforcement material: (a) geogrid; (b) tyres.
Table 2. Engineering properties of biaxial geogrid.

Tensile Strength at Tensile Strength at Different

Ultimate Tensile Ultimate
Type Different Elongations in Elongations in the
Strength/(kN·mm−1 ) Elongation/%
the Vertical/((kN·mm−1 ) Horizontal/(kN·mm−1 )
MD CMD MD CMD 2% 5% 2% 5%
TGSG–3030 30 30 ≤16 ≤13 ≥11 ≥13 ≥15 ≥15
Materials 2021, 14, 4162 5 of 16

Table 3. Engineering properties of tires.

Vertical Tensile Vertical Yield Single Tyre Size Tensile Modulus at Different
Yield/(kN·m−1 ) Elongation/% D × W × H/mm × mm × mm Strains/(kN·m−1 )
2% 5%
54.6 75.8 170 × 50 × 50 33.2 78.1

3. Test Procedure and Program

3.1. Sample Preparation
The diameter of the sample was 300 mm and the height was 600 mm. The diameter
of the sample was six times the maximum particle size of the graded gravel, and this
experiment was not affected by size effects. Before the test, the fillers were mixed and
smothered. The treated fills were compacted in six layers. After compaction of the samples,
the samples were kept upright by means of vacuuming. The test preparation process is
shown in Figure 5. When the negative pore water pressure reached 70–80 kPa, the sample
was stopped from vacuuming, and the pressure chamber was installed and flushed into
the pressure chamber. Then, the samples were relieved of pore water pressure and a 40 kPa
confining pressure was applied to avoid collapse of the samples. The sample saturation
was carried out in two ways: vacuum saturation and head saturation. By applying con-
fining pressure, the ratio of confining pressure increment to pore pressure increment was
calculated, the pore pressure coefficient B value was measured, and the saturation was
controlled above 95%. The samples were subjected to isotropic consolidation by applying
confining pressures of 50, 100 and 150 kPa, and the consolidation could be stopped and the
test could be started when the consolidation drainage was stable. Reinforced material ge-
ogrid and tires were placed horizontally in the samples; the arrangement of reinforcement
is shown in Figure 6. In order to simulate the actual work condition of the graded gravel fill
in track bed layer, the test was carried out with a moisture content close to the optimal 5%.
The samples were prepared according to the compaction requirements of the graded gravel
fill in the actual heavy-duty railway track bed, and the compaction coefficient was taken as
0.95. The sample preparation process was carried out with reference to the Geotechnical
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
Test Procedure (GB/T 50123-2019) [31] and the Geotechnical Test Procedure for Railway
Engineering (TB10102-2010) [32].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Sample
Sample preparation process: (a)
preparation process: (a) mixing;
mixing; (b)
(b) compaction of the
compaction of the sample;
sample; (c)
(c) vacuum
vacuum hood
hood pressure
pressure chamber
chamber after
evacuation.
after evacuation.

3.2. Test Program

This test simulates the real railroad track bed conditions and adopts the consolidation
without drainage (CU) static triaxial test. Referring to the Standard for Geotechnical Test
Methods, the test is stopped when the track bed samples collapse during the shear process
or when the accumulated strain in the axial direction reached 15% of their initial height.
The geogrid and waste tyre reinforcement track bed were arranged in the form of upper

Materials 2021, 14, 4162
without drainage (CU) static triaxial test. Referring to the Standard for Geotechnical Test
Methods, the test is stopped when the track bed samples collapse during the shear process
or when the accumulated strain in the axial direction reached 15% of their initial height.
The geogrid and waste tyre reinforcement track bed were arranged in the form of upper
(BGT1/T1), central (BGT2/T2), lower (BGT3/T3) and all (BGT5/T5). Reinforced material 6 of 16
geogrid and tires were placed horizontally in the samples, and the arrangement of rein-
forcement was shown in Figure 6. The specific test program is shown in Table 4.

100mm

100mm 200mm
300mm

100mm

100mm

100mm
300mm

300mm

200mm
(a) (b) (c)

100mm
300mm

100mm

100mm
100mm

100mm
100mm

100mm
100mm

100mm

(d) (e)
Figure
Figure6. 6.Geogrid
Geogridand waste tyre
and waste tyrereinforcement
reinforcement arrangement:
arrangement: (a) unreinforcement
(a) unreinforcement (UR);
(UR); (b) (b) reinforcement
upper upper reinforcement
(BGT1/T1);
(BGT1/T1); (c) central reinforcement (BGT2/T2); (d) lower reinforcement (BGT3/T3); (e) all reinforced (BGT5/T5).
(c) central reinforcement (BGT2/T2); (d) lower reinforcement (BGT3/T3); (e) all reinforced (BGT5/T5).

Table 4. Design program for static triaxial tests.

