ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

AI•D THE

BULLETI• OF THE SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

VoL. 69 AUGUST, 1974 No. 5

RegionalCharacteristics
of PorphyryCopperDeposits
of the Southwest

J. DAVIDLOWELL

Abstract '

The largestandbeststudiedconcentration
of porphyry-type
deposits
is the Southwest
porphyry province in Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and northern Sonora
(Figure'1). Most of thesedepositsare in the 58 to 72 million-year-oldrange,with one
163 m.y. date and one 20 m.y. date. Several Mesozoic age porphyry copper deposits
occur northwest of the main cluster, and mid-Tertiary age porphyry molybdenumand
porphyry copper deposits are present in the Colorado mineral belt and at Bingham
Canyon,Utah. A progressivedecreasein age occursfrom northwestto southeastamong
the Laramide age Southwestporphyries.
Tertiary rocks contemporaneous with and younger than the Laramide mineralization
appear to have been formed under conditionsof strong deformation and crustal ex-
tension.Large displacement,flat, "gravity slide" faults are present in southernArizona
together with evidence of abundant horst-grabenstructure and rift faulting. A
correlation of rock types, structures, and intrusive and extrusive activity suggests
that "basin~range"-type extensionalstructureswere formed throughoutthe Tertiary
periodand probablythroughmuchof the Mesozoicas well.
In detail, mineralizationtendsto favor N. 65ø E. and N. 40ø W. structures,and the
depositsin someinstancesappearto form belts with thesealignments,but the cluster
of deposits
has an overalloval shapeunlikethe lineal porphyryprovincesin Iran, Chile,
and the Philippines.
The individualporphyry belts in the Southwestprovincecrossthe Texas lineament
with no apparentstrike-slipdisplacement. However,currentplate tectonictheory sug-
geststhat a large right-lateraldisplacement shouldexist if this structurecorresponds
to the WalkerLine in Nevadaas postulated by Jeromeand Cook(1967). There is as
yet little definiteevidencefor the presenceof subductionzonesin Arizona and west of
Arizonaduringthe periodof formationof the Southwestporphyries,
andevidencefor
the association
of porphyrymineralizationwith plat.
e tectonicprocesses
as described
in theliterature
is notconvincing
in theSouthwest
province.It is particularly
unlikely
that subducted
oceanic
crustwasthe sourceof metalsin the Southwest
porphyryde-
posits.
An interpretation
of depthof .erosion
in porphyrydepositscanbe attempted by com-
paringthe alterationzones,nd mineralassemblages exposed at the presentground
surfacewith an assumed modelof verticalzonation.This suggests that erosionhas
cutdeeplyintothe columns of Laramidemineralizationin deposits
in the northwestern
partof thegeneralclusterandthatdeposits to the southeast
wereleft generallyintact
by post-Laramide erosion.

Introduction
Anderson (1966), Jeromeand Cook (1967), and
A •U•ER of excellentpapershave dealt with the Cooley (1967). This paper presentssummarized
settingof the Southwestporphyrycopperprovince observations
and the scopeof the subjecthas pre-
and the writer has borrowed extensivelyfrom vented detaileddocumentation in every case.
601
602 i. DAVID LOWELL

ß BRITISHCOLUMBIAMOLYBDENU.,
ß• • ENDAKO
ISLAND COPPER
ß • CRA•GM•NT • -- -•
CA•FACE• • ]• BRENDA _ •CO•PPERMOUNTAIN
t • HEDDLESTON-
BIGBEN•

S*T•LEa•e es•.•.,•
YEE•N•ON c,.•o• •;so•
• • ' •ELY
, •CLIMAX
U•AD-
HENOE•SO
•T.ACA •EA• eeu•s•A
SHEEPM•N. •SANTA RITA
SOUTHWEST A•o• CANANNA •

POVCE o '
••,•os•,

PETA•glLLA

CEllO VE•OE•;?,• 1 ,•c• I

SALVADOR
- POTRE
RILLOS
DISPUTADA

ß PORPHYRY COPPER-MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS OR DISTRICTS

O SELECTED SIGNIFICANT PORPHYRY COPPER PROSPECTS

OUTSIDE OF KNOWN DISTRICTS

Fro. 1. Map showingthe distributionof porphyry depositsin North

and South America (after Paul Eimon).

Southwest Province Deposits 20,000,000tons of 0.10 percenthypogeneCu min-

Figure 2 showsthe roughlyoval clusterof por- eralization. A numberof depositsare thusincluded
phyryoccurrences whichwill be discussed in some whichrepresentauthenticporphyryoccurrences but
detailin this paper. For the purposeof compiling whichare noncommercial throughaccidentsof copper
thismap,porphyrycopperoccurrences wereassumed priceor secondary enrichment history. Tyrone,for
to beanydisseminated or molyb- example,
pyrite,chalcopyrite, .contains
only0.07percentCu protore,and
denitedeposit exhibiting
concentric zoning,including the Morenciclay ore bodyprotoregradeis about
the development phyllic 0.15percentCu. The mapshowsapproximately
oœtypical quartz-sericite, 88
at least the equivalentof deposits
alteration.and .containing ascompared to about30 knowncommerical
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 603

NEVADA

'•6ø• NEW
• • AR, Z 0 NA MEXICO
• o •x
• • Albuquerqu•_
'
<[ 0 -

1_34
ø• • 0

I-J
k • oo• s• o _
• o o • Oo o

.o

½ oø
• • o • •. •_ • Mid-T,
Hiar•
porph•r•
I • • o• • • Jurassic
porphyry
I • • • • • • Precombrion
mossi•

Fro. 2. Map showing the distribution of porphyry occurrencesin the Southwest

provirtue. Deposits shown have porphyry type alteration and contain at least
20,000,000tons of 0.1 percent Cu. (The depositin Baja California is Jurassic (?) in
date. )

ore bodiesin the samearea. This greater density tion first shifted progressivelysouthward from
allows better definition of structural controls and a
British Columbia to Sonora during Mesozoic and
more preciseoutlining of the generalcluster. Laramidetime (200 to 54 m.y. ago) andthenshifted
Figure 3 showsthe Southwestprovinceore bodies eastward for the depositionof the mid-Tertiary
with age datesand agecontours.This map demon- deposits.
stratesa progressivedecreasein age from northwest Age dates of volcanicrocksof andesitic-rhyolitic
to southeastamong the Laramide deposits. The compositionin southeasternCaliforniahave recently
Mesozoicdepositsin Nevada fit this pattern, as do a beenreportedby Armstrongand Higgens(1973).
number of dated intrusive bodies in northwestern Plotted with dates for other volcanic rocks these
Nevada. The mid-Tertiary depositsdo not fit the demonstratea similar southward transgressionof
pattern, however,nor doesBisbee,the singleMeso- agesduring the Tertiary period. These data suggest
zoic age Southwestdeposit. It appearsthat in a an overallprogression in age from 55 m.y. in north-
very generalway the locusof porphyry mineraliza- ern Idaho to 22 m.y. in northwesternArizona, and
604 J. DAVID LOWELL

