Digital Storytelling

in Second and Foreign

Language Teaching
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PETER LANG
New York  Bern  Berlin
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 Digital Storytelling
in Second and Foreign
Language Teaching

Edited by
Fatemeh Nami

PETER LANG
New York  Bern  Berlin
Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Nami, Fatemeh, editor. | Peter Lang Publishing.
Title: Digital storytelling in second and foreign language teaching /
edited by Fatemeh Nami.
Description: First Edition. | New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., 2020.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019032351 | ISBN 978-1-4331-6839-0 (hardback: alk. paper)
ISBN 978-1-4331-6836-9 (ebook pdf)
ISBN 978-1-4331-6837-6 (epub) | ISBN 978-1-4331-6838-3 (mobi)
Subjects: LCSH: Audio-lingual method (Language teaching) | English
language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. | Digital storytelling.
Classification: LCC P53.2 .D54 | DDC 418.0785—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019032351
DOI 10.3726/b15897

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 Table of Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
List of Abbreviations xvii
Introduction xix
Fatemeh Nami

Part I: Digital Storytelling for S/F Language Learning:

The Theoretical Underpinnings 1
1. Digital Storytelling in Education and Second Language
Acquisition: Towards a Theoretical Framework 3
Annalisa Raffone
2. An Analysis of the Concept of Interaction in Foreign/Second Language
Digital Storytelling Based on Theories of Interaction 27
Farzaneh Dehghan

Part II: Digital Storytelling Tools and Implementation Strategies

for Language Classrooms 41
3. Teaching English Language Skills through Digital Storytelling 43
Kelly Torres and Aubrey Statti
4. Selecting 21st-Century Digital Storytelling Tools for Language
Learning/Teaching: A Practical Checklist 65
Fatemeh Nami
viii Table of Contents

Part III: Digital Storytelling in S/F Language Classrooms 79

5. Trimming the Digital Storytelling Instructions by Flipping the
Classroom: A Response to Pedagogical Challenges in Implementing Digital
Storytelling for Language Learning 81
Rida Afrilyasanti and Yazid Basthomi
6. Digitizing the Hakawati: Digital Storytelling in Arabic Classrooms
in the United States 105
Gaby Semaan and Dany Doueiri
7. United by Generations through Digital Storytelling: Elder’s Life
Stories in Intergenerational EFL Teaching 131
María Alcantud-Díaz and Alba Pérez-García
8. Developing 21st-Century Competences in Telecollaborative Projects
through Digital Storytelling 155
Ana Sevilla-Pavón and Constanza Rojas-Primus
9. Empowering Beginning Language Learners’ Voices through Digital
Storytelling: An Exploratory Study 179
Lina Lee
10. Promoting Cultural Awareness through Digital Storytelling in Higher
Education 197
Serpil Meri Yilan

Part IV: Digital Storytelling: State of the Art 221

11. Digital Storytelling as a Method to Enhance Foreign Language
Knowledge and Skills in Language Learning Environments 223
Chammika Mallawaarachchi
12. A Critical Review of Assessment Methods Used in Digital Storytelling
in Foreign Language Classes 239
Mohammad Javadi and Farzaneh Dehghan
13. The Stories behind the Second Language Teachers’ Use of Digital
Storytelling 255
Fatemeh Asadnia
List of Contributors 275
Index 279
8 Developing 21st-Century Competences
in Telecollaborative Projects through
Digital Storytelling
Ana Sevilla-Pavón1 and Constanza Rojas-Primus2

Introduction
Interaction between people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds
has never been greater. Advances in technology and the accelerated pace of
social, cultural, and economic globalization have increased physical and vir-
tual human mobility worldwide. As a result, higher education is rapidly shap-
ing the culture of universities today by adapting their educational programs
to provide graduates with 21st-century education (García-Perez & Rojas-
Primus, 2017). As endorsed by United Nation Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO; Nam, 2015), higher education in the 21st
century should focus on sustainable development and global citizenship to
ensure students acquire the knowledge and skills needed to effectively engage
in our global communities.
In alignment with this 21st-century educational framework, this chapter
aims to explore and compare the development of the following 21st-century
competences: language competences, intercultural competences, digital com-
petences, teamwork abilities, and social awareness in students through par-
ticipating in a telecollaborative digital storytelling project carried out in the
Fall of 2017 on students of Intermediate Spanish from Kwantlen Polytechnic
University (KPU, Canada) and students of Upper-Intermediate English for
Business from Universitat de València (UV, Spain). Furthermore, this study
looks into students’ levels of foreign language anxiety that may arise due to
participating in this project.
With this aim, two exchange configurations were followed for the cre-
ation of digital stories within the telecollaborative exchanges: a first language
(L1) or tandem exchange model was followed by those groups which were
156 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

made up of Canadian and Spanish students, whereas a foreign language (L2)

or lingua franca model was followed by the groups of international students
who were participating in a mobility exchange at UV, and thus were placed in
plurinational groups.3 Although the main languages exchanged in the project
were Spanish and English—given that students were enrolled in Spanish and
English courses—participants came from a wide variety of linguistic and cul-
tural backgrounds and over 10 different nationalities. Thus, different exchange
constellations or language group configurations emerged:  L1-English,
L1-Spanish, L2-English B2 level, L2-Spanish B1/B2 levels combined, and
hybrid models of L1 and L2 either as a foreign language or as a lingua franca.
For this project, telecollaboration (TC) and digital storytelling (DST)
were combined. These two approaches have the following characteristics in
common.