3.2. Test Program
This test simulates the real railroad track bed conditions and adopts the consolidation
without drainage (CU) static triaxial test. Referring to the Standard for Geotechnical
Test Methods, the test is stopped when the track bed samples collapse during the shear
process or when the accumulated strain in the axial direction reached 15% of their initial
height. The geogrid and waste tyre reinforcement track bed were arranged in the form of
upper (BGT1/T1), central (BGT2/T2), lower (BGT3/T3) and all (BGT5/T5). Reinforced
material geogrid and tires were placed horizontally in the samples, and the arrangement of
reinforcement was shown in Figure 6. The specific test program is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Design program for static triaxial tests.

Reinforced Materials
Samples No. Confining Pressures σ 3 /kPa
Geogrid Waste Tyres
1 UR UR
2 BGT1 T1
3 50 BGT2 T2
4 BGT3 T3
5 BGT5 T5
6 UR UR
7 BGT1 T1
8 100 BGT2 T2
9 BGT3 T3
10 BGT5 T5
11 UR UR
12 BGT1 T1
13 150 BGT2 T2
14 BGT3 T3
15 BGT5 T5
 10 BGT5 T5
11 UR UR
12 BGT1 T1
13 150 BGT2 T2
Materials 2021, 14, 4162 14 BGT3 T3 7 of 16
15 BGT5 T5

4. Test Results and Analysis

4. Test Results and Analysis
4.1. 4.1.
Shear Damage
Shear Characteristics
Damage Characteristicsof Samples
of Samplesat Different Reinforcement
at Different Reinforcement Positions
Positions
Figure 7 shows
Figure 7 showspartpart
the the
damaged
damaged statestate
of the
of samples
the samples afterafter
reinforcement
reinforcement at different
at different
positions. TheThe
positions. geogrid
geogrid and waste
and waste tires
tireswere
wereused
usedas as reinforcement
reinforcement in inthe
thesamples
samplescomposed
com-
posedof aoftrack
a track
bed bed
layerlayer
mixturemixture at different
at different positions
positions and under
and under different different
confining confining
pressures,
pressures,
and theand the SZ30-4DAD
SZ30-4DAD automatic automatic
triaxialtriaxial instrument
instrument was used wasforusedthefor
shearthetest
shear
of test
coarse-
of coarse-grained soil. It can be seen from Figure 7 that the shear failure
grained soil. It can be seen from Figure 7 that the shear failure of the track bed sample of the track beddoes
sample does not
not reflect thereflect
shearthe sheartheoretically,
surface surface theoretically,
and it canand be it can beobserved
clearly clearly observed that
that the sample
the exhibits
sample exhibits
dilatancy dilatancy
failure. failure. The cross-sectional
The cross-sectional diameter diameter of thebed
of the track track bed sample
sample increases
increases and forms
and forms a cleara“packet”
clear “packet”
pattern. pattern. Comparing
Comparing and analyzing
and analyzing the samples
the samples of the oftrack
the bed,
trackitbed,
can itbecan
seen bethat
seenthethat the “packet”
“packet” phenomenon
phenomenon is related
is related to the to the different
different rein-
reinforcement
forcement
positions positions of the
of the track track
bed. Under bed.theUnder
actionthe action of force,
of shearing shearing force, theofdiameter
the diameter of
the reinforced
position of the track bed is significantly smaller than the diameter
the reinforced position of the track bed is significantly smaller than the diameter of the of the unreinforced
position ofposition
unreinforced the track bed.track
of the Under bed.different confining
Under different pressures,
confining the higher
pressures, the confining
the higher the
pressure,
confining the smaller
pressure, the “packet”
the smaller diameter
the “packet” of this shear
diameter of thisswelling phenomenon.
shear swelling The reason
phenomenon.
Thefor the dilatancy
reason phenomenon
for the dilatancy of the track
phenomenon bedtrack
of the samples bed is that theisballast
samples that theparticles
ballastbitepar-and
squeeze
ticles bite andeach other under
squeeze the load
each other under of the
thetrack.
load ofThe thepositions
track. The of the ballast of
positions particles
the ballastchange
and the pores between the particles become tighter. Reinforcement
particles change and the pores between the particles become tighter. Reinforcement at at different locations
in thelocations
different bed layerin results
the bed in greater ballastinparticle
layer results greaterocclusion and interlocking
ballast particle occlusion and forces at the
inter-
locking forces at the reinforced locations. The interlocking effect between the reinforce- the
reinforced locations. The interlocking effect between the reinforcement material and
ment ballast particles
material and theinhibits
ballasttheparticles
lateral displacement of thedisplacement
inhibits the lateral particles. of the particles.

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 7. Shear
Figure damage
7. Shear damagecharacteristics of specimens
characteristics at different
of specimens reinforcement
at different locations:
reinforcement (a)(a) BGT/T1;
locations:
BGT/T1; (b) BGT/T2;
(b) BGT/T2; (c) BGT/T3;
(c) BGT/T3; (d) (d) BGTG/T5.
BGTG/T5.