•6 ø -
N E W

M E X I C 0

Albuquerqu•F•

•4 o

I00 MILES
I

Fro. 3. Map showing age dates of several Southwestporphyrieswhich suggest

a progressivesoutheastwardshift of the locus of mineralizationduring Laratnide
time.

this parallelsto somedegreethe earliertransgression In contrastto the island-arcenvironment,,but

in ages of porphyry copperoccurrences. similar to the settingof the Iran porphyry district,
the Southwestporphyriesoccurin an area which,
Geologicl,istory
during most of the period sincePrecambriantime,
Figure 4 hasbeenconstructed to showgraphically has been a relatively quiescentshelf, or miogeo-
the relationshipof intensity and type of structural synclinal,environment. It was associatedwith the
deformation,type of sedimentation, and intensityof Cordillerangeosyncline in Nevada and Utah, andthe
extrusive, intrusive, and porphyry mineralization total thickness of Paleozoic strata in the area of the
activity during Jurassic,Cretaceous,and Tertiary Arizona-New Mexico-Sonora cluster was about 4,000
time in Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. In- feet, as comparedto over 20,000 feet of sediments
formation has been summarizedfrom a wide variety which accumulatedin the geosynclineto the north-
of sources including Cooley (1967), Anderson west.
(1966), Hayes (1970), and from personalobserva- By Triassic time the first effectsof the Mesozoic
tions. orogenymay have begunin southernArizona. A1-
 CHztRztCTERIoeTICS OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 605

AGEPERIODSTRUCTURE
(m.y.)
ISEOiMENTATIO
'
NEXTRUSIVE
ACTIVITY
INTRUSIVE
ACTIVITY
MINERALIZATION
REMARKS

' • ""--1'/• -AK••< L

Pliocsne
• L .'='.' -
•u
•->
. Valley
till,
large tilting,
scale
Valley
upift,
normal
foulting;
fill•erosion.
20-- Miocene • '-::• • ] of uplands
• "ø*'"' • •E Lekesedimentation
in
Oligocen,
•• • .•-AK, ,z [ .
.• < eU•ER•NE impounded
drainages
ß SEDIM.
-' ' < F ] ENRICH•.•ENT
artd
of supergens
copper enrichment
deposits
40 Eocene
•- .I, øø",?
-s
•o
] ]<.,......
• z• Strongerosion;
and • • ' •e--I• 1 flysch
deposition
in
60*=
Paleocene
G •• '.•
' .'• •-- ,,,m • <-sw
t.ARAMIDE

',eßß o
• __FI
PORPHYRIES
•0- •
%:'•
•............. 9 ',
• Flot
faulting
and
penscontemporaneous

I00- CRETACEOUS
i'•?
• F_
'1 .•.
,I
lo
":':':':':':'
• .-''
/.•
I---J
I
I•
defOrmof;oR
ofdetrital
sediments;
morginal
alternating
mot;nsand
flyschsedimentation
•? -d ..Z.:.:-:-Z
ß ", I I fogøthat
intrusion with
ond orogsny,
eruption;
,:,•:
e.'
ß ß ß
I
.9 rJ
I <YERINaTON,
UptO21,000
NEVAOA sedimentsfeet
of
leO- •• o'ø
=";'ø' II I <ELY,
NEVADA
,
4o- -
ße. ee
:::.
.- L_
I I
',
'I, I I I • Extorts;vø
erosionl
I I rr' infercalated
sediments,
• s.'•' 1,
' ',
I pyroclastics
and mar-
dURASSIC
• 'aø.
"e I I ginolmarine;geologic
160- ::.:-:.:.:.:-;.. recordpoorly known,
• I I I •I ] < BISBEE butgeneral ß .
epe•rogemc
• ßß'00
I .
ßo ,øa
I ,, I
uplift
isindicated
• ....
• I ',
-180 ':':':",':':'i [

EXPLANATION

STRUCTURE SEDIMENTATION

Relotive
intensity
ofdeformorion :k]•J Flyschtypebasin
filling
Riftfoults,horst-graben ;.'.'• Finegrained
sediments
Large displocement riot faults • Morins
sediments
Regional uplift :.:;..."•
Pyroclostice
andvolconics
Regional
subsidence
Compression EXTRUSIVE ACTIVITY, INTRUSIVE ACTIVITY,
AND MINERALIZATION: Bar graph shows
relative intensity
"• Regional
metamorphiem
Fro.4. Chartcorrelating
structure,
sedimention,
andintrusive
activity
withporphyry
mineralization
during
thepast
180 m.y. in Arizona and southwestern New Mexico.

thoughno intrusivesof this agehavebeenidentified, beeporphyrycopperdeposit. This Jurassicdiastro-