• Both approaches are learner-centered and require students to be

actively involved in and responsible for their own learning process.
• Both are capable of creating synergies for the improvement of the
understanding of foreign languages and cultures (as well as one’s own
culture or cultures).
• They are both practicable because of the advent and development of
Web 2.0 technologies.
• Both foster the use of technology and learning by discovery in real-use
contexts.
• Both take learning beyond classroom walls through direct contact with
student’s learning contexts.

Hence, for this project, TC and DST were deemed suitable approaches
from the provision of opportunities they provide for students to create arte-
facts themselves and for the facilitation of contextualized, in-depth cultural
awareness (Sevilla-Pavón, 2018; Sevilla-Pavón & Gimeno-Sanz, 2018). In
addition, this project aims to contribute to the literature of TC and DST on
two fronts: combining, for the first time, these two approaches in relation to
the development of 21st-century competences while also exploring and com-
paring the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 DST TC projects.

Background
Telecollaboration or Virtual Exchange
TC or virtual exchange (VE) is considered a productive strategy for develop-
ing the language skills and intercultural communicative competence (Guth
Developing 21st-Century Competences 157

& Helm, 2010). This teaching and learning approach connects geograph-
ically dispersed students through the use of internet-based Web 2.0 tools,
thus enabling them to explore their respective cultures while developing their
linguistic and digital competences. In other words, TC as a teaching meth-
odology and communication mode makes it possible for two or more distant
classes of participants to connect and collaborate to complete different tasks.
Participants work on these collaborative tasks in a virtual environment where
mutual understanding, reciprocity, and experiential, learner-centered learning
are fostered. This way, it is possible for them to acquire in-depth, first-hand
knowledge about others as well as their own culture and worldviews while
becoming familiar with new forms of collaboration and communication.
Over the past few years, different TC projects have been carried out world-
wide among students from a wide variety of schools and universities. Some of
these include: CULTURA (Furstenberg & Levet, 2014), TeCOLA (Jauregi
& Melchor-Couto, 2017), INTENT (O’Dowd, 2013), UNI-collaboration
(O’Dowd, 2015), and TILA (Hoffstaedter & Kohn, 2016), among others.
One of the foundations of TC is the development of cultural awareness and
intercultural competence, as pointed out by numerous scholars (e.g., Lee,
2018; O’Dowd, 2018; Schenker, 2012). Many of the benefits of TC have
been discussed in previous research, and they can be connected to the devel-
opment of 21st-century competences (Partnership for 21st Century Skills,
2009). Among those, intercultural competence is very salient. The term inter-
cultural competence refers to a person’s ability to interact and communicate
with people from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds, accepting a wide
diversity of perspectives and worldviews, and being able to mediate between
different perspectives while being conscious of how difference is evaluated by
each individual (Byram, Nichols, & Stevens, 2001). In today’s globalized and
interconnected world, developing intercultural communication competence
is one of the main goals of the language learning processes and L2 instruction.

Digital Storytelling
DST is the practice of combining different audiovisual and textual resources
in a guided step-by-step process aimed to create a short, first-person narra-
tive video clip which is reflecting the interests, needs, and skills of today’s
digital native students (Castañeda, 2013). DST is seen by many authors and
practitioners as a powerful teaching and learning tool that increases the effec-
tiveness of technology in the 21st-century classroom (Robin, 2008; Robin,
& McNeil, 2012). With respect to research on DST for language learning
(e.g., Darvin & Norton, 2014, 2016; Gregori-Signes, 2008; Sadik, 2008;
Sylvester & Greenidge, 2009; Yang & Wu, 2012), the findings indicate that
158 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

DST helps students develop linguistic skills through a complex process of

21st-century literacies such as brainstorming, planning, creating, writing,
revising, editing, and publishing. Consequently, the combination of these
skills results in a unique, in-depth narrative that makes L2 acquisition mean-
ingful. Furthermore, these studies suggest that DST is a good teaching prac-
tice for international collaboration.

Telecollaboration and Digital Storytelling: A Synergy

The benefits of TC and DST have been extensively explored in literature on
second language acquisition (L2) and computer-assisted language learning
(CALL). However, very few studies have combined TC and DST and looked
into the differences and/or similarities between the use of mother tongue/
culture (L1) and the use of foreign language/culture (L2) in telecollaborative
DST projects. In this chapter, we aim to look into these differences in relation
to the development of 21st-century competences.
Previous studies on TC or DST have often focused either on virtual language
exchange between nonnative speakers (NNSs) or between native speakers (NSs).
In a recent publication, Helm (2018) provided a lengthy and timely description
of two TC exchange configurations: the bilingual, bicultural exchange and the
lingua franca, facilitated dialogue. The third type of configuration, the hybrid
linguistic and cultural exchange, can be said to involve the interaction among
participants who do not fit neither in the first nor in the second categories; for
instance, because they are NNSs participating in an exchange where two L1s
are being exchanged among NS and NNS. This is often the case when a foreign
exchange student in Spain engages in a TC exchange with Canadian students,
and when an international student in Canada who is completing his/her degree
there participates in such an exchange with Spanish students. This might also
happen when a Canadian student participates in such an exchange with Spanish
students but English is not his/her L1.
The differences between both kinds of configurations and, namely, the
particularities of the hybrid exchange remain widely unexplored, with few
exceptions. Among those, Ke’s (2016) study set out to examine the influence
of a multilingual TC in participants’ identities. This author found higher lev-
els of anxiety in the NS configuration compared to the NNS one. In another
study also exploring such configurations, Sevilla-Pavón (2018) found that
participants in a Cypriot-Spanish TC exchange perceived L1 exchanges as
being more beneficial than L2 exchanges for some of the competences stud-
ied, while L2 exchanges were perceived as more beneficial for the develop-
ment of intercultural competence. However, no significant differences were
observed regarding the digital literacy. In a combined TC DST research,
Developing 21st-Century Competences 159

