Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Hockey has been classified as a goal-striking invasion game (Hughes and

Bartlett, 2002) and it was originated in primitive form, thousands of years before the
first Olympic Matches in 776 B.C. After that, the match evolved through roman-
influenced Europe and developed derivatives in Germany (Kolbe), Holland (Het
Kolven), France (Hocquet) and Ireland (Hurling). The first hockey association was
formed in 1873 and international field hockey contests were played by men as early as
1895 (Anders and Myers, 1999; Reilly and Borrie, 1992). At present there are 64 ranked
women’s teams and 68 ranked men’s teams in the world and hockey is a formal sport in
both the Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games.

Field hockey is a high intensity non-continuous game in which the physiological

demands are considerable, placing it in the category of heavy exercise (Ghosh et al.,
1991; Reilly and Borrie, 1992; Aziz et al., 2000; Patel et al., 2002). Both aerobic and
anaerobic energy systems play significant role in the field hockey. The important
feature of the field hockey is unpredictable changes of phases such as sub-aerobic,
aerobic and anaerobic. The player has to play in these different phases and also at rest
during the match. It is well known that anaerobic component also plays important role
in the field hockey, but the hockey players must have strong aerobic and anaerobic
components and they should be trained optimally to cope with the demands of the game
(Malhotra, 1974; Aziz et al., 2000).

1.1 The Physical Demands of Field Hockey

The high-tech program of sports sciences has created an avenue of awareness to

identify the characteristics of performance of the player in recent years (Godfrey and
Whyte, 2006). The physical requirements of the sport such as hockey must be
recognized and analyzed.

1.1.1 Game format and Rule Alterations

The pitch on which senior level hockey is being played is measured as 91.40
metres by 55 metres. The total duration of the match is seventy minutes with two
halves, each lasts for thirty five minutes. There is an interval of 5-10 minutes at half
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time during the match. The object of the match is to hit the ball (approx 9 inches in
diameter) into the opponent’s goal using specially shaped sticks that are 36-42 inches in
length. A significant rule of hockey is that for a goal to be scored the ball must touch an
attacking player’s stick inside of the attacking circle (a 16yard semi-circle around the
goal). Additionally, penalty corners, which are a significant goal scoring set-piece
opportunity, are awarded for infringements by the defenders inside the circle. These two
factors make getting the ball into the circle a significant objective for the attacking
team. The positions of hockey can be divided into four categories: goalkeepers, strikers,
defenders and midfielders, and each have specific roles and activities.

Significant changes are seen in the game of hockey during the recent years. The
tactics and the speed of the game have changed a lot since the emergence of the
synthetic pitch in the 1970s (Spencer et al., 2004a; Elferink-Gemser et al., 2007). In the
beginning, the artificial turf pitches were sand based and it permitted the ball to move
with higher speed from one player to another than it could be on the grass. The artificial
pitches are more even and frictionless than the grass and it permits the steadier, uniform
and certain movements of the ball. Now a days, water based pitches has replaced the
sand based pitches. These surfaces add more pace to the game, as the ball moves with
greater speed. There are fewer chances of skin abrasions than the grass and a more
comfortable surface for the athletes to play upon. The water based pitches are more
preferred for national league competition and international play. The amendment of
rules has completely changed the game. The most important of these being is that the
offside rules are no longer applicable. The physical and physiological requirements of
the game have been changed due to modifications in the rules and introduction of the
artificial pitch (Reilly and Borrie, 1992; Lemmink et al., 2004; Spencer et al., 2004a),
they still have to do significant improvements in the research of this sport.

1.1.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic Endurance

Competitive hockey match play can be described as a non-continuous, high

intensity, intermittent activity that places heavy demands on the aerobic energy system
(Reilly and Borrie, 1992; Boyle et al., 1994; Elferink-Gemser et al., 2004). Spencer et
al. (2004a) described the motion analysis of field hockey during an international

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competition. They also studied the motion analysis of repeated sprint activity, as it is an
important predictor of hockey playing ability. Results showed that during the match
play, players spent most of their time in low-intensity motions such as walking and
jogging, whereas the proportion of high intensity activities (striding and sprinting) was
less. The time contributed towards low and high intensity activities during the game was
87.0 +/- 7.6% and 5.6 +/- 0.9% respectively. The mean values for repeated sprint
activity was 4+/- 1 sprint per bout. In this study, data was collected only from the
fourteen players of Australian men’s field hockey team. So, it is difficult to generalize
the findings of this study to the whole population of hockey players. However, the
results of this study suggested that aerobic energy system had greater contribution in
performance of the hockey players. That is why, hockey players should be trained
aerobically, as it is an important base for the sport.