4.2. Stress–Strain Relationship Curve for Geogrid and Waste Tyre Reinforcement Track Bed
Layer
Figure 8 shows the static triaxial test stress–strain curves for the track bed samples
under 50 kPa, 100 kPa and 150 kPa confining pressure, respectively. The stress–strain
curves do not show a peak maximum deviator stress, so the deviator stress at 15% of the
Materials 2021, 14, 4162 8 of 16

4.2. Stress–Strain Relationship Curve for Geogrid and Waste Tyre Reinforcement Track Bed Layer
Figure 8 shows the static triaxial test stress–strain curves for the track bed samples
under 50 kPa, 100 kPa and 150 kPa confining pressure, respectively. The stress–strain
curves do not show a peak maximum deviator stress, so the deviator stress at 15% of the
axial accumulated strain is taken as the peak deviator stress. As can be seen from the graph,
the track bed samples are subjected to shear stress and the peak deviator stress increases
with the increase in axial cumulative strain. When the axial cumulative strain has reached
about 3%, the increase rate of the deviator stress becomes slower, and the track bed layer
shows strain hardening and shear expansion characteristics throughout the shear process.
Figure 8 shows that as the geogrid reinforcement position changes, the peak deflection
stress of the ballast specimen also changes. When the numbers of reinforced layers of
the track bed layer samples were the same, it was found that the reinforcement effect of
BGT1 was significantly higher than that of BGT2 and BGT3. At 50, 100 and 150 kPa, the
BGT1-reinforced peak deviator stresses increased by 43.1%, 27.3% and 26.8%, respectively,
compared to the unreinforced samples. The best reinforcement effect was observed when
the BGT5 reinforced ballast samples were reinforced; the BGT5 peak deviator stresses
increased by 73%, 47.3% and 40.2%, respectively, compared to the unreinforced samples
under 50, 100 and 150 kPa. The test results show that the pores between the particle
frameworks of the track bed are relatively large at the beginning of the static load, and
the mutual displacement and squeezing of the ballast particles under the static load result
in the rapid development of the axial cumulative strain of the ballast bed in the early
stage. With the action of static loading, the interaction between particles produces a certain
amount of particle wear and pressure density, and the broken fine ballast particles fill the
pores between ballast particles. Thus, the contact surface between the ballast particles
and the geogrid increases, raising the sliding friction and bite friction between the ballast
particles. The geogrid reinforced ballast particles provide continuity, and the high tensile
strength of the geogrid and its interlocking effect increase the shear strength of the ballast
particles. The structure where the ballast particles and the geogrid intersect each other
has a larger stress diffusion angle, which homogenizes the stress distribution of the entire
track bed sample, thereby increasing the peak deviator stress of the track bed. The lateral
restraining force of the geogrid on the ballast bed restricts the lateral deformation of the
ballast particles. Meanwhile, the axial deformation resistance of the ballast is enhanced
and the accumulated strain in the axial direction of the track bed is reduced. The confining
pressure has a significant effect on the axial deformation of the ballast bulk. The axial strain
in the ballast bulk increases as the confining pressure decreases. The lateral restraint effect
of the geogrid unit on the tension of the ballast particles is similar to the lateral restraint
effect provided by the confining pressure, which has positive significance for controlling
the ballast deformation.
Figure 9 shows that the peak deviator stress increases with the increasing axial cu-
mulative strain in the waste tyre reinforcement track bed layer under shear stress at three
different confinement pressures. In the early stages, the axial cumulative strain increases
rapidly with the increase in deviator stress. When the axial cumulative strain reached
about 6%, the increase rate of the deviator stress became slower. The track bed layers of
the reinforced forms T1, T2, T3 and T5 consistently exhibited strain hardening and shear
expansion. When the same reinforcement conditions were applied, the reinforcement of
T2 was significantly more effective than that of T1 and T3. The peak deviator stresses for
T2 increased by 44%, 29.9% and 42% under different confining pressures compared to the
unreinforced track bed. Under T5 reinforcement conditions, the deviator stress of the track
bed increased linearly under the confining pressures of 50 kPa and 100 kPa. As rubber
replaces the original granite ballast, the stiffness of the ballast bed specimens decreases,
and the anti-deformation ability of the ballast bed decreases during the shearing process.
The peak deviator stress of the waste tyre reinforcement track bed layer increases as the
confining pressure continues to increase. Higher confining pressures help to reduce the
lateral and axial strains in the track bed samples. The restraint provided by the tyre unit
 bed increased linearly under the confining pressures of 50 kPa and 100 kPa. As rubber
replaces the original granite ballast, the stiffness of the ballast bed specimens decreases,
and the anti-deformation ability of the ballast bed decreases during the shearing process.
Materials 2021, 14, 4162
The peak deviator stress of the waste tyre reinforcement track bed layer increases as the
9 of 16
confining pressure continues to increase. Higher confining pressures help to reduce the
lateral and axial strains in the track bed samples. The restraint provided by the tyre unit
will help to increase the stiffness of the enclosed ballast, which helps to reduce the axial
will help to increase the stiffness of the enclosed ballast, which helps to reduce the axial
accumulation of strain in the track bed. In the same way, the additional lateral restraint
accumulation of strain in the track bed. In the same way, the additional lateral restraint
provided by the tyre cell will prevent lateral movement of the ballast material, which
provided by the tyre cell will prevent lateral movement of the ballast material, which helps
helps to reduce the deformation
to reduce the deformation of the of thebed.
track track bed.

