The McGraw-Hill Companies THIRD EDITION | SOLAR ENERGY Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage S P Sukhatme J K Nayak‘Web Supplements for Instructors and Students Visit http://‘www.mhhe.com/sukhatme/se3e SOLAR ENERGY Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage Third Edition by S.P.Sukhatme & J.K. Nayak is accompanied by a comprehensive set of supplements for both, students and instructors Instructor Resources Student Resources = Solution Manual = Web Links |= PowerPoint Slides + References = _List of Symbols‘Tata McGraw-Hill Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Copyright © 2008, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. First reprint 2008 RCLORRYXRZBQR No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored ina database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. 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However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw- Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw- Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Typeset at Text-o-Graphics, B1/56, Arawali Apartment, Sector 34, Noida 201301, and printed at Rashtriya Printers, M-135, Panchsheel Garden, Naveen Shahdara, Delhi 110 032 Cover Printer: Rashtriya PrintersCi) Contents 4.3 Transmissivity of the Cover System 1/2 4.4 Transmissivity-Absorptivity Product 1/6 4.5 Overall L ffici 4.6 Collector Efficiency Factor 125 4.7 Collector Heat-removal Factor 128 4.8 ANumerical Example 130 4.9 Effects of Various Parameters on Performance 13% 4.10 Analysis of Collectors Similar to the Conventional Collector 150 4.11 Transient Analysis _J5/ 4.12 Testing Procedures 154 4.13 Alternati th ventional Problems 166 References 170 5._Solar Air Heaters 20]... C*TS 5.1_Introduction_J73 5.2 Performance Analysis ofa Conventional Air Heater 174 5.3__Other Types of Air Heaters /8] 5.4 Testing Procedures 193 Problems 196, References 198 Concentrating Collectors 200 6.1 Introduction 200 6.2 _Flat-plate Collectors with Plane Reflectors 204 6.3 Cylindrical Parabolic Collector 205 6.4 Compound Parabolic Collector (CPC) 233 6.5 Paraboloid Dish Collector 244 6.6 CentralReceiverCollector 245 Problems 253 References 255 7. Thermal Energy Storage 258 7.1_Introduction _258 7.2 Sensible Heat Storage 260 7.3 Latent Heat Storage 279 7.4 Thermochemical Storage 283 Problems 285 References 287 8, Solar Pond 289 8.1 Introduction 289 8.2 Principle of Working 290 6Contents = 8.3 Description 297 8.4 Performance Analysis 293 8.5 Experimental Studies 303 8.6 Operational Problems 306 8.7 Other Solar Pond Concepts 3/0 Problems 311 References 311 9. Other Methods for Solar Energy Utilisation 9.1 Photovoltaic Conversion _313 9.2 WindEnergy 33/ 9,3 Energy from Biomass 353 9.4. Wave Energy 363 9.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 366 9.6 Energy in Marine Currents 374 Problems 374 References 377 10. Economic Analysis 0 = 1 C 0.2 _Definiti 382 10.3 Present Worth Calculation 383 10.4 Repayment of Loan in Equal Annual Instalments 384 10.5 Annual Savings 384 10.6 Cumulative Savings and Life Cycle Savings 386 10.7__ Economic Analysis of Add-on Solar Systems _ 388 10.8 Payback Period 392 10.9 Clean Development Mechanism 393 10.10 Concluding Remarks 394 Problems 394 References 397 Appendix I Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Subject Index 313 380 398 404 41 415 417 421 Author IndexPreface to the Third Edition It is nearly 35 years since the first oil shock in 1973. Since then the words “energy crisis’ and “energy security’ continue to dominate the news. Added to these worries now are the issues of climate change. In spite of efforts to promote and develop renewable sources of energy and other new sources, fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) continue to dominate the energy scene. While the need for alternative sources of energy is recognized, no set of alternatives has emerged which can take over the role played by fossil fuels. Meanwhile, the price of oil continues to rise ominously and has crossed $100 per barrel! The above trends have serious implications for India which imports a significant amount of its oil requirements. It is by now reasonably clear that the high economic growth rate of 8 to 10% which we have been witnessing over the last few years may well be compromised because of the high costs of importing crude oil. Hence the importance of developing alternative sources of energy for India cannot be over emphasized. The first edition of this book in Solar Energy was published in 1984 and focused essentially on devices used for collection and storage of solar energy for thermal applications. In the second edition (published in 1996), two chapters were added. This was done on the basis of feedback received which suggested. that the scope of the book be enlarged beyond thermal applications. Thus, one of the chapters was devoted to describing other direct and indirect methods for solar energy utilisation like photovoltaic conversion, wind energy, energy in biomass, etc. The other chapter described techniques for making economic assessments of solar systems. The present edition is a careful update of the material presented in the second edition and also contains a number of new relevant topics. Some of the modifications made in the third edition are as follows: . (i) Chapter 1 describes the overall energy scenario in the world and in India and discusses various alternative energy options. The figures and tables in. this chapter giving data on the consumption and production of various commercial sources of energy have been updated. In addition, the contributions being made now by miscellaneous sources (like wind energy) are included. The chapter also has small write-ups on the report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concemed with global warming,Gi) Preface to the Third Edition Gi) (iii) (iv) wv (vii) (ix) on the use of hydrogen as a secondary energy alternative and on the ITER project for the development of the first nuclear fusion reactor for generating electricity. Chapter 2 is an overview of solar thermal applications. Changes in this chapter include a separation of the discussion on active and passive methods for space heating, a description of the unglazed transpired collector and an expansion of the write-ups on the solar chimney and on solar drying. The information on solar thermal-electric power has been updated and in cooking, the Scheffler cooker and the spherical bow! are described. In Chapter 3 on solar radiation, a few empirical equations used for predicting solar radiation have been updated based on recent literature. However, correlations for predicting daily and hourly diffuse radiation have been deleted since they are not used much. Chapter 4 is on liquid flat-plate collectors. In this chapter, the numerical example for analyzing the performance of a flat-plate collector has been re-worked with new data. Many developments have taken place in the last decade with regard to selective surfaces. These have been described. The section on “Alternatives to the Conventional Collector’ has also been modified with the transparent insulation honeycomb collector being deleted. In Chapter 5 on solar air heaters, the section on ‘Novel Designs’ has been substantially modified. Air heaters which do not appear to be promising anymore like the overlapped glass plate air heater, the honeycomb porous- bed air heater and the jet plate solar air heater have been deleted, while the unglazed transpired collector (which has been commercially developed) is described. In Chapter 6, on concentrating collectors, recent advances in cylindrical parabolic collector technology, paraboloid dish collectors, heliostats and receivers are described, Chapter 7 is on methods for storing thermal energy. In this chapter, correlations for calculating heat transfer and pressure drop in packed-bed storage units have been updated. Phase-change materials are now being used more extensively, Their application in buildings and telecommunication sheds has been described. Chapter 8 is on the solar pond. In the seventies, it was generally felt that solar ponds would be economically more effective than flat-plate collectors for obtaining temperatures in the range of 60 to 90°C. However, this promise has not been realized commercially because of the difficulties associated with maintaining and operating solar ponds over long periods of time. In this edition, the current status of solar ponds is discussed. From the point of view of the modifications, Chapter 9 on ‘Other Methods for Solar Energy Utilisation’ has undergone the most change. The section on photovoltaic conversion has been expanded by including a discussion on performance characteristics of a solar cell with a solved example. The discussion on the current status of different types of solar cells has been