Aziz et al. (2000) suggested that even if the hockey players spend greater
proportion of the time played in low intensity activities i.e. walking and jogging, they
should be trained enough to get a handle on the requirements of the higher intensity
modes of activity like striding and striking. The previous studies suggested that greater
aerobic endurance is an important physical fitness component for the performance of
the hockey players, but it also plays significant role in superior anaerobic performances
during continuous alternate activities as it fastens the recovery time. Lemmink et al.
(2004) stated that high intensity activity such as running is a significant factor for the
success of elite hockey players. The players can be differentiated as elite and non-elite
on the basis of their capacity to produce high intensity running efforts (Reilly and
Borrie, 1992). The significant factors for the successful performance of the hockey
players are ability to change direction and to run with greater intensity are also required
in football and rugby. Hockey players has to bend forward for most of the time during
the match for maximum ground work. This position is commonly used by field hockey
players when they have to attain the starting position, moving up to and striking the
ball, and defending the ball. The sustained forward flexed posture of the players is
responsible for the low back pain as this posture put heavy loads on the lumbar spine as
compare to normal daily activities (Reilly and Seaton, 1990; Elferink-Gemser, 2004).
The alternate running arrangements of the match include ascending and descending

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over small distances at greater pace (often in succession of each other), and to cover
larger area such as the whole length of the ground with sub-maximum speed. The on-
going changes in running and directions require high energy demands in field hockey
that can be very exerting for the body (Patel et al., 2002; Astorino et al., 2004).

1.1.3 Speed and Agility

During the match, the capacity to produce intermittent intense burst of speed is
also a significant predictor of physical fitness of the field sports (Baker and Nance,
1999; Spencer et al., 2004a; Spencer et al., 2005). Speed can be defined as the capacity
to move quickly, produce short duration sprints, or run continuously at greater speed
(Watson, 1995). If a player can meet the ball before the member of the competitor team,
then the team who has possession of the ball is able to make goals. The main objective
of the game is attacking the opposite team and scoring goals. Speed is an integral
component for the performance of elite players. Both outfielders and goalkeepers are
required to respond quickly during the match. The hockey players can only surpass their
opponent to reach the ball first, if they are able to produce rapid bursts of movement
during the game.

However, goalkeepers are not required to move around the whole ground, but
they must be able to react with speed to defend the goal. In order to support the attack
or defend the goal, the outfield players produce sustained rapid bursts of speed to cover
the full length of the pitch during the game. Field hockey also takes a multidirectional
nature, so in addition to speed, agility is also an integral component for the successful
performance of hockey players. Agility is defined as the ability to change the direction
of the body in an efficient and effective manner and requires the integration of isolated
movement skills using a combination of balance, coordination, speed, reflexes, strength,
and endurance (Lemmink et al., 2004).

Hockey players have to move forward, backward with or without the ball, and
change the direction to defend the ball from the opponent during the match like the
players of other field based sports do. It is important that the players must be able to
move effectively and efficiently in response to stimuli during the competitive play
(Sheppard and Young, 2006). Physiological and technical demands of the game must be

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taken into consideration before preparing the players for competition. Sport specific
training should be given to the players to improve the skill and fitness level of the
players (Gabbett et al., 2009).

1.1.4 Strength and Flexibility

The most important physical characteristics of the hockey players are strength
and flexibility. These two factors improve physical capacity of the players and also
prevent them from injuries (Bompa, 1999; Gabbett et al., 2008; Jeffreys, 2008).
Flexibility is the extent or range of movement that takes place in a joint or group of
joints and is often a neglected component of physical fitness by field hockey players,
who do not always appreciate the value of regular flexibility training.

It has been suggested that chronic stretching can lead to an increased flexibility,
improved muscle or athletic performance, improved running economy, injury
prevention, promotion of healing and possibly decreased delayed-onset muscle soreness
(Cailliet, 1988).

Flexibility is often found to be poor in professional players, especially in the

hamstring muscle group. Good hamstring and lower back flexibility is important for
hockey players to play the ball. Muscle imbalances also occur between the left and right
legs and can increase the risk of injury, especially back injuries. Elliot et al. (2000)
reported that players with poor hamstrings or lower back flexibility generally displayed
an intervertebral disc abnormality.