(a) (b)

(c)
FigureFigure
8. Stress–strain relationship
8. Stress–strain curves
relationship forfor
curves geogrid
geogridreinforcement trackbed
reinforcement track bedlayers
layers
atat three
three different
different confining
confining pressures:
pressures:
(a) 50 (a)
kPa50geogrid reinforcement;
kPa geogrid (b)(b)
reinforcement; 100 kPa
100 kPageogrid
geogrid reinforcement; (c)150
reinforcement; (c) 150 kPa
kPa geogrid
geogrid reinforcement.
reinforcement.

A comparative analysis between Figures 8 and 9 shows that under the confining
pressure conditions of 50, 100 and 150 kPa, the peak deviator stresses increase by 43.1%,
27.3% and 26.8% for BGT1 reinforced compared to unreinforced samples, 27.9%, 20.6% and
19.2% for BGT2 reinforced, and 18.4%, 14.6% and 13.9% for BGT3-reinforced. The peak
stresses in BGT5 increased by 73%, 47.3% and 40.2%, respectively. Compared with the
unreinforced samples, the T1 peak deviator stresses of the used waste tyre reinforced track
bed samples increased by 31.2%, 25.6% and 30.1%, the T2 peak deviator stress increased by
44%, 29.9% and 42%, the T3 peak deviator stress increased by 24.2%, 14.6%, and 20.9%, and
the T5 peak deviator stress increased by 48.6%, 35.5%, and 47.8%, respectively. From the
growth of the deviator stress of the two material reinforced track bed samples, it can be
concluded that the geogrid reinforcement effect is more significant than that of waste tires
under low confining pressure. The reinforcement effect of waste tires is better under high
confining pressure.
 Materials
Materials 14, 14,
2021,
2021, 4162PEER REVIEW
x FOR 1010
of of
16 16

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 9. Stress–strain
Figure relationship
9. Stress–strain curves
relationship curvesfor
forwaste
wastetyre
tyrereinforced
reinforced track
track bed layers at
bed layers atthree
threedifferent
differentconfining
confining pressures:
pressures:
(a) (a)
50 kPa waste tyre reinforcement; (b) 100 kPa waste tyre reinforcement; (c) 150 kPa waste tyre reinforcement.
50 kPa waste tyre reinforcement; (b) 100 kPa waste tyre reinforcement; (c) 150 kPa waste tyre reinforcement.

4.3.AShear
comparative analysis between
Strength Parameters Figures
for Geogrid 8 andTyre
and Waste 9 shows that Track
Reinforced underBed
the confining pres-
sure conditions
Figure 10of 50, 100
shows and
that 150 kPa,geogrid
different the peak deviator stresses
reinforcement increase
positions havebya 43.1%, 27.3%
significant
and 26.8% for BGT1 reinforced compared to unreinforced samples,
impact on the anti-shear strength parameters. It can be concluded that when the geogrid 27.9%, 20.6% and
19.2% for BGT2 reinforced, and 18.4%, 14.6% and 13.9% for BGT3-reinforced.
reinforcement was compared with the unreinforced track bed, the cohesive force and The peak
stresses
internalinfriction
BGT5 angle
increased by increased.
are both 73%, 47.3% andgeogrid
When 40.2%, BGT1
respectively. Compared
was reinforced, withofthe
the angle
internal friction
unreinforced was greater
samples, the T1 than
peakthat of BGT2
deviator and BGT3
stresses of theand
usedthe cohesion
waste was relatively
tyre reinforced track
higher. When the geogrid was BGT5 reinforced, the angle of internal friction
bed samples increased by 31.2%, 25.6% and 30.1%, the T2 peak deviator stress increased and cohesion
bywere
44%,greatest.
29.9% and As 42%,
a result
theofT3
the interlocking
peak deviator and interlocking
stress increased ofbythe ballast
24.2%, particles
14.6%, and
and 20.9%,
and the T5 peak deviator stress increased by 48.6%, 35.5%, and 47.8%, respectively. the
the geogrid, the ballast particles are broken and fractured to fill the pores between From
the growth of the deviator stress of the two material reinforced track bed samples, itincan
particles. Because of the tensile force of the geogrid acting on the ballast particles
contact with it, the cohesion between them and the angle of internal friction increases. The
be concluded that the geogrid reinforcement effect is more significant than that of waste
internal friction angle has a greater influence on the shear strength of coarse ballast in the
tires under low confining pressure. The reinforcement effect of waste tires is better under
geogrid reinforced track bed, while the cohesion has a relatively small influence on the
high confining pressure.
shear strength of the track bed. The reinforcement effect was best when geogrids BGT1 and
BGT5 were reinforced in the track bed, with maximum cohesion and internal friction angle.
4.3. Shear Strength
Geogrid Parameters
reinforcement for improve
can also Geogrid and
the Waste Tyre Reinforced
shear strength Trackbed
of the track Bedlayer, and the
Figure 10 effect
comparative showsofthat different
geogrid geogrid reinforcement
reinforcement is BGT5 > BGT1 positions
> BGT2 > have a significant im-
BGT3.
pact onFigure 11 shows the
the anti-shear significant
strength influenceItofcan
parameters. the be
different reinforcement
concluded that when positions on
the geogrid
the shear strength
reinforcement was parameters
compared withof thethe
waste tyre. The cohesive
unreinforced forcethe
track bed, andcohesive
the internal
forcefriction
and in-
anglefriction
ternal both tend to increase
angle are both when the waste
increased. tyre is
When reinforced
geogrid BGT1compared to the unreinforced
was reinforced, the angle
samples. T1 has a higher internal friction angle and greater
of internal friction was greater than that of BGT2 and BGT3 and the cohesion thancohesion
T2 and T3, was
indicating that the shear strength of the reinforced tyre is better at the interface of the
relatively higher. When the geogrid was BGT5 reinforced, the angle of internal friction
track bed than other locations. The cohesion and the internal friction angle are both at
and cohesion were greatest. As a result of the interlocking and interlocking of the ballast
their maximum for T5 reinforcement. Because the contact surface between the waste tyre
particles and the geogrid, the ballast particles are broken and fractured to fill the pores
between the particles. Because of the tensile force of the geogrid acting on the ballast par-
 Materials 2021, 14, 4162 11 of 16
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