tuffaceous units are found in the Triassic Chinle phismwaspart of a broad-scaleregionalpatternas
formationin northernArizona. In Jurassictime indicatedby intrusionandmineralization duringthe
definiteevidence of orogenyappearsin the form of sameperiod from Arizona to British Columbia.
diastrophism, outpourings of volcanics,implacement Lower Cretaceous time sawgeneraldownwarping
of intrusivebodies,and ore mineralizationat the Bis- of the districtwhichalloweda relativelybrief in-
606
Tuli Syncline Messina Blocl• N. Transvaal
NW Loke I•rlb•
Fro. 5. (a) Diagrammatic section through crust under-
going 'necking': broken subver, tical lines show direction of
Pmax; potential shear directionsmarked by arrows (after
Cox, 1970). (b) As above showing the developmentof
faulting on shear planesof the lowest dip. (c) Diagramma-
tic section across the Limpopo zone of the African Rift
Valley showingfaulting and warping of pre-Karroo surface;
sectionis 175 km long. (d) Diagrammatic section across
the Kariba sectionof the mid-Zambesi African Rift Valley.
vasionof the seafrom the Sonorangeosyncline
to the
southeast
and the deposition
of up to 21,000feet of
marine clastic and carbonate sediments,(Hayes,
1970). The seawithdrew,but the region remained
near sealevel for the most of the middle and Upper
Cretaceousperiod, and marginal marine sediments
were interbedded with volc&nics and terrestrial clas-
tic sediments. No Lower or middle Cretaceous in-
trusions have been identified in Arizona although
intrusive rocks of this age are presentin Nevada.
There were, however,outpouringsof volcanicrocks
in Early Cretaceousand Late Cretaceoustime and
evidenceexistsof extensiveblockfaultingand deposi-
tion of thick localized sections of basin-fill-
flysch-typesediments. In Upper Cretaceoustime
someflat faulting occurred,and high-anglenormal
faulting and penecontemporaneous deformationof
sediments indicate that crustal deformation
progress. Cretaceous sedimentary rocks in the
Southwest province accumulatedin isolated basins
and are characterizedby extremely rapid facies Structural deformation
changesover short distances. Most of the structures indicated throughout the
In Late Cretaceoustime the main pulse of Lara- stratigraphiccolumnof Figure 4 are the result of
mide orogenyand intrusiveactivityand mineraliza- high-anglehorst-grabenfaultingwith tilting of fault
.l. DAVID LOWELL
tion beganand continuedfor about30 millionyears.
It was followedby a second,weaker orogenyin
middleTertiary time. Most of the last 80-million-
year period has beencharacterizedby intensedefor-
mationconsisting of differentialuplift and subsidence
of blocksalong high-anglenormal faults sometimes
accompanied by flat faulting. The flat faults may
have several different origins: some are low-angle
gravity faultscomplementary to associated
high-angle
faults as, for example,the Miami fault and the San
Manuel fault; someare perhapslarge displacement
"overthrust" flat fault lobes as will be discussed
later and somemay be rotatednormal faults. An-
desiticvolcanicswere intercolatedwith flysch-type,
poorly sortedbasin-fillsedimentsseveraltimes dur-
ing earlyandmid-Tertiarytime (Damonand Manger
1966; Livingstonet al., 1968; and Gilmour, 1972),
but 10 to 15 millionyearsagoa rather abruptchange
SE
occurred, after which bimodal basalt-rhyolitevol-
canics were extruded rather than andesitic volcanics.
Followingthis changein type of volcanicsno further
flat faultingoccurred,andan orogeniccyclemay have
terminated.
The structural record is reasonablyclear in late
Tertiary time but becomesprogressivelymore ob-
scureas we proceedfarther back into the geologic
record where more younger structuresare super-
imposed on the older structures. It has been ac-
cepted by many geologiststhat the last 30 million
years constitutethe "Basin and Range period" dur-
ing whicha largepart of the presentlyvisibledefor-
mation took place. Figure 4 and studiesby Loring
(1973 and 1974) suggestthat this may not be the
case and that structural deformation and extrusive
and intrusiveactivity in the Southwestwere some-
what episodicbut were more or lesscontinuousfrom
Cretaceous,or even possiblyJurassic,through late
Tertiary time. Sometypesof structuraldeformation
produce characteristicsediments. The differential
uplift, horst-graben-typedeformationtends to pro-
duce sedimentswith rapid facies changes. These
clasticbasin-fillsedimentsand fanglomerates are of
the flysch-molasse type, are poorly sorted,and some-
times showpenecontemporaneous deformation. Ab-
normal thicknesses of sediments,regardlessof grain-
and size, also indicate structurallyformed basins. To
someextent it is possibleto reconstructthe type and
intensity of structural deformation from the char-
acteristicsof the sedimentsdepositedand in this way
was in (Fig. 4) to extrapolate structural history on the
basisof the sedimentaryrecord.
 CH.4R.4CTERISTICS OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 607

blocks, differential uplift and subsidence,and flat

faulting. Foldingand otherevidenceof compression
is rare, and most of the structures can be related to
tensionalforcesand crustalextension. Figures 5, 6,
and 7 demonstrate the resemblance of the structural
frameworkof the San Pedro trough in Arizona to
portionsof the Rift Valley in Africa and to rift-type
structuresin Nevada. Sections (a) and (b) of
Figure 5 illustratethe mechanismproposedby K.
G. Cox (1970) to explainthe Africanrift structures,
and Sections(c) and (d) show structuresin the
Limpopo•andKaribadistricts
of Rhodesia
andSouth
Africa.
Thompson(1965) proposeda rift relationshipfor
the Basin and Range structures in Nevada, and MILE
Stewart (1971, p. 1019) has discussed
the process
as follows: Fro. 6. (a) Diagrammatic cross section in the Shoshone
range of Nevada illustrating the relationshipof flat faulting
"Basinand Rangestructurecan be interpretedas to horst-graben structure (after Stewart).
(b) Diagrammatic cross section in the Cortez range,
a systemof horstsand grabensproducedby the frag- Nevada, showing flat faults, grabens, and tilted fault blocks
mentationof a crustalslab abovea plasticallyextend- related to subcrustal extension (after Stewart).
ing substratum.Accordingto this view, the extension
of the substratum
causesa basalpart of the slabto be tain areasof the San Pedro trough in Arizona, and
pulledapartalongnarrow,systematically spacedzones section(c) is a hypotheticalsectionillustratingthe
which in turn causethe downdropping of complex type of progressive
tilting that may havetakenplace
horizontalprisms(grabens)in thebrittleuppercrust. over an extendedperiod of time in the same struc-
The grabensform valleys at the surface; the inter-
vening areas are horsts, or titled horsts." ture. Curved fault planesto accommodate tilting of
normalfault blocksare postulatedbut havenot been
Sections(a) and (b) of Figure6 are diagram- mapped. Available evidencesuggeststhat the ma-
matic crosssectionsby Stewart to show structures jority of the tilting hastakenplacesinceearly Mio-
in the Shosone and Cortezrangesof Nevada. It cene. It shouldbe notedthat the type of flat fault-
shouldbe notedthat mostof the basin-range-type ing developedin the San Pedro (Lowell, 1968) is a
extensionin Nevadais thoughtby somegeologistsgravi,ty-slide featurecomplementary to high-angle
to havetakenplacein the last 17 m.y. or evenin the gravity faults. The theory explainingthis high-
last7 to 11m.y.,although
Loring's(1972) evidenceangle-low-anglesystemcan be explainedwith Mohr
appearsto refute this. Similar deformationin south- diagrams(Jaeger,1956) and is also showngraphi-
ern Arizonamay haveoccurredintermittently since cally in Figure 6. This generalpicture--the broad-
Jurassictimewith the lastmajorpulse7 to 11 m.y. scaledevelopment of horst-grabenstructureswith rela-
ago. tively large displacement,
complimentary
flat faults,
Recentinterpretation
by Loring (1972) hasindi- and the progressivetilting of fault blocks--suggests
catedthat basin-rangefaultingin Nevadaand Utah the progressiveopeningof a rift structureand the
alsobeganat leastas early as early Tertiary and inward collapse of tilted fault blocks. Southern
probablyCretaceoustime, not in the middle or late Arizona probablycontainsa large number of riff-
Tertiary,as hasoftenbeenimplied,andthat thereis type structures. This is somewhatin contrast to the
no apparentvariation in the spatialdistributionof Rift Valley of Africa where the 50 to 300-mile-wide
basin-range
faultingin differentCenozoic
timeperi- rift zone is thought to be related to a single rift
ods. Her work also indicates a coincidence of areal structurebut is similar to the situationdescribedby
distributionof basin-rangefaulting and Mesozoic- Stewart (1971) in northwestern Nevada where
early Tertiary thrustingin the Great Basinand also north-trendinghorst structuresare systematically
a coincidence of the thrustingwith the initiationof distributedon 15 to 20 mile spacing.
the tensionfaultingon a local,if not regional,scale. Figure8 is a tectonicmapof Arizonaon whichan
A later study(Loring, 1974) indicatessimilarrela• analysisof continuityof structuresby Cooley(1971,
tionshipsare presentin Arizonawherebasin-rangeunpublishedtectonicmap of Arizona) has been
faulting has continuedfrom Mesozoicto late Terti- plottedtogetherwith an outlineby the writer of two
ary time. large lobesof "overthrust"plates. The southeastern
Sections(a) and (b) of Figure 7 are structural plate, which might be referredto as the "Cooper
sectionsthroughthe Mammothand Lookout Moun- Overthrust," was first identified in the Sierrita
6O8