Priego and Liaw (2017) also attempted to minimize the differences between
both types of language configurations. They studied L1 and L2/L3 dialogu-
ing among participants in a TC multilingual DST project. They focused their
analysis on discourse and found that multilingual discourses affected the way
in which students collaborated during the creation of their multilingual dig-
ital story. Overall, TC and DST projects combined are under-explored and
underrepresented in the literature. To minimize this gap, this study focuses on
combining these two approaches in relation to the development of 21st-cen-
tury competences, while exploring and comparing similarities and differences
between L1 and L2 DST TC projects.

Chapter Focus
The KPU-UV Digital Storytelling Project: Settings, Goals, Tools,
and Tasks
Setting. During the Fall semester of 2017, a TC DST project was carried
out between an Intermediate Spanish Language class from KPU and an
Upper-Intermediate English Business Communication class from UV. Its pur-
pose was to analyze the differences and/or similarities between L1, L2, and
hybrid TC DST projects and between L2 as lingua franca TC DST projects
in relation to foreign language anxiety along with the development of the
following 21st-century competences:  language competences, intercultural
competences, digital competences, teamwork abilities, and social awareness.
Many different TC tasks were completed by project participants, the main
one being the creation of a digital story dealing with different social issues
from the participants’ respective local contexts.
The main exchange configuration was L1 but L2 exchanges also took place
within the project. For this reason, hybrid configurations were also explored.
The 34 participants from UV and KPU were of different nationals: Canadian,
Chinese, Italian, and Korean (KPU); and Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Russian,
French, Albanian, and Swedish (UV). The main task involved creating a dig-
ital story about an initiative, product, app, or service which could be used to
face a social challenge. A total of 12 digital stories were produced, dealing
with different topics such as gender equality, animal rights, environment pro-
tection, immigrants’ rights, and isolation and loneliness.
Goals. The KPU-UV TC DST project aimed at the following goals:

1. to explore the relationship between TC DST and the development of

the following 21st-century competences:
• foreign language skills in relation to the development of Spanish and
English abilities;
160 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

• intercultural skills in relation to the development of understanding

of cultural differences and appreciation of culturally diverse teams;
• digital skills in relation to the development of digital literacy (finding,
evaluating, using, sharing, and creating content using technology);
• teamwork skills in relation to the development of collaboration and
leadership (giving and receiving feedback, and acknowledging oth-
ers’ skills, experiences, creativity, and contributions);
• social awareness and engagement in relation to the development
of social entrepreneurial leadership (identifying social problems or
challenges, contributing solutions) and the inclusion of Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) in the participants’ digital stories; and
2. to explore and compare the differences and/or similarities between L1
and L2 TC DST and between L2 as a lingua franca TC DST in relation
to the development of the above 21st-century competences as well as
the level of foreign language anxiety.

Tools. The TC platform used for the creation and sharing of the digital stories
was Google+:4 a general community was created (see Figure 8.1) where all
KPU-UV students could communicate.
Some separate communities named Groups were also formed to distin-
guish them from the general community (see Figure  8.2). These included
five different KPU-UV working groups composed of speakers of either L1

Figure 8.1.  A screenshot of the general KPU-UV Google+ community

Developing 21st-Century Competences 161

Figure 8.2.  A screenshot of one of the groups on Google+

Spanish, L1 English, and L2 Spanish or L2 English where the language of

interaction was either L2 Spanish as lingua franca or L2 English as lingua
franca. Additionally, UV had five plurinational working groups in which L2
or lingua franca interactions took place.
Tasks. The following main tasks were completed throughout the project:

1. periodic tasks which were completed by participants in the General

KPU-UV G+ community to maintain communication and engagement;
2. three virtual synchronous conversations which were conducted in
English and Spanish, by participants within their respective TC groups,
were followed by an individual reflective essay, the last one being a
comparative reflective essay;
3. one main task, completed by participants in their respective TC groups,
which revolved around creating a digital story to present an innova-
tive social or entrepreneurial idea in connection with the following
scenario.
You’ve created a promising start-up and you want to use your skills and experience
to become a social entrepreneur and make a positive change in the world! In order to
achieve your goal, you need to combine and apply your knowledge of business man-
agement principles and your drive to offer to your community. You have decided
to explore the needs in your region in order to identify a pressing problem that you
would like to address. You need to contact an organization/businessperson/social
162 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

entrepreneur and conduct an interview so as to gain an understanding of social

entrepreneurship/what it means to be a social entrepreneur and to run a business/
how you can contribute towards solving a problem or challenge they are facing. You
understand that this requires a lot of hard work, passion, inspiration and creativity,
so you decide to join forces with your young and enthusiastic colleagues in order to
come up with a feasible business idea to help the community. Your idea will be pre-
sented in the form of a digital story. (Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017)

Both the KPU-UV and plurinational UV working groups completed the

different steps of DST project within the theme of a social entrepreneurial
initiative they had to develop in order to contribute to a nonprofit mentor
organization they worked with in the process (Figure 8.3).