and the ballast particles is the largest in T5, the ballast particles and the surface and inner
ticles
sideinofcontact withtyre
the waste it, the
are cohesion
mutuallybetween
constrainedthemandandinterlocked,
the angle ofresulting
internal in
friction in-
an increase
creases.
in theThe internal
internal friction
friction angle
angle andhas a greater
cohesion of influence on the
the track bed. shear strength
Compared of coarse
to other forms of
ballast
waste intyre
the geogrid reinforced
reinforcement, track
T2 has bed, while
a better the cohesion
reinforcement effecthas a relatively
and small
a significant influ-
advantage
encein on
termsthe of shear
shear strength.
strength Considering
of the track bed. thatThe waste
reinforcement
tyre is a effect
good was best when
three-dimensional
reinforcing
geogrids BGT1 material,
and BGT5 it can provide
were sidewall
reinforced inbinding
the trackand frictional
bed, forces that cohesion
with maximum increase the
Figure 10. Effect of geogrid reinforcement
particle-to-particle position on shear strength.
and internal frictionbite, angle.which increases
Geogrid the ballast
reinforcement bulk particle
can also cohesion
improve the and
shearfriction angle.
strength
When
of the track ballast particles
bed layer, and theare comparative
broken, tyreeffect
reinforcement
of geogridcan limit the lateral
reinforcement is BGT5and vertical
> BGT1
Figure 11 shows
development the significant influence of the different reinforcement positions on
> BGT2 > BGT3. of cracks and improve the integrity and continuity of the track bed.
the shear strength parameters of the waste tyre. The cohesive force and the internal fric-
tion angle both tend to increase when the waste tyre is reinforced compared to the unre-
inforced samples. T1 has a higher internal friction angle and greater cohesion than T2 and
T3, indicating that the shear strength of the reinforced tyre is better at the interface of the
track bed than other locations. The cohesion and the internal friction angle are both at
their maximum for T5 reinforcement. Because the contact surface between the waste tyre
and the ballast particles is the largest in T5, the ballast particles and the surface and inner
side of the waste tyre are mutually constrained and interlocked, resulting in an increase
in the internal friction angle and cohesion of the track bed. Compared to other forms of
waste tyre reinforcement, T2 has a better reinforcement effect and a significant advantage
in terms of shear strength. Considering that waste tyre is a good three-dimensional rein-
forcing material, it can provide sidewall binding and frictional forces that increase the
particle-to-particle bite, which increases the ballast bulk particle cohesion and friction an-
gle. When ballast particles are broken, tyre reinforcement can limit the lateral and vertical
development
Figure
Figure 10. 10. ofofcracks
Effect
Effect geogrid and
of geogrid improve
reinforcement the
reinforcement integrity
position
position on onand continuity
shear
shear strength. of the track bed.
strength.