0 • MILES
I •

0 I MILLE
i I

Postulated position of extension or

? e-.s" rift zone at depth

0 • MIlLEl
i I

Fro. 7. (a) Structural

section
throuh the San Pedrotroughin the Mam-
moth,Arizona,area(afterHeindl,1963). (b) Structural
section
throughthe
SanPedrotroughin the LookoutMountain,Arizona,area (after K.rieger,1968).
(c) Hypothetical
composite
San Pedrosection
showing
progressive
tiltingof
older strata with alternatinghigh-angleand flat fatfit displacements. Note
curvedhigh-angle fault planespostulated
to accommodate tilting of normalfault
blocks.

Qs Late Cenozoicvalley fill Ti Laramide intrusive

Qtg Pleistocenegravel K Cretaceous sediments
Tbd Pliocene sediments Pal Paleozoic sediments
Tsm Mid-Tertiary sediments db Precambrian diabase sills
T.c Miocene sediments peas Younger Precambriansediments
Tv Tertiary volcanics peog Older Precambriangranite
pe Precambrian granite

Mountainarea by Cooper(1960). Field work by thrust plate which appearsto drape over the south
J. E. KinnisonandJ. H. Courtrighthasextended end of the Rincon Mountains which may also be a
the overthrustplate north of Cooper'smap area portionof the "CooperOverthrust."The mechanism
(J. H. Courtright,
1973,pers.commun.), andwork for these large overthrust sheetsis poorly under-
a stood,but theycouldbe relatedin originto the large
by the writer and L. C. Arnoldhas established
Mesozoic thrust sheets in Nevada.
probable
correlation
of the fault fromthe Sierrita
Mountains east to the Helvetia district and the Em-Cooperpostulated a northwarddisplacement of the
pireMountains andfromtherenortheast to theRin- overthrustplate of about sevenmiles in the Twin
conMountains. By analogyit canbe assumed that Buttes-Pima district based on various lithologic-
overthrust sheetsin the Dragoon, Huachuca,and stratigraphic evidence includinghiscorrelationof the
Chiricahuamountainsare alsopart of the sameover- Mission-Pimaore body with the Twin Buttes ore
thrustplate or systemof imbricateplates. Drewes body. Other evidencesuggeststhat the Cooper
(197.1, unpublishedlecture, Arizona GeologicalOverthrust is an imbricate fault with an overall dis-
Society)hasrecentlydiscussed over- placement
an extensive of considerably morethansevenmiles.
 CHARACTERISTICSOF PORPHYRY COPPERDEPOSITS 609

HIGH
ANGLE
FLAT
FAULT,
FAULT•
SHOWING
SHOWING
DOWNTHROWN
PROBABLE
SIO••.•
DISPLACEMENT
DIRECTION OF UPPER PLATE

o 50 IOO MILES

POSTULATED
LOCATION
OFFLAT
FAULT
LOBE I I I

Fro. 8. Tectonicmap of Arizona showingareasof flat faulting and "consistent"structures. Displacementdirectionsof

upperplatesare shownas interpreted'by variousworkers. (After Cooley,1971,unpublished tectonicmapof Arizona.)

The west-centraloverthrustlobe appearsto be and evidencecan be seenin many parts of the dis-
roughly centered,on the town of Parker, Arizona, trict of remnantsof an apparentlycontinuous,flat,
610 ]. DAVID LOWELL

large displacement,overthrustfault planewhichcuts 1922), and many geologistshave attemptedto use