1.1.5 Back Strength

A strong and healthy back is essential in developing a more functional strength

and improving one’s physical capabilities (Biering, 1984). Throughout daily life and
physical activities, the back is performing many complex movements involving the
muscles in stomach, hip and low back. The spine is considered as a lever that carries the
load of whole body. The spine has to bear the number of external loads during the
lifting activities such as weight of the trunk and the forces generated by the attached
muscles and ligaments (Norris, 1995). The intervertebral discs, various muscles and
ligaments surrounding the spine accounted for the complexity of lumbar spine. The
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structures such as muscles and ligaments surrounding the spine play significant role in
maintaining stability and movement (Gatton and Pearcy, 1999). Muscular strength can
be defined as the capacity of a muscle or group of muscles to produce force. The
previous studies reported that the muscular strength increases with strength training.
Due to this, strength training is an important component for the physical fitness of the
players and it also helps in preventing musculoskeletal injuries (Heyward, 2004; Tulder,
2000).

Muscle strength is the most important health-related component of physical

fitness (Hoeger, 1996; Kraus and Hirschland, 1953; McDonangh and Davies, 1984;
Astrand and Rodahl, 1986). The strength of an individual muscle can be expected to
depend on body size, shape, or more correctly muscle mass (Schmidt and Toews, 1970),
altitude (Ruff and Strughold, 1942), position of exerting strength (Teraoka, 1979), diet
(Keys et al., 1950) and possible gender and age (Edwards et al., 1977; Mathiowetz,
1985). Based on experience, men should have stronger muscles than women (Field and
Roberts, 1999). Muscle strength is also considered as a major factor on sport
performance (Chen and Chen, 2008), martial arts competitions, self-defense (Chen,
2004; Chen, 2010, 2011), and other physical activities (Heyward, 2006).

The back muscles are keys in strengthening our movements and important in
preventing muscles imbalances which may result in injuries (Biering, 1983). Therefore,
building a strong back is crucial in establishing balance and ensuring longevity. The
back extensors play significant role in the movements such as bending forward and
lifting objects from the ground. These muscles produce two actions at the same time i.e.
extension of the spine and also balance the forward bending of the spine and weight
being lifted (Norris, 2008). The trunk muscles help in the movement and stabilizing the
spine (Cholewicki et al., 1997; Gardner-Morse and Stokes, 1998). McGill et al. (2003)
showed that the extensors (quadratus lumborum and latissimus dorsi) and the
abdominals (rectus abdominis, obliques, and transverse abdominis) provide stability to
the spine by contracting simultaneously. The findings of other studies suggested that
low back pain patients have poor back muscle strength as compared to healthy
individuals (Ikeda et al., 1994; Goto, 2001; Sakamoto et al., 1991; Ito et al., 2001). Ota

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(2011) and Murakami et al. (2011) reported that wasting of transverses abdominis
muscle occurred in the patients with low back pain.

Low back health is mainly based on the strength of the back muscles. Stronger
the back muscle, stronger is the spine. The strength training of these muscles improves
the fitness level and the performance of the athletes. The strength training for back
muscles is also helpful in rehabilitating the low back and preventing the low back
injuries (Callaghan et al., 1998; Gracovetsky, 2010; Graves, 1990; Tulder, 2000). The
people having weak back muscles are more susceptible to get low back pain (Graves et
al., 1994). If the strength of the lower back muscles decreases, the flexibility of the
spine also get declined due to low back pain or decrease in activity due to pain (Bybee
et al., 2007; Kofotolis and Kellis, 2006; Rainville et al., 2004).

Chok et al. (1999) reported that low endurance of the back muscles may create
excessive tension on the passive structures of the lumbar spine, which leads to low back
pain. The studies suggested that the people suffering from low back pain have poor
muscle endurance than the healthy individuals without low back pain. The low back
pain patients get tired easily due to poor endurance in the back muscles. Fatigue of the
trunk muscles also affect their capacity to cope with the heavy loads on the spine. The
repeated loading of spine with fatigued trunk muscles may predispose the individual to
develop low back pain.

The particular requisite of field hockey including dribbling the ball and moving
quickly in a forward flexed posture increases the work load on the spine as well as on
the back of the players. In field hockey, the players are to crouch to the ground for
expanded movements and to cover larger distances during the match. The crouched
posture creates utmost tension over the back and abdominal muscles over the
continuation of the game (Sodhi, 1991). The role of trunk stabilizers is to retain the
musculature, to control, coordinate and optimize functions especially that of the spine
when the field hockey player is hitting the ball, tackling or dribbling (Reilly and Seaton,
1990; Elferink-Gemser, 2004). Trunk fatigue, which occurs during intense training or
matches, produces a loss in synchrony between upper and lower extremities, which may
cause a reduction in muscle strength. This may in turn prevent a proper transfer of force
resulting in inappropriate compensation by the body while performing a particular

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function, for example, incorrect posture while pushing the ball on the run (Cholewicki
and McGills, 1992).