Figure 11 shows the significant influence of the different reinforcement positions on

the shear strength parameters of the waste tyre. The cohesive force and the internal fric-
tion angle both tend to increase when the waste tyre is reinforced compared to the unre-
inforced samples. T1 has a higher internal friction angle and greater cohesion than T2 and
T3, indicating that the shear strength of the reinforced tyre is better at the interface of the
track bed than other locations. The cohesion and the internal friction angle are both at
their maximum for T5 reinforcement. Because the contact surface between the waste tyre
and the ballast particles is the largest in T5, the ballast particles and the surface and inner
side of the waste tyre are mutually constrained and interlocked, resulting in an increase
in the internal friction angle and cohesion of the track bed. Compared to other forms of
waste tyre reinforcement, T2 has a better reinforcement effect and a significant advantage
in terms of shear strength. Considering that waste tyre is a good three-dimensional rein-
forcing material, it can provide sidewall binding and frictional forces that increase the
Figure
Figure11. 11.
Effect of waste
Effect tyretyre
of waste reinforcement position
reinforcement on on
position shear strength.
shear strength.
particle-to-particle bite, which increases the ballast bulk particle cohesion and friction an-
gle.4.4.
When ballast
Energy particles
Absorption inare broken,
Geogrid andtyre
Wastereinforcement canTrack
Tyre Reinforced limitBeds
the lateral and vertical
development
Energy absorption was the amount of energy required to causethe
of cracks and improve the integrity and continuity of track bed. in geogrid
deformation
and waste tyre reinforced track beds [33]. This paper used the energy absorption required
for deformation to quantify and compare the effect of the location of geogrid and waste tyre
reinforcement on the deformation capacity of the track bed. This has been determined by
calculating the area under the stress curve. In this study, energy absorption was calculated
for 10% of the axial strain in all tests.
The effect of deformation of the geogrid reinforced track bed layers on energy absorp-
tion under different confining pressures and locations is shown in Figure 12. Under 50 kPa,
100 kPa and 150 kPa confining pressure constraints, BGT1 has significantly greater energy
absorption compared to BGT2, BGT3 and unreinforced track bed. It can be concluded that
geogrids have different energy absorption capacities at different reinforcement locations in
the track bed, and that geogrids can improve the energy absorption of the track bed and
thus increase the deformation resistance. The energy absorption of ballast was much higher
with the BGT5 reinforced method than with the other reinforced methods. Compared
Figure 11. Effect of waste tyre reinforcement position on shear strength.
 was calculated for 10% of the axial strain in all tests.
The effect of deformation of the geogrid reinforced track bed layers on energy ab-
sorption under different confining pressures and locations is shown in Figure 12. Under
50 kPa, 100 kPa and 150 kPa confining pressure constraints, BGT1 has significantly greater
energy absorption compared to BGT2, BGT3 and unreinforced track bed. It can be con-
Materials 2021, 14, 4162
cluded that geogrids have different energy absorption capacities at different reinforce- 12 of 16
ment locations in the track bed, and that geogrids can improve the energy absorption of
the track bed and thus increase the deformation resistance. The energy absorption of bal-
last was much higher with the BGT5 reinforced method than with the other reinforced
to unreinforced ballast, the energy absorption is 71%, 61% and 55% higher, respectively.
methods. Compared to unreinforced ballast, the energy absorption is 71%, 61% and 55%
The difference in energy absorption at the geogrid reinforced locations increases as the
higher, respectively. The difference in energy absorption at the geogrid reinforced loca-
confining pressure increases. This indicates the interaction between the geogrid reinforce-
tions increases as the confining pressure increases. This indicates the interaction between
ment position and the confining pressure on energy absorption. The effect of the geogrid
the geogrid reinforcement position and the confining pressure on energy absorption. The
reinforcement position on energy absorption increases with increasing confining pressure.
effect of the geogrid reinforcement position on energy absorption increases with increas-
Under higher confinement pressures, more energy is required to deform the roadbed with
ing confining pressure. Under higher confinement pressures, more energy is required to
more the
deform layers of geogrid
roadbed reinforcement.
with more Under low
layers of geogrid confining pressure,
reinforcement. Under lowgeogrid reinforced
confining
pressure, geogrid reinforced track bed has better anti-deformation ability and absorptionit does
track bed has better anti-deformation ability and absorption effect capacity than
under
effect high than
capacity confining
it doespressure.
under high confining pressure.

Figure
Figure 12. 12. Energy
Energy absorption
absorption of geogrid
of geogrid reinforced
reinforced track track
bed. bed.