rocks mapped as Tertiary age. The two lobes of thesetrendsto correlatethe porphyrydepositsacross
overthrustfall in a belt parallelingthe boundaryof areas of postorecover into mineral belts or "linea-
Cooley'szone of "inconsistentstructures"which ap.- ment maps" (Mayo, 1958; Schmitt, 1959; and
proximately coincideswith Hill's "Texas Linea- Wertz, 1970).
ment" (1928), and the "Walker Line" of Jerome Theseeffortshaveall sufferedto somedegreefrom
and Cook (1967). Inconsistentstructuresare large inability to discriminatebetween ore-controlling
displacement basin-rangefeaturesusually concealed structuresand postorestructures,and differentlinea-
undergravelcover. Theytypically
cannotbetraced ment interpretationsgenerally do not agree. A
in straightlinesfor long distancesand may often be statisticalstudy of the orientation of mineralized
en echelonfeatures. It is oftendifficultor impossible veinletsin Laramide stockswas recentlypublished
to interpretwhetherdip-slipor strike-slipdisplace- (Rehrig and Heidrick, 1972) which confirmsthe
ment is presentin the structures. The origin of this presenceof thesepredominantstructural directions
structural zone is not yet understood,but porphyry on a small scale in the fabric of the individual in-
depositsdisplaced by flat faultshaveprovidedunique trusive bodies and their mineralized stockworks.
markersin severaldistrictsfor measuringpostmin- Figure 2 showsthe distributionof porphyryde-
eral Tertiary fault displacements.Depositsoffsetby positsin the Southwest
province. This mapdoesnot
low-angle faults includeYerrington, Miami-Inspira-show structuralfeatures,but severalapparentmin-
tion, Ray, San Manuel, Mission-Pima,North San eral belts can be identified. If the assumptionis
Xavier, Peach, and others. made that porphyry copper mineral belts are con-
trolled by large-scale,deep-seatedstructureswhich
dlge of structuraltrends
may be inconspicuous, then this map may constitute
Analysis of ancient structural patterns in the a very useful "lineament"map showingthe trends
Southwestporphyryprovinceis complicated by the of major structuresin Laramide time. A striking
fact that pre-Tertiary rocks.constitute
lessthan 25 linearity is evident in the northwesterlyNacozari-
percentof the area and also by the profusionof Cananea trend. in northern Sonora, and two less
Tertiary age basin-range-type
structurespresentin obviousnorthwesterly
beltsalsoappearto be present
the area. Many pre-TertiaryfaultsalsohaveTerti- in southernArizona, togetherwith a northeasttrend-
ary age displacements. ing belt (New Mexico mineral belt of Jerome and
Precambrianagestructureshaveseveraltrends,but Cook) in southeasternArizona and southwestern
a north to northeast grain seems most common. New Mexico. It is interestingto note that the east-
Anderson (1966) has commentedthat southern ernmostof the northwestbelts,whichgenerallycoin-
Arizona Precambrian structuresappear to be im- cideswith the San Pedro trough rift zone, contains
portantorecontrolsonlyin the Globe-Miamidistrict. mostly Laramide age depositsbut passesnear the
Jurassicstructuraltrendsare reflectedby the align- Jurassicage Bisbee depositto the south. The belt
ment of intrusive bodies in southern Arizona whichprojectsthroughthe Rock House Canyondepositof
averageaboutN. 30ø W. by N. 30o-60ø W. faultsin probablemid-Tertiary age near Superior, Arizona,
southeastern
Arizonaand by the N. 55ø W. trend of (Balla,1973,pers.commun.),andthroughtheSquaw
Jurassicintrusivebodiesin the Bisbeedistrict. Peak porphyry depositof uncertain age and then
Jeromeand Cook (1967) havecommented that the through the large Precambrianage Jeromemassive
northwestalignmentof districtssouthof the Walker sulfide deposit to the north. There is no obvious
Line may be influenced moreby Nevadantectonic geneticassociation betweenthe Jeromedepositwhich
patternsthan by Precambrianor Laramide struc- is probably a volcanogenictype and the Laramide
tures.
porphyry mineral belt, but its location on the belt
The northwesterlyorientedorogenicbelt which raises the possibilitythat the structure might have
waspresentin southern Arizonaduringmostof the been an ore control since Precambrian time. It is
Cretaceous periodfollowedthe preexistingNevadan
interesting to observe that the linear trends dis-
grain, but the first significant
Cretaceous
intrusive
activityoccurrednearthe closeof the periodduring cernablein Figure 2 averageabout N. 40ø W. and
the early part of the main pulseof the Laramide N. 65ø E.--the structuraltrendspresentin detailin
activity. The principaltrendsof Laramidefaulting the Southwestporphyry deposits.
were N. 65 o E. and N. 40 ø W., and these trends are Tertiary structuresinclude the N. 40ø W. and
followedby dikesand stocks,by veinsand veinlets, N. 65ø E. Laramide trendsand somenorth-trending
andby elongated mineraldistricts.The relationshipfaults. It should be noted that the general align-
of porphyrycoppermineralization to thesestructural mentof mid-Tertiary gra'bensand basin-rangemoun-
trendshasbeenrecognized for manyyears(Paige, tain rangesaveragesaboutN. 30ø W. as compared
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 611

to the N. 40 ø W. Laram.ide trend. The distribution changein the dominanttype of volcanismfrom largely
of thesestructurescan be seenin Figure 8. an intermediate-compositioncalc-alkaline to alkali-
calcic to a bimodal basalt-rhyolite suite. They sug-
RelationshipoI southwestbasin-rangestructuresto gest that this change coincideswith the intersec-
plate tectonics tion of North America with the East Pacific Rise