Research Method
A combined TC DST method was applied as a pedagogical strategy in this
study. Given that TC and/or DST projects have proven to offer many bene-
fits for language classrooms, this project focused on these methods together
as they both facilitate the development of 21st-century competences, namely
language competence, intercultural competence, digital competence, team-
work abilities, and social awareness. A  mixed-methods analysis (combining

Figure 8.3.  Examples of KPU-UV students’ final projects

Developing 21st-Century Competences 163

both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analyses) was used to
investigate the differences and/or similarities among L1, L2, and hybrid
models of language interaction within the TC DST projects and in relation to
both the development of the above 21st-century competences and levels of
foreign language anxiety.

Participants
From September to December 2017, 34 students took part in the project
and interacted over a period of 15 weeks. Out of the 34 participants, 19
participated in the study as follows: five students from KPU, three of whom
were NNSs of English while two were English NSs; and 14 students from
UV, three of whom were Spanish NSs and 11 were NNSs of Spanish. This
came as a surprise, as this was the first year so many foreign exchange students
had enrolled in the Business Communication course. This together with the
difference in the number of participants in each class led to a reconsideration
of the configuration. Therefore, apart from having an L1 or mother tongue
(monolingual) configuration, L2 or lingua franca configurations were added,
with two subcategories: immersion and non-immersion, as well as very varied
levels of proficiency in the languages used for communication.
Participants were more homogeneous with respect to the English lan-
guage proficiency. Their Spanish proficiency level, however, ranged from
A2 to B2 according to the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). This was due to the fact that Canada
has not yet adopted a Common Framework of Reference for Languages and,
at the time of the project, KPU offered a combined course of Spanish B1 and
B2 levels, respectively. Therefore, a hybrid TC model was explored, as some
students interacted in more than one nonnative language, contrary to what
was initially predicted.

Data Collection
Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected by means of different
research instruments. These included: 

1. two questionnaires, i.e., a pretreatment questionnaire which was com-

pleted by participants at the beginning of the term and a posttreat-
ment one which was administered at the end of the course;
2. three reflective/comparative essays; and
3. a digital story.
164 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

In addition, both UV and KPU students participated in focus group discus-

sions at the end of the term. The analysis of these sessions shed additional
light on the data and how it was interpreted.
The questionnaires were divided into four sections which inquired about
participants’ Demographics (Section A), Experience in Language Learning with
Technology (Section B), Cultural Awareness (Section C), and Opportunities
for Learning a Language in Culturally Diverse Settings (Section D). Each
of these sections included a number of subsections with both open-ended
and closed questions. In Section A, students were asked to provide informa-
tion about their nationality, the university where they were completing their
degree, age, gender, date of birth, level of English/Spanish proficiency, and
current degree. Section B focused on students’ level of experience in and fre-
quency of use of different social networks and software, as well as their initial
perceptions about the different aspects of the project which had to do with
using information and communications technologies (ICTs) and, specifically,
DST in their foreign language class. Section C inquired about participants’
perceptions of different cultures, what each culture has offered to the world,
whether it was hard for them to feel close to people from other ethnicities,
and whether they intentionally tried to involve people from other ethnicities
in their lives. The final section, Section D, invited students to freely describe
their opportunities to learn their respective L2s in a multicultural, diverse
setting, along with their initial views on intercultural communication and
learning.
The three reflective and comparative essays written by participants enabled
us to gather their reflections, thoughts, and impressions about the project and
how they affected students’ learning process and development of different
competences. The first essay was written at the beginning of the project; the
second one was written halfway through the course; and the last one was
for end of the project. Of these, the first and second essays were similar and
followed a more conventional approach to essay writing, thus collecting indi-
vidual views which were written as homework. The suggested questions for
the first two reflective essays included:
What happened? Who was involved? What did you observe? Did something surprise
you or feel unexpected? What was your perspective as the event was happening (What
‘lens’ were you ‘viewing’ from?) Was there something you particularly liked/dis-
liked? Why? Were there any particular challenges or difficulties? Did you learn any-
thing from it? Where can you go from here? Did you learn a new skill or clarify an
interest? How can you keep and apply this learning in the future? What more would
you like to learn related to this type of exchange or project? How can you learn more?
What information/advice would you like to share with your peers? If you could do
the exchange again, what would you do differently?
Developing 21st-Century Competences 165