TheThe effect
effect of different
of different confining
confining pressures
pressures and different
and different locations
locations of the of the tyre
waste waste tyre
reinforced
reinforced track
track bedbedlayerlayer on energy
on energy absorption
absorption is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 13. The13.waste
The waste
tyre tyre
reinforcement
reinforcement waswas significantly
significantly different
different fromfromthethe geogrid,
geogrid, with
with thethe smallest
smallest energy
energy ab-absorp-
tion across the ballast when T5 reinforcement
sorption across the ballast when T5 reinforcement was applied.
applied. Because the waste tyres were
Because the waste tyres
composed of flexible rubber material, the
were composed of flexible rubber material, the maximum maximum number
number ofof
T5-reinforced
T5-reinforced tyres
tyres resulted
resulted in a smaller stiffness of the track bed samples, so the minimum amount of energy was
in a smaller stiffness of the track bed samples, so the minimum amount of energy
wasrequired
requiredforforthe
thedeformation
deformation of of the track bed.
bed. The
Theenergy
energyabsorption
absorption ofof
T2T2 reinforcement
reinforce-
waswas
ment better than
better thatthat
than of T1 andand
of T1 T3 T3
when
when compared
compared to to
T2T2 and
and T3T3under
under5050kPa,
kPa,100100 kPa and
kPa
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW and
150 kPa150circumferential
kPa circumferential pressure.
pressure. The deformation
The deformation required
required to absorb
to absorb energy
energy was was
13 of increased
16
increased
by 70.8%, by 70.8%,
40% and 40% 55%andfor
55%T2.forThe
T2.T2The T2 provides
tyre tyre provides additional
additional restraint
restraint andand frictional
frictional resistance;
resistance; in addition,
in addition, the T2the T2reinforcement
tyre tyre reinforcement leadsleads
to antoincrease
an increase in the
in the stiff- of the
stiffness
bed
ness of layer andlayer
the bed the bed
anddeformation under static
the bed deformation under load requires
static the greatest
load requires energy absorption.
the greatest en-
As the confining pressure increases, the reinforcement of the waste
ergy absorption. As the confining pressure increases, the reinforcement of the waste tyre tyre increases the energy
absorption
increases and the
the energy resistance
absorption andto the
deformation
resistance of to the track bed.of the track bed.
deformation

Figure
Figure 13. 13. Energy
Energy absorption
absorption of waste
of waste tire reinforced
tire reinforced track bed.
track bed.

4.5. Reinforcement Strength Ratio under Different Confining Pressures

To assess the effect of different confining pressures, reinforcement materials and re-
inforcement locations on the reinforcement strength of the track bed, the reinforcement
material strength ratios (RSR) were defined as follows (1).
 Materials 2021, 14, 4162 13 of 16

4.5. Reinforcement Strength Ratio under Different Confining Pressures

To assess the effect of different confining pressures, reinforcement materials and
reinforcement locations on the reinforcement strength of the track bed, the reinforcement
material strength ratios (RSR) were defined as follows (1).

(σ1 − σ3 ) R
RSR = (1)
(σ1 − σ3 )UR

where (σ1 − σ3 )R is the peak deviator stress in the geogrid and waste tyre reinforced track
bed, (σ1 − σ3 )UR is the peak deviator stress in the unreinforced track bed.
According to the reinforcement strength parameters, the reinforcement strength ratio
of the track bed can be obtained under different water levels of confining pressure, as shown
in Figure 14. The reinforcement strength ratio of the geogrid decreases significantly as the
confining pressure increases, indicating that the geogrid reinforced track bed has the best
reinforcement effect at low confining pressure. The reinforcement strength ratio of BGT1
increased by 43%, 27% and 26%, the reinforcement strength ratio of BGT2 increased by 28%,
20% and 19%, the reinforcement strength ratio of BGT3 increased by 18%, 15% and 13%,
the reinforcement strength ratio of geogrid varied with the location of reinforcement, and
the reinforcement strength ratio of BGT1 had the best effect. The reinforcement strength
ratio of BGT5 increased by 73%, 47% and 40%, respectively. The increased amount of
reinforcement in the geogrid leads to a significant increase in the reinforcement strength of
the track bed layer. For example, BGT5 at 50 kPa confining pressure increases significantly,
by 73%, compared to unreinforced track bed. The shear restraint effect of the gripping and
sliding friction between the geogrid and the ballast particles decreases as the confining
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16
pressure increases, so the reinforced strength ratio of the geogrid decreases as the confining
pressure increases.

Figure
Figure 14.14. Geogridreinforcement
Geogrid reinforcement strength
strengthratio.
ratio.