The relationship
of Tertiary structuresof the Basin (McKenzie and Morgan, 1969; Atwater, 1970) which
apparently is the time of the initiation of transform
and Range provinceto plate tectonicshas been out- faulting and right lateral movement in the western
lined by Stewart (1971) as follows: United States."
"One of the first attempts to relate Basin and
Range structure to large oceanic and continental The presence of porphyrydepositswith agesof 20
crustal features was by Menard (1964). He sug- m.y., 62 m.y., and 163 m.y. (Rock House Canyon,
gestedthat Basin and Range structure was r.elatedto Ray, and Bisbeedeposits),all possiblyrelatedto the
convection currents and lateral spreading on the San PedroRift Zone,suggests that:
flanks of the East Pacific Rise which he, among
others, suggestedextended into the Basin and Range 1. This zonemustbe a very persistent
and very
province. In support of this view, the crustal struc- ancientcrustalfracture(even presentconceivably
ture of the Basin and Range province is different duringthe formationof the 1,680-m.y.-old
Jerome
from that of other parts of the coterminousUnited deposi.
t).
States and similar to that of the East Pacific Rise. 2. This fracturemustbe a very potentlocalizerof
Both have thin crust, low upper-mantle velocities, the particulartype of copper-rich
plutonwhichgen-
and high heat flow (Menard, 1964; Pakiser and eratedporphyrycopperdeposits.
Zietz, 1965; James and Steinhart, 1966; Hill and
Pakiser, 1966; Pakiser and Robinson,'1966; Wollard, This relationshipis not unique in the Southwest
1966; Lee and Uyeda, 1965; Blackwell, 1967). In porphyry province, and analogoussituationsare
addition,Menard (1964) has pointedout that ridges presentin the Philippines,Chile,and British Colum-
and troughsanalogousto the basinsand rangesalso bia, wheredeposits
occur on the ocean bottom on the flanks of the East of widelydifferingagesoccurin
Pacific Rise. relativelynarrowbeltswhichare apparentlystruc-
"More recentinterpretations,however,suggestthat turally controlled.
the East Pacific Rise extends into the Gulf of Cali- Trendsof beltsof porphyrydepositsin Figure 2
fornia, where it is offsetalong many transformfaults, suggestthat:
and finally along the San Andreas fault, and doesnot
reappear again until off the northern coast of Cali- 1. The principalnorthwesterly
porphyrytrendand
fornia (Morgan, 1968; Menard, 1969, p. 134). Ac- alsothe northeasterly trendingNew Mexicomineral
cordingto theseinterpretations,the Basin and Range belt crossthe Texas Lineamentwith no apparent
province lies entirely within the North American right-lateral offset. JeromeandCook(1967) have
plate and not along the extensionof the East Pacific correlated the Texas Lineament of Arizona with the
Rise. Walker Line of Nevada. Since all or most of the
"More recent ideas relate Basin and Range struc- deformation on the Walker Line is thoughtto be no
ture to obliquetensionalfragmentationwithin a broad
belt of right-lateral movementalong the west side of
more than 17 m.y. old (Stewart, 1971), this would
the North American crustal plate. This theory is suggest that only insignificantstrike-slipdisplace-
basedon concepts developed by Carey (1958), Wise ment occurredalong the Walker Line (which con-
(1963), and Hamilton and Myers (1966), and has flictswith currentdogmaon this subject)or that the
beenput in termsof platetectonicstheoryby Atwater correlationof Jeromeand Cook is not valid.
(1970). According to this view, western North 2. The patternof depositsindicatedby Figure 2
America is within a broad belt of right lateral move- castsdoubton the long-heldopinionthat the South-
ment related to differential motion between the North west porphyriesare clusteredaround,and somehow
American and Pacific plates. Some of the right controlledby, the border of the Colorado Plateau
lateral movementis taken up on the San Andreas and (Butler, 1929).
relatedfaults. The movementis alsothoughtto pro-
ducedistributedextensionand tensionalcrustalfrag- 3. The distributionpatternof Figure 2 seemsto
mentation(includingbasinandrangestructure)along eliminatethe possibilitythat the porphyriesare
trends oriented obliquely to the trend of the San clusteredaroundand controlledby the borderof the
Andreas fault. Cretaceousbasinin southeastern
Arizona(Anderson,
"Evidencesupportinga relationshipbetweenBasin 1966; and Titley, 1970).
and Range structure and oceanic structures has been
describedby Christiansen and Lipman (1970) and The Southwestporphyrybelts persistthrough
Lipman,Pr.ostka,and Christiansen(1970). They severalperiodsof orogenyor tectophases (Johnson,
haveindicated faulting 1971),andthelatest20-m.y.-old
that the initiationof extension porphyrydeposition
in the western United States correspondswith a in Arizona,New Mexico,and Colorado postdates
by
612 J. DAVID LOWELL

FtG. 9. Estimateddepthof erosionrelative to original columnof mineralization

in several porphyry deposits.

8 m.y.the dategivenby platetectonic Postmineralsetting

approximately
authorities for the termination of the East Pacific
Rise and the subduction zone under western North The post-Laramidesettingof the Southwestpor-
America. phyriesis in the basin-range environment of crustal
extension,with intense high-angle and low-angle
Northwesthorstand grabenand rift structuresin
gravity faultingand rapid facieschangesrelatedto
southernArizona may resultfrom a northeast-south-
west extension of a substratum with deformation basinfillingby poorlysorted,clastic,and fiysch-type
focusedalong the Texas Lineament--which may sedimentsalternating with extensive volcanic de-
itself be not so much a large displacementstructure posits. An uncertain but significantamount of
as simplythe edgeof a zoneof thinningof the crust. large displacementoverthrusting of plates also
The apparentdisplacements of the overthrustlobes occurredduringthepostmineral period. This hasre-
do not fit well with this systemof forces. A similar sulted in a great structuraland stratigraphiccom-
discrepancy in Nevadahas beenexplainedas a re- plexity in which rock units in one mountainrange
versal through time from compressionto tension, usuallycannotbe correlatedwith the adjacentranges
but severalfactors in Arizona argue against this. on either side.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 613

Facies changesmake it impossibleto correlate graphichistory) havenot beenexhumedto the depth

Tertiary marker bedsacrossthe province,and it is of their zoneof strongerprimary coppermineraliza-
very difficult to appraisebroad-scale,district-wide tion. Depositssuchas Morenci, Tyrone, and Cari-
Tertiary flexures. If a standardmodel of vertical dad have beenerodedonly to the level of the prot-
zoningof porphyrymikeralizationis assumed,how- ore mineralizationwhichmay overliestrongprimary
ever, then the depth to which individual deposits mineralizationat depth, and these depositshave
have been eroded can be used as a marker to deter- reachedcommericalcopperore grade only as a re-
mine the position of the present ground surface sult of supergeneenrichmentof protore mineraliza-
relative to the ground surfaceduring the principal tion. Depositsin the north and northwestportions
periodof 65-m.y..-oldLaramidemineralization.The of the Southwestprovince have attained ore grade
zoning model assumedis that of Lowell and Guilbert both as a resultof exposureto strongprimary min-
(1970), and depth interpretationsagree with those eralization and also sometimesas a result of strong
of James (1971). Figure 9 showsthe positionof supergeneenrichment. This pattern of erosionhas
the developedore bodiesin the Southwestprovince resulted in an apparent grouping of primary ore
together w•th an estimate,based on mineral assem- gradedepositsnorth and west of an area of relatively
blages,of the depth in the original columnof min- thick Laramide premineralcover centerednear the
eralizationof the presentground surface. A section southeast corner of Arizona. This area is also coin-
through Caridad, Cananea,Red Mountain, Sierrita, cidentallythe approximatelocationof a basin area
and Ajo is shownin Figure 10. These figures indi- in Cretaceous time. Apparentlythe tendencyof this
cate that the northwesternportion of the province region to be downwarpeddevelopedin Cretaceous
has been deeply eroded relative to the southeast time and continuedinto the Tertiary period.
portion.Jeromeand Cook's(1967) "Gila Gap" area, Supergene enrichmentof porphyrycopperdeposits
whichis almostdevoidof mineraldeposits,is roughly probablyoccurredat differenttimesduringthe Terti-
centeredin the deeply erodedarea and may reflect ary period, but in a number of depositsincluding
an area of especially deep erosion of premineral Ray, Silver Bell, and Morenci,the principalperiod
rocks. The depth of erosioncontoursdeterminea of enrichmentapparentlyoccurredabout 30 m.y.
shapesomewhatsimilar to that indicatedby isopac ago (J. H. Courtright, 1973, pers. commun.;Lang-
contoursshowingthe thicknessof marine sediments ton, 1972). Work by Cooley(1972, pers.commun.)
depositedin the Cretaceousbasin. Porphyry de- has indicatedthat ancestraldrainageincludingthat
positsto the southeast(with the exceptionof Bisbee, of the Salt River and Gila River was impounded
which is a different age and has a differentphysio- (in part at least by high-anglefaulting) at about