The third essay followed a more innovative approach towards essay writ-
ing. It was a comparative reflection; and thus, it was expected to convey both
the authors’ views and their TC partner’s perceptions. This was accomplished
by having students interview each other about the project and take notes
during their last synchronous conversation. They used their notes about their
peer’s impressions as well as their own views to write their comparative reflec-
tion. This required an intercultural and empathy exercise on the part of stu-
dents in which they were required to put themselves in somebody else’s place
and explore the similarities and differences in their respective views, reflecting
on the reasons why such differences were found (e.g., different interpreta-
tions of specific critical incidents). Before being assigned to the task of writing
their comparative essay, students were given the following instructions:
Use the notes that you took during your last synchronous exchange and write a com-
parative reflective essay showing your views about the telecollaboration project as well
as your foreign partner(s)’ views (around 300 words). Include the information you
gathered from your interview with your telecollaboration partner(s), as well as your
overall opinion about this project. Don’t forget to mention anything that you would
change/add (e.g. tasks, digital tools, time spent, duration, etc.). Finally, think of a
place you would recommend your foreign partner(s) to visit in your country/region/
city and write a short paragraph about it so that it can be used by the digital story
video director in the farewell clip to be recorded collectively in order to say goodbye to
our foreign partners.

The suggested questions for guiding peer interviews and the comparative
reflection are as follows:
What are your feelings about the telecollaboration project? Have your expecta-
tions from the project been satisfied? What is your overall opinion about the proj-
ect? Did you expect this project to be different? Are there any special moments you
recall during the project? What challenges did you face during the telecollaboration
project? Are there any specific critical moments that you remember? Were there any
issues? What do you think caused them? If you interviewed an organisation, how did
you feel about it? What did you learn from the organization and from each local
and foreign team member? What language skills have you developed? What digital
skills have you developed? Which technology tools have you used and how? What are
your views about different cultures or ethnicities? Have they changed or evolved?
What have you enjoyed most about the telecollaboration project? What did you like
the least about the project?

Finally, the digital stories produced by students were analyzed with regard
to UNESCO’s SDGs. The SDGs include: no poverty, no hunger, good health
and education, gender equality, clean water and sanitation, clean energy,
good jobs and economic growth, innovation and infrastructure, reduced
inequalities, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption,
166 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

environment projection and animal rights, peace and justice and international
commitment, and cooperation towards achieving these goals (Nam, 2015).
According to Nam (2015), higher education in the 21st century should focus
on sustainable development and global citizenship so this framework enabled
us to determine which of those goals had been targeted in the students’ digi-
tal stories and thus contributed towards students’ increased social awareness.

Findings
Quantitative Data
Quantitative data from the pre- and posttreatment questionnaires were ana-
lyzed through a paired sample t-Test analysis using SPSS5 software. The anal-
ysis of the quantitative data obtained shed light on the general perceived
development of 21st-century competences including the intercultural, dig-
ital, linguistic, and teamwork ones along with participants’ levels of foreign
language anxiety. Figure 8.4 presents the average scores (on a 7-point Likert
scale) for each of these categories.
The result of the whole-group paired t-test indicated no significant differ-
ence between the pre- and postintervention questionnaire responses of the 19
participants concerning all the variables studied including level of foreign lan-
guage anxiety (Anx) and perceived development of competences, i.e., digital
literacy (Dig), teamwork (Team), linguistic competence (Ling), and intercul-
tural competence (Int). In all cases, the scores were above 4.5. However, there

Average scores - Digital Storytelling

telecollaboration project

Team work

Intercultural

Linguistic
Average scores

Digital

Anxiety

4,6 4,8 5 5,2 5,4 5,6

Figure 8.4.  Participants’ general perceptions of the development of (teamwork, intercul-

tural, linguistic, and digital) competences and levels of anxiety
Developing 21st-Century Competences 167

was a slight increase in posttreatment responses related to the intercultural

competence. In fact, this variable was the most highly valued competence,
with a mean score of 5.5. It is suggested that while students generally found
this mode of learning beneficial for developing their competences, they were
more positive about its contribution to the development of their intercultural
competence.
The respondents who completed both the pre- and the posttreatment
questionnaire were further divided to four groups. Subgroup 1 comprised
native speakers of either of the languages being exchanged—Canadian stu-
dents’ L1 (English) and Spanish students’ L1 (Spanish). In this subgroup,
the only significant difference observed between the pre- and posttreatment
questionnaire responses belonged to foreign language anxiety variable as dis-
played in Table 8.1.
It indicates that—contrary to the results of the whole group analysis—
native students’ level of anxiety throughout the project was higher than what
was anticipated. In addition, a slight increase was observed in the digital liter-
acy variable of this subgroup. The mean scores were above 4.5 for all variables.
The second subgroup (Subgroup 2) included nonnative speakers of the
two languages being exchanged and learned, i.e., English and Spanish. In
other words, these participants had neither English nor Spanish as a native
language but either as an additional, immersion language (in the case of the
non-Canadian students based in Canada) or as a foreign language (in the case
of non-Spanish students completing their year-abroad exchange in Spain).
Exploring their perception of competence development before and after
treatment, no significant difference was observed in their responses across
different variables (Table 8.2).
These results are consistent with that of the whole group analysis since
in the nonnative speakers’ subgroup no significant difference was observed

Table 8.1.  Paired sample correlationsa for Subgroup 1’s perceptions of the develop-
ment of competences (teamwork, intercultural, linguistic, and digital) and level of
anxiety

Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 Anx and AnxP -1.000 .000
Pair 2 Dig and DigP -0.803 .407
Pair 3 Team and TeamP 0.961 .179
Pair 4 Ling and LingP 0.996 .058
Pair 5 Int and IntP -0.088 .944
a. Nat = 1
168 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