Low back pain is common in field hockey players and athletic movements such
as twisting, lunging, running in a bent over position and physical contact all create
strenuous forces on the back, which are required during a match or practice sessions,
which predispose to low back pain. In a study on Descriptive Epidemiology of
Collegiate Women's Field Hockey Injuries, over a 15-year period, Dick et al. (2007)
concluded that trunk/back was the second most commonly injured area that mainly
occurred during practices. Execution of most field hockey ball handling skills requires a
combination of spinal flexion and rotation, these two movements known to increase the
work load of back extensor muscles (Fenety and Kumar, 1992).

A strong trunk is critical, because force is transmitted most efficiently through

the body in a straight line. When the trunk is poorly developed, the result is poor
posture, which can lead to less efficient movements. Such athletes will not be able to
maximize their power potentials, often wasting energy through jerky uncoordinated and
extraneous movements. Because they lack core strength to maintain proper body
alignment, they are prime candidates for injury. Developing the trunk will greatly
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of physical performance. Athletic motions
such as turning around, jumping, running and physical contact put heavy loads on the
spine. The flexibility of the spine can be reduced due to weak back muscles, that is why
strength training of the back muscles is utmost important. Poor strength of the muscles
may lead to decline in the performance of the players due to pain in the back (Hedrick,
2000). One major component of injury prevention for low back and lower extremity is
the identification of potential risk includes muscular imbalances and dysfunction
(Biering-Sorensen, 1984; Nadler et al., 1998, 2000; Udermann et al., 2003).

1.2 The Back

The spine is comprised of 31 bones, called vertebrae. The spinal column is formed
by the surrounding ligaments and the muscles which connect these bones. The spinal
column gives the body form and function. It is divided into main three parts-the cervical
spine, the thoracic spine, and the lumbar spine. The first seven vertebrae form

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the cervical spine. The next 12 vertebrae constitute thoracic spine. The lower portion of
the spine, called the lumbar spine, is usually made up of five vertebrae (Singh, 1999;
Singh and Singh, 2013).

The normal spine has an S-shaped curve. This curve helps in the uniform
distribution of weight and also copes with all the loads carried by the spine. The
cervical spine bent slightly forward, the thoracic slightly outgoing and the lumbar again
bent slightly inside (Poddar and Bhagat, 2011).

Functions of the Spine

Main functions of the spine are (Basmajian, 1974):

The spine gives stability, toughness and base to the human body.

The complex structure of the spine and its surrounding muscles, tendons,
ligaments etc, allow the individual to bend forward, backward, sideways and
turn around.

The spinal column protects the spinal nerves and the spinal cord from any shock
and injury. The structure and location of the vertebrae and certain ligaments
form a shield of protection around the spinal cord.

The spine is also considered a shock absorber as the intervertebral discs prevent
the bumping of vertebrae from one another.

Vertebral Bone Mechanical Properties

Vertebrae are primarily composed of cancellous bone, an anisotropic

viscoelastic material. Fortunately, for non-injurious values of strain and over a wide
range of strain rates, cancellous bone behaves elastically. In general, the elastic moduli
and strength of cancellous bone is dependent on its density to the second power. For
normal adults, the absolute failure load increases from the cervical down to the lumbar
spine, mostly due to the increasing sizes of the vertebrae (White and Panjabi, 1978).

Spinal Region C3-C7 T1-T6 T7-T8 T9-T12 L1-L5

Compressive Strength (N) 1,600 2,000 2,300 3,600 5,600

Compression strength of vertebral bodies increases down the spine.

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1.2.1 Spinal Muscles

The spine with its ligaments intact but devoid of muscles is an extremely
unstable structure. Therefore, the muscles and the complex neuromuscular controls are
required for:

To provide stability to the trunk in the given posture.

To produce movements during physiological activity.

These muscles may also play a role in protecting the spine during trauma.
Muscles that directly control the movements of the vertebral column may be
categorized according to their position as postvertebral and prevertebral (Gray and
Carter, 2008).

The postvertebral muscles are further subdivided into three groups:

Deep muscles

These consist of short muscles that connect the adjacent spinous processes
(musculli interspinalis), adjacent transverse processes (musculli intertransverses),
transverse process to the laminae above (musculli rotators); and in the thoracic region,
transverse processes to the ribs (musculli levators costarum).