,•,!ff•--• ,ooo'
l•'l [•l GROUND
___•u.,.'•';•
• --
_ ß .ooo,
2000'

ssum•cl 5000-fOOt ori•inOI

column O! StrOnO
min•rolizofion in •och
o 5o IOO MILES
i I
HORIZONTAL gCALE

FIG. 10. Sectionfrom La Caridad, Sonora,to Ajo, Arizona, showingthe positionof the column
strong primary mineralization in several porphyry depositsrelative to the presentgroundrocks.
614 J. D.4VID LOWELL

this samepoint in Tertiary history. The coincidence province (Hedge and Noble, 1971). Anderson
of a general impoundingof drainagethroughouta (1966) has pointedout that the averageK20/K20
major portion of the Province with the formation of + Na20 content (Niggli's k value) in the South-
chalcociteblanketsat severaldepositssuggeststhat westprovinceis from 0.3 to 0.4, alsotypicalof por-
perhapsa stableground-waterta'blewas established phyry provincesin other parts of the world.
which was conducive to concentration of chalcocite Cracklebrecciazonesare presentin all of the de-
in a limited stratum. An alternate explanation positsand tend to be circularin plan. Thesecrackle
would be that the dammingreflectsa period of in- zones are probablyan effect of the mineralization
tensediastrophisminvolvinglarge vertical displace- rather than a "ground preparation" causeof min.-
mentswhichfortuitouslyfollow sufficientuplift and eralization. Brecciapipesare presentin mostof the
erosionto exposethat part of the vertical column deposits and are an importantore controlin deposits
of mineralizationbest situatedto yield chalcociteen- in the Copper Basin and Copper Creek districts,
richment. Recent work at Morenci by Langton Arizona, and in the Cananea, and Caridad, Sonora,
(1972) and at Caridad by Saegart et al., (1974) districts. The Southwestporphyrydepositstend to
has suggested that at leastpart of the enrichmentof be oval in plan, but severaldistrictsincludingMiami,
these deposits occurred during periods of rapid Silver Bell, and Stafford, Arizona, and Cananea,
differential uplift of fault blocks. Most chalcocite Sonora, are multiple deposit districts which are
blanketsin the Southwestprovinceare now in the elongatedalong a structural zone.
processof destructionby oxidation and leaching The Southwestporphyriesare relativelylarge and
rather than in the processof formation. are relatively well zonedas comparedto porphyries
in most other porphyry districts. If regularity of
Local Features of Southwest Porphyries zoningreflectsattainmentof equilibriumin the min-
Characteristicsof these depositshave been tabu- eralization system,it seemslikely that they formed
lated in several previous papers (Jerome, 1966; at somewhatdeeperlevelsin the crust than deposits
Lowell and Guilbert,1970; Rose,1970; James,1971; of the southwestPacific,the Philippines,and Chile-
and Titley, 1972) and thesedata will not be repeated. Peru provinces. The general"cluster"versus"belt"
The Southwestdepositsoccurin a wide variety of distributionand the well-developed zoningand lack
wall rocks ranging from granodioriteto diorite to of strong structuralcontrol suggestthat they may
andesitcto quartzite and limestone,but they com- have formed under conditions of less extreme diastro-
monly occur in intermediateintrusive rocks. They phism. Geologicrelationships observedby the writer
are usuallywell zoned,with silicatezoningconsisting indicate minimum capping thicknessesof at least
of a central potassiczone grading outward through 5,000feetat Red Mountain,Ari'zona,andperhapsa
phyllic, argillic, and propylitic zones, and with a much greater thicknessat Caridad, Sonora. No ore
central chalcopyriteore mineral zone grading out- grade porphyrymolybdenumdepositsare known in
ward through chalcopyriteand pyrite to a pyrite the Southwestprovince.
outer zone. The depositstend to be more pyritic A variety of porphyry deposittypes and agesac-
than the western Canadadeposits. curs within the Southwestprovince, but general
s7Sr/SøSr valuesin therangeof 0.706to 0.708are conditionsof ore deposition,includingtype of struc-
reportedfor Laramideintrusiveporphyriesat Santa tural controland apparentdepthof formation,appear
Rita, New Mexico, and Ray, Arizona (Moorbath to have beenrelativelyconstant. This suggeststhat
et al., 1967). Thesecomparewith valuesof 0.76 to variationsin mineralogyand alterationzoningin the
0.80 whichwer.eassumedto representthe underlying depositsare related mainly to relatively superficial
Precambrian basementcomplex. Moorbath con- factorssuchas host-rockchemistry,local structural
eludedthat the intrusive rocks did not originateby fabric,and depthof postmineralerosion.
fusion of ancient sialic basement but must have
developed in an environment havingratiosas low, Problems with SubductionOrigin of Porphyries
or nearly as low, as the sourceregionsof basalt. The spatial associationof porphyry belts with
This wouldappearto indicatean upper-mantle source oceantrenchesand presumedsubductionzoneshas
for the intrusivesand possiblyfor the copperand beennotedin severalrecentpapers (Sillitoe, 1972;
molybdenum.Additionals7Sr/SøSr valueshavebeen and Mitchell and Garson, 1972), but this pattern
determinedby Livingston (1972, pers. commun.) doesnot appearto apply satisfactorilyto the South-
for other Southwestporphyriesand thesefall in the west provincebecauseof its distancefrom the con-
0.706to 0.710range(mostare from0.708to 0.710). tinentalmarginand the still inconclusive evidenceof
Theseinitial strontiumratiosare in closeagreement a known ocean trench at the time of the porphyry
with similar data for volcanic rocks in the Southwest mineralization. Other problems are the long per-
 CHARACTERISTICSOF PORPHYRY COPPERDEPOSITS 615