Table 8.2.  Paired sample correlationsa for Subgroup 2’s perceptions of the develop-
ment of competences (teamwork, intercultural, linguistic, and digital) and level of
anxiety

Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 Anx and AnxP .136 .709
Pair 2 Dig and DigP .026 .944
Pair 3 Team and TeamP .100 .783
Pair 4 Ling and LingP .074 .839
Pair 5 Int and IntP .459 .182
a. Nat = 3

between pre- and postintervention questionnaire responses regarding the five

variables analyzed. Although students’ perception regarding almost all vari-
ables slightly improved in the posttreatment questionnaire, a slight decrease
was observed in their level of foreign language anxiety. In other words, stu-
dents generally perceived the project effective for developing their different
competences while their foreign language anxiety slightly decreased after par-
ticipating in the study.

Qualitative Analysis
The data obtained from the reflective and comparative essays, peer interviews,
and focus group discussions were analyzed using the NVivo software to iden-
tify the specific emerging themes. In addition, the digital stories created and
shared on the Google+ community were explored and categorized based on
the UNESCO’s SDGs previously discussed (Nam, 2015). Table  8.3 shows
examples of the topics dealt with by each of the digital stories and points out
which of UNESCO’s SDGs each story tackled.
The open-ended questions from the questionnaires were also analyzed
qualitatively, and this shed additional light on participants’ perceived devel-
opment of the competences under investigation. Students provided positive
feedback on the project but were also critical of certain aspects which they
felt required improvement, as illustrated by their responses in what follows.
Participants’ statements were categorized under 13 thematic categories. These
included: (1) linguistics gains, (2) social relations, (3) teamwork, (4) digital
literacy, (5) intercultural gains, (6) relevance and positive attitudes, (7) work-
load and deadlines, (8) cultural differences, (9) syllabus difference, (10) time
difference, (11) time management differences, (12) technological difficulties,
and (13) levels of commitment. Out of the 13 thematic categories established,
Developing 21st-Century Competences 169

Table 8.3.  UV’s and KPU’s digital stories in relation to UNESCO’s SDGs

Digital stories SDGs

“Ob City Tutor” (UV)/“Platafoma 9. Industry, innovation, infrastructure
Ob” (KPU) 11. Sustainable cities and communities
“Animal hostel” (UV) 15. Life on land (Environment
protection)
“AllTogether App” (UV)/“Todos 10. Reduced inequalities
juntos App” (KPU) 16. Peace, justice, and strong institutions
“We are all the same” (UV) 4. Quality education
10. Reduced inequalities
16. Peace, justice, and strong institutions
“Animal pro” (UV) 15. Life on land (Environment
protection)
“Pandas, elephants, monkeys 15. Life on land (Environment
& Co” (UV) protection)
“Abraze al corazón de 16. Peace, justice, and strong institutions
España” (KPU)
“Toza de botella” (KPU) 9. Industry, innovation, infrastructure
11. Sustainable cities and communities

six—linguistic gains, social relations, teamwork, digital literacy, intercultural

gains, and relevance and overall positive attitudes—related to different aspects
of the project participants found had positively contributed to the develop-
ment of different skills and competences. Meanwhile, the seven—workload
and strict deadlines, cultural differences, syllabus differences, time differ-
ences, time-management differences, technological difficulties, and levels of
commitment—remaining categories related to the challenges encountered in
the project and suggestions for improvement.
The first emerging theme within the general category of positive percep-
tions was linguistic gains. According to the different statements, participants
found that the project productive for “improve[ing] their linguistic skills a
lot”. Moreover, participants in the nonnative speaker configuration high-
lighted the value of being in touch with native or highly proficient speakers of
their L2 and L3, English and Spanish, which made it possible for them to learn
both languages simultaneously. This is in line with one of the main goals of
the European Council, established in their Presidency Conclusions in Barcelona
(European Council, 2002). It highlights the need for Europeans to be able to
speak at least two additional languages, apart from their mother tongue.
This is the most interesting project that I have ever done because I could improve
my English skills a lot. (Spanish UV male student)
170 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

It was a nice experience and helped me improve my English skills a lot. (Hungarian
UV female student)
I enjoyed being in contact with both some native English and Spanish speakers.
(Italian UV female student)

Another recurrent theme was social relations. In a number of their com-

ments, participants highlighted how they had enjoyed being in a class with
their teacher, classmates, and foreign partners. Furthermore, they reported
feeling “really comfortable” and “enthusiastic”, as well as having such good
relations with their foreign partners that they had even “made a new friend
from another country” with whom they expected to stay in touch “for many
years”:
• I am happy to take this class to be in this class with my teacher and classmates,
also friends from Valencia. (KPU Chinese male student)
• I’m very enthusiastic about this project. I think it has being a great experi-
ence and I feel really comfortable. Above all, I’ve made a new from another
country who I expect to be in touch with for many years. (Spanish UV female
student)

The third common theme directly related to one of the variables under
investigation, i.e., teamwork. A number of participants stressed the benefits
of working in teams, such as learning from each other, becoming more confi-
dent, learning new vocabulary, and developing problem-solving skills:
We learned a lot from each other. For example, we learned to never doubting your
ideas. When they are not great, you always have your team to help and develop them
in order to make them great. Furthermore, by working in groups, you learn to use
new words or solve problems that occur. (Belgian UV female student)