Figure 15 shows that the reinforcement strength ratio of the waste tyre increases
Figure 15 shows that the reinforcement strength ratio of the waste tyre increases sig-
significantly with the increasing circumferential pressure. The reinforcement strength ratio
nificantly
of T2 waswith the increasing
greater than that of circumferential
T1 and T3 at 50, pressure.
100 and 150The
kPareinforcement strength
confining pressures, T2 ratio
of was
T2 was
more effective at different locations, and the reinforcement strength ratio of T2 was T2
greater than that of T1 and T3 at 50, 100 and 150 kPa confining pressures,
was more effective
increased at different
by 44%, 46% and 47%locations,
compared andto thethe reinforcement
unreinforced trackstrength
bed. As the ratio of T2 was
number
increased by 44%,
of reinforced 46%
waste andincreases,
tyres 47% compared to the unreinforced
the reinforcement track
strength ratio of bed. As the
the waste number
tyres
increases significantly. The reinforcement strength of T5 increases by 49%, 51%
of reinforced waste tyres increases, the reinforcement strength ratio of the waste tyres in- and 55%.
This was
creases because the The
significantly. scrapreinforcement
tyres are a rubber materialofwith
strength T5 less strength
increases byand stiffness
49%, 51% than
and 55%.
granite ballast. The overall stiffness of the track bed was reduced due to the replacement of
This was because the scrap tyres are a rubber material with less strength and stiffness than
a certain volume of ballast material during the reinforcement of the waste tyres. With the
granite ballast. The overall stiffness of the track bed was reduced due to the replacement
of a certain volume of ballast material during the reinforcement of the waste tyres. With
the increase in perimeter pressure, the ballast and tyre friction and squeezing were in-
creased, leading to an increase in the stiffness of the track bed and an increase in the track
bed deformation strength.
 was more effective at different locations, and the reinforcement strength ratio of T2 was
increased by 44%, 46% and 47% compared to the unreinforced track bed. As the number
of reinforced waste tyres increases, the reinforcement strength ratio of the waste tyres in-
creases significantly. The reinforcement strength of T5 increases by 49%, 51% and 55%.
Materials 2021, 14, 4162 This was because the scrap tyres are a rubber material with less strength and stiffness 14 of 16 than
granite ballast. The overall stiffness of the track bed was reduced due to the replacement
of a certain volume of ballast material during the reinforcement of the waste tyres. With
theincrease
increase in perimeter
in perimeter pressure,
pressure, the ballast
the ballast and tyreand tyreand
friction friction and were
squeezing squeezing were in-
increased,
creased,
leading to an increase in the stiffness of the track bed and an increase in the track bed track
leading to an increase in the stiffness of the track bed and an increase in the
bed deformation
deformation strength.
strength.

Figure
Figure 15.15. Wastetyre
Waste tyrereinforcement
reinforcement strength
strengthratio.
ratio.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this work, the stress–strain and shear strength characteristics of the reinforced
In thistrack
railway work,bedthe stress–strain
were investigated and shear strength
through large staticcharacteristics of thepaper
triaxial tests. This reinforced
takes rail-
way track and
geogrid bedwaste
weretyreinvestigated
reinforced through largebed
railway track static triaxial
as the tests.
research This
topic, andpaper takes ge-
discusses
the deformation
ogrid and waste tyre characteristics
reinforcedof railwaytrack
railway trackbed
bed as
under different confining
the research topic, andpressures,
discusses the
with different
deformation reinforced materials
characteristics andtrack
of railway reinforced positions.
bed under A reinforcement
different method to with
confining pressures,
reduce the settlement of the railway track bed is also provided. The
different reinforced materials and reinforced positions. A reinforcement method main research results
to reduce
are as follows:
the settlement of the railway track bed is also provided. The main research results are as
(1) When the geogrid was reinforced at different locations in the track bed, the peak
follows:
deviator stress in the track bed increased as the axial strain gradually increased.
The whole change process was in a strain-hardening state. BGT1 has a higher peak
deviator stress than the BGT2 and BGT3 reinforcement methods, and BGT1 has a
better reinforcement effect than BGT2 and BGT3.
(2) When waste tyres were reinforced in different positions of the roadbed, the effect of
waste tyre reinforcement was not obvious at lower axial cumulative strains. As the
axial cumulative strain increased, the roadbed remained strain-hardened for T1, T2,
T3 and T5 reinforcement forms. T2 reinforcement forms were significantly better than
T1 and T3.
(3) The internal friction angle and cohesion of the geogrid and waste tyre reinforced track
bed layers increased significantly. The shear strength of the BGT1 and T2 reinforced
track bed layer was significantly better than the reinforcement at other locations. The
best results in terms of shear strength were obtained when the reinforcement was in
the form of BGT5 and T5.
(4) The resistance to deformation of geogrid and waste tyre reinforced track beds is
related to energy absorption. The more energy absorption of geogrid and waste tyre
reinforced track beds, the greater their resistance to deformation. BGT1 requires
the most energy absorption for deformation than BGT2 and BGT3. More energy is
required for deformation of roadbeds under the bgt5 reinforcement method. The
energy absorption required for the deformation of the waste tyre under stress was
greatest when the waste tyre was reinforced by the T2 reinforcement method.
(5) In the railway bed layer, geogrids and waste tyres have a significant reinforcing effect
when placed, as reinforcing material, in the track bed layer.
Materials 2021, 14, 4162 15 of 16

Author Contributions: L.L. confirmed the series of simulation parameters and arranged and orga-
nized the entire simulation process. Y.F. conducted experiments, data collection and analysis. B.C.
checked and discussed the simulation results. N.C. made many useful comments and simulation
suggestions. M.T. made many useful comments and simulation suggestions. Y.L. supervised this
research and reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported financially by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 51778217), the Hubei Central Special Fund for Local Science and Technology Development
(No. 2019ZYYD053), the Science and Technology Planning Project of Wuhan (No.2020020601012278)
and the Innovative Group Project of Hubei Province (No.2020CFA046).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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