sistence
throughit of masterfissureswhichwere ore agefrom Precambrianto Tertiary. It seemsunlikely
controlsat severalwidely separatedpoints in time that the tin in the Tertiary age Bolivian deposits
and alsothe province's
elliptical,not linear,shape. was derived from the floor of the Pacific Ocean and
The relationshipof plate tectonicmechanisms to processed throughcomplexsubduction concentration
porphyrybeltshas beendescribed by Mitchelland with the resultantore depositscoincidentallyfalling
Garson (1972) as follows: directlyin the Precambrianage tin province.
"Porphyrycopperdepositsare emplacedin igneous A similar relationshipexists in Coloradowhere
beltslocatedeither on continentalmarginsor in island large mid-Tertiary age porphyry molybdenumde-
arcs. These belts are related to partial melting of positsoccurin the same district with molybdenum
wet oceaniccrust descendingalong Benioff zones at mineralization on the contacts of Precambrian age
depthsof 150-250 km. Depositionof the copperoc- intrusions. This suggeststhat an abnormalmolyb-
curs where metal-carrying solutionsrising from the denumconcentrationhas been presentin, or below,
descendingcrust meet meteoric brines." the crust at this location since Precambrian time.
This explanationagreeswith muchof the observed The Precambrian age Jerome deposit in central
geologyin someof the Pacific island-arcdistricts. Arizona is' the largest massive .sulfidecopper de-
It fails to explain,however,how mostof the copper- posit in the western United States. The deposit
richplutonsin someporphyrydistrictsare selectively is one of a group of Precambrianmassivesulfide-
steeredinto what may be a singlefissurezone hun- and vein-typedepositsin the Jeromeand Bradshaw
dredsof miles long and which might have operated mountainsarea (Anderson,1958) which are inter-
as a structuralcontrolfor as long as 140 m.y. The spersed with Laramide age porphyry copper oc-
concentrationprocessoutlined also seemsunneces- currences. Here, also, it is difficult to avoid the con-
sarilycomplicated:first metal-richfluidswere de- vicfion that a copper concentrationhas existed at
rivedfrom the mid-oceanic spreadingcenters;second, depth since Precambriantime.
the metal was concentrated somewhat in oceanic Many aspectsof the timing and distribution of
crust which; third, was subductedunder the con- Southwest porphyry mineralization fit poorly with
tinentalplate and melted;and fourth, the metal was the current plate tectonicsmodel relating porphyry
concentrated by differentiationin the plutonformed depositsto subduction. The district demonstrates
and deposited in and aboveit as a porphyrydeposit evidenceof a large crustal extension--perhapsbe-
whichsomehowendsup alonga fissureon the same ginningearly in Mesozoictime, but the lack of offset
alignment with another deposit formed 140 m.y. on mineralbeltscrossingthe Texas Lineamentsug-
earlier. geststhat only minor northweststrike-slipdisplace-
It would seemmuchsimplerand more logicalto ment occurredalong the feature. Depositionof 20-
derivethe metal directlyfrom a sourcein the lower m.y.-old porphyry depositsindicateseither that At-
crustor uppermantlewith the ore depositproduced water and othershavebeenwrong in interpretingthe
in essentiallyone step,from a plutonmigratingup- chronologyof plate tectonic evolution in western
ward along a zone of crustal weakness. Spreading North America or that the depositsare not related
centersare postulatedto 'bethe sourceof metal-rich to subductionzones. The timing of the changefrom
fluids and it is temptingto suggestthat sucha zone dominantlyandesitevulcanismto basalticvulcanism
may have beenpresentbelow the crust during the in the southwestdoesnot agree with the plate tec-
formationof the Southwestdeposits. However, the tonic modelwhich correlatesthe beginningof basal-
timing of this would not fit current plate tectonic tic vulcanismwith the beginningof extensionand
dogmaand porphyry depositsare rather too acidic basin-rangetype structure (Lipman et al., 1970).
to match the depositsknown to be associatedwith When oneconsidersthat thesediscrepancies occur
spreadingcenters. in western North America which is the site of rela-
If a subductionmechanismis called upon to ex- tively detailedgeologicmappingand intensiveplate
plain the Bolivia tin depositsand the Coloradomin- tectonicresearch,it casts doubt on generalitiesas-
eral belt porphyrymolybdenum deposits,then it be- sumedregardingthe association betweenporphyries
comesapparentthat the principaland probablythe and subduction zonesin the relativelylightly studied
only sourceof metal must have beenthe upper, con- areas of the Pacific and South America.
tinental plate rather than the subductedwet, oceanic
crust. The Bolivian tin depositsoccurnear the west Acknowledgments
end of a tin metallegenicprovincewhich extends The paperhasbeenreviewedby Anne K. Loring,
acrossSouth America and is alignedwith a similar M. E. Cooley,L. C. Arnold, A. R. Still, J. H. Court-
provincein the African continent. Tin mineraliza- right, and J. D. Sell. Illustrationswere made by
tion within the provinceoccursin rocksranging in CarolynShakel,and the manuscript was prepared
616 J. DAVID LOWELL

of geophysicalstudiesin honor of Merle A. Tuve: Am.

byMaryWenzel.Theauthorappreciates
theassist- Geophys.Union, Geophys.Mon. Ser. 10, p. 391-419.
ance of all of these individuals. Hill, R. T., 1928, Transcontinentalstructural digression
[abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 39, p. 265.
5115 N. ORACLE ROAD Jaeger, J. C., 1956, Elasticity, fracture, and flow with
TUCSON,
AR•Z0NA85704 engineeringand geologicalapplications:London,Methuen
July23,1973;January11,1974 & Co., and New York, John Wiley and Sons,Inc., 152 p.
James, A. H., 1971, Hypothetical diagrams of several
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