Intermediate muscles

They are more diffuse but certain components can be identified. These muscles
arise from the transverse process of each vertebrae and attach to the spinous process of
the vertebra above. According to the regions, they are multifidus (lumbo sacral),
semispinalis (thoracic), semispinalis cervicis (lower cervical) and semispinalis capitis
(upper cervical).

Superficial muscles

These are collectively called the erector spinae, and are ilio costalis, longissimus
and spinalis.

Prevertebral muscles

These are four abdominal muscles. Three of which encircle the abdominal
region. These are external obliqus abdominis, internal obliqus abdominis and transverse

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abdominis. The fourth muscle is rectus abdominis, which are located anteriorly at
midline.

1.3 Anthropometry

Anthropometry is an important aspect of sports medicine. It is the science which

deals with measurement of the size, weight and proportions of the human body. It is
widely used in health assessment and is applicable in both clinical and field settings
because instruments are portable, inexpensive, and procedures are relatively simple,
non-invasive and not time consuming. One of the objectives for the use of
anthropometric measures as described in the World Health Organization technical
report (WHO, 1995) is to identify individuals and populations at health risk. Numerous
studies have addressed associations between anthropometry and health problems related
to obesity, including cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome (Hotchkiss and
Leyland, 2011; Li and McDermott, 2010; Misra and Khurana, 2011).

Anthropometric dimensions and morphological characteristics play an important

role in determining the success of a sportsperson (Wilmore and Costill, 1999). The
previous studies reported that specific anthropometric characteristics are required for
particular sport and these characteristics make the player to play at toughest level
(Bourgois et al., 2000; Reilly et al., 2000; Gabbett, 2005; Ackland et al., 2003; Slater et
al., 2005). These anthropometric parameters are the sensitive indicators of physical
growth and nutritional status of the sportspersons for their maximal performances
(Wilmore and Costill, 1999).

Mokha and Sidhu (1987) studied the role of lean tissue and subcutaneous tissue
in hockey and reported that lean tissue played an important role in forwards and halves
because the more muscular upper extremity helped the players to hit the ball more
forcefully and a more muscular calf enabled a player to run fast. Singal et al. (1988)
studied the physique and body composition of Indian female hockey players and
reported that the forwards possessed significantly less body fat and more lean body
mass than the halves, backs and goalkeepers, whereas the halves did not differ
significantly from backs and goalkeepers. In hockey, there might be a mechanical

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 Introduction

advantage of the short stature and the long upper extremities among the forwards and
the halves, who being attackers, especially the formers, had to do maximum ground
work, including dribbling, and therefore, needed closeness to the ground. The
proportionally longer trunks of the halves also seemed to contribute to the object (Sodhi
et al., 1974).

Physique and body composition have an important role for playing field hockey
(Montgomery et al., 2006; Quinney et al., 2008; Tarter et al., 2009). Body composition
is measured due to the belief that excess body fat is associated with negative
performance. This is partly based on Newton’s second law, which specifies that
increases in fat mass without an increase in muscle force will reduce acceleration. In
addition to this, the displacement of additional fat mass requires extra energy, which
causes an increase in the relative cost of exercise (Duthie et al., 2006). Therefore,
excessive body fat can negatively affect speed, acceleration and economy of movement.

It is notable that back line hockey players require power and may therefore tend
to have heavier weight in comparison to midfield players who are required to perform
frequent repeated sprint efforts (Reilly et al., 1990). Similarly, differences in
anthropometric and physiological parameters have been reported for field hockey
players of varying standards (Bale and McNaught et al., 1983; Ready and van-Der
Merwe, 1986).

Considering all these, in the present study, an attempt has been made to evaluate
the association of back strength and selected anthropometric characteristics with
performance tests to avoid sports injuries and enhance the performance in the inter-
university hockey players.

1.4 Aims and Objectives

 To estimate the back strength of inter-university hockey players of Punjab.

 To investigate anthropometric characteristics and performance tests of the

hockey players of Punjab.

 To search any relationship of back strength with selected anthropometric

characteristics and performance tests in the hockey players of Punjab.

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 Introduction

 To identify positional and gender specific differences on the basis of back

strength, anthropometric characteristics and performance tests in hockey players
of Punjab.

1.5 Hypothesis

There would be considerable differences in back strength, anthropometric

characteristics and performance tests in inter-university hockey players of Punjab and
controls. Significant correlation would be found between the back strength and
anthropometric characteristics as well as performance tests in hockey players. There
would be significant differences in back strength, anthropometric characteristics and
performance tests according to the playing positions.

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