There were also comments related to digital literacy, as students reported

having enjoyed using the different ICT tools and having developed digital
skills which they felt would help them in the future. In fact, the online space
can be considered as a multicultural context of communication requiring the
use of intercultural, linguistic, and meta-communicative resources (Thorne,
2006); and learners need to master this use, given that “the 21st century
workplace will, for many, be partly or even totally online” (Guth, 2017,
p. 132): “I really liked the fact that we used a lot of tools and technolo-
gies. It developed our skills that will be very useful in the future” (Russian
female UV student).
As for intercultural gains, in students’ statements, this theme was con-
nected to the development of “cognitive flexibility and developing patience
for circumstances out of one’s control” (Canadian KPU male student).
The final theme in the overall category of positive perceptions related to the
Developing 21st-Century Competences 171

categories of relevance and overall positive attitudes. According to students’

comments, the project was relevant, and they positively valued the differ-
ent opportunities they were provided with through having contact with their
classmates and foreign partners. A Spanish UV female student noted: “this
project was a great experience which I won’t ever forget”. Another partic-
ipant reflected that
my overall opinion about this program is that it is a good and different way to
learn English and improve some communication skills … I am very satisfied
and happy to have had the opportunity to participate in this international pro-
gram. What is more, I think that is benefits all the students from UV because we
are studying International Business so probably, in the future, we will have to
face similar situations. (Spanish UV female student)

As indicated above, the student has found the project a great experience
and a productive and useful way to learn the language in a different way.
Moreover, she believes that the competences developed in the project would
help students in their future careers (e.g., International Business), as she
might encounter similar conditions in the future, working and communicat-
ing at an international level and thus bearing in mind the necessary linguistic
and cultural skills and time differences.
Seven main thematic units were identified under the category of challenges
and suggestions for improvement. The first one relates to students’ recurrent
criticism of the workload and strict deadlines as reflected in the following
comments:
• It’s good but maybe the workload should be reduced a little bit. (Dutch UV
male student)
• There were too many tasks, too much workload!! (German UV female
student)
• The workload was too much for an English course, but telecollaboration was
very exciting. (Spanish female student)
• We had really strict deadlines and a lot to deliver. (Hungarian UV female
student)

Another recurrent theme related to cultural differences. Even though

some participants pointed out the negative and challenging aspects of such
differences, the fact that participation in the project increased their awareness
of these differences and helped them contemplate about the possible ways
for overcoming the related challenges should be considered as an intercul-
tural gain. This is reflected in the following comment in which the student
reflected that through the project he was required to adapt his behavior and
develop “behavioral repertoires depending on cultural interaction contexts”
172 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

(Canadian KPU male student). Another participant noted that “the most
challenging aspect is being able to listen and respect your foreign part-
ner’s idea even if you have completely different perspective” (Italian UV
female student).
The syllabus difference was another factor students criticized about. Some
participants suggested that the whole project should be developed by both
the local and the foreign partners instead of just collaborating on certain
tasks:  “we should have developed the entire project together with our
foreign partners. In this way there would have been a more concrete col-
laboration” (Italian UV female student). Time difference was considered by
a great majority of participants as one of the most (or even the most) chal-
lenging aspects of the project. One of the students commented: “arranging
meetings was very challenging because of the time zone, but the proj-
ect was useful to learn English” (Spanish male student). Similarly, a Korean
female student in KPU reflected that “time difference is the most challeng-
ing aspect”.
Some of the participants also found time management difference a sig-
nificant challenge given that different attitudes towards time management
were a source of frustration for them. A  number of students, for example,
criticized the lateness of their Spanish peers: “I did not like the lateness of the
UV professor and students” (Canadian KPU male student). Technological
difficulties were also pointed out by some students. Similar to the theme of
cultural differences, these difficulties should not necessarily be interpreted as a
negative aspect of the project. A Canadian male participant from KPU noted
that “the video challenged my technical abilities, but maybe that is not a
bad thing”.
The final theme related to different levels of commitment. In some cases
students from one side of the Atlantic were more committed to the project
than their teammates from the other side. In other cases, students complained
about one of the teammates of their local groups, as indicated in the fol-
lowing comment: “I don’t want to point fingers, and I wouldn’t mind so
much if X had helped at least a little bit in this project, but she actually did
nothing” (Belgian UV female student). Different levels of commitment and
lack of mutuality and positive interdependence are highlighted in previous
research as the major causes for failure in such collaborative projects (Guth &
Helm, 2012; Hauck, 2010; Helm & Guth, 2016). An additional, stand-alone
category was “opportunities for language learning in a diverse, multicultural
setting” which included students’ open-ended comments about whether they
had had the chance to use the target language with other speakers of that
language.
Developing 21st-Century Competences 173

Discussions and Concluding Remarks

The study reported in this chapter focused on a KPU-UV TC DST project,
the goals of which were to explore the relationship between TC DST and
the development of 21st-century competences (i.e., linguistic, intercultural,
digital, teamwork, and social awareness). We also aimed at analyzing and
comparing the differences and similarities between the L1 and the L2 config-
urations in terms of the perceived development of the aforementioned com-
petences, while determining participants’ levels of foreign language anxiety.
Although the main configuration was L1, other communication modes were
present and explored, including L2 and hybrid models in which the language
exchanged was students’ L2 or even L3.
The analysis of the quantitative responses obtained shows that the project,
overall, achieved its main goal of fostering the development of 21st-century
competences, i.e., linguistic and communicative, intercultural, digital, team-
work, and social awareness. Furthermore, whole-group results show that,
overall, students displayed low levels of foreign language anxiety. However,
a comparison between the NS and the NNS subgroups revealed that NNSs
displayed lower levels of anxiety compared to NSs when communicating in
their target language or languages. These findings are consistent with the
ones reported by Ke (2016) who aimed at determining how a multilingual
project influenced participants’ identities. He similarly found that students in
the NNS configuration felt less anxious than those in the NS configuration.
This might be explained by the fact that NNSs are used to utilizing one of the
target languages as an additional language on a daily basis and in an immer-
sion context and thus feel less anxious about it. Meanwhile, NSs reported not
having had many opportunities for practising their target language(s), which
seems to explain their higher levels of anxiety. Another possible explanation
might be the fact that native speakers had the opportunity to be the most pro-
ficient peer and thus they could be in control half of the times, when speaking
in their L1 (since participants spoke half of the time in Spanish and the rest
in English), whereas they had to struggle the other half of the time to speak
in their L2 and thus had the feeling of not being in control. This feeling might
have been stronger in NSs as opposed to NNSs who did not necessarily expe-
rience the feeling of being in control, since neither English nor Spanish were
their L1s and thus, their experience might have been similar in both cases.
Analyzing the qualitative data obtained from participants’ responses to
open-ended questions in the questionnaires; the reflective and comparative
essays; the focus-group discussions; and the digital stories produced by stu-
dents, we extracted and categorized two main themes. The positive themes
174 Sevilla-Pavón and Rojas-Primus

related to the different elements for which the participants had generated
positive feedback and the negative ones which related to the identified chal-
lenges and constructive feedback in the form of suggestions for improvement.
Furthermore, the analysis of students’ digital stories helped us determine
their social awareness and level of engagement with different SDGs tackled
in those stories.
The most significant (positive) achievements of this project were the
enhancement of students’ linguistic and intercultural gains, teamwork and social
relations, and digital literacy. The project also appeared highly relevant to their
future career or degrees. The criticism and constructive feedback generated for
the project related to the workload and the essence of having more flexibility for
project deadlines as well as the need for aligning course contents in both coun-
tries so that the telecollaborative work could take place at all stages of the project,
thus increasing the level of reciprocity and the opportunities for learning. One of
the challenges highlighted by participants related to the difficulties encountered
when using technology. There were also criticisms about the differences, namely
time differences (since Spain is 9 hours ahead of British Columbia, Canada); and
the participants demonstrated different attitudes towards time management,
cultural differences, and varied levels of commitment.
Finally, the obvious reflection of SDGs in the digital stories produced by
the different groups of students indicates that the project provided oppor-
tunities for students to increase their level of social awareness and engage-
ment. This might be attributed to the fact that students were required to
deal with first-hand information about different SDGs—industry, innovation,
infrastructure; sustainable cities and communities; life on land and environ-
ment protection; reduced inequalities; peace, justice, and strong institutions;
quality education; and reduced inequalities—and put into practice their prob-
lem-solving and analytical thinking skills to come up with possible solutions
to tackle different social challenges related to SDGs. Their solution came in
the form of an innovative product, service or app, which was described in
great detail in their digital stories.
The KPU-UV TC DST project described in this chapter is the first iter-
ation of an ongoing collaboration among students and their teachers from a
Canadian and a Spanish higher education institution. The feedback collected
and the analysis of different aspects of the project will allow for improvements
to be introduced, as this project is viewed as a cyclical process which combines
theory, practice, evaluation, and reflection (Freire, 2003). Overall, the goals
were achieved and the project, as reported by students themselves, “made
participants happy with the results” while making them feel they had learned
to “work well as a group” and “to appreciate each other’s cultures”.
Developing 21st-Century Competences 175

Acknowledgments
We are deeply grateful to Valencia’s regional government, Generalitat
Valenciana, for funding the research project iTECLA:  Innovative
Telecollaborative Environments of Languages for Specific Purposes Acquisition
(iTECLA:  Entornos telecolaborativos innovadores de adquisición de len-
guas para fines específicos), Ref. GV/2017/151, Conselleria de Educación
from the Valencian Regional Government (Generalitat Valenciana), program
“Programa Subvenciones para la realización de proyectos de I+D+i desarrol-
lados por grupos de investigación emergentes” for the period 2017–2019.

Notes
1. Ana Sevilla-Pavón, Associate Professor, IULMA/Universitat de València, Spain,
Ana.M.Sevilla@uv.es.
2. Constanza Rojas-Primus, Assistant Professor, Kwantlen Polytechnic University,
Canada, constanza.rojas-primus@kpu.ca.
3. “Plurinational groups” in this context refers to groups of students from different
nationalities.
4. In early 2019, Google+ announced that their social media platform service would be
discontinued.
5. SPSS stands for “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences” and was acquired by IBM
in 2009. Its official name is IBM SPSS Statistics.

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