Vol.3/Issue3/May-June 2021 Inter. J.

Pharma O2 ISSN: 2582-4708

International Journal of PharmaO2

Journal Home Page: http://www.ijpo.in/
(IJPO: A Peer-reviewed Bi-monthly online journal)

Research Article
Effects of Palm Kernel Oil, Olive Oil, Crude Oil and Honey on Renal
Function of Male Albino Rats
Chinedu Imo*1, Nkeiruka Glory Imo2 and Nelson Wilson1
1
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Federal University Wukari,
Nigeria.
2
Department of Animal Production and Health, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Federal
University Wukari, Nigeria.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: This study investigated the effects of palm kernel oil, olive oil, crude oil
Received: 12/02/2021; and honey on renal function of male albino rats. These chemical
Revised: 08/03/2021 substances are used in traditional medicine for various purposes, including
Accepted: 07/04/2021; as antidote for poisons. Thirty healthy male albino rats were purchased
Available online: and used in this research study. The animals were randomly placed into
01/05/2021.
five groups (n=6). The animals were administered the corresponding
Key Words: chemical substances for a period of three weeks. They were later
Crude oil, sacrificed and their blood samples and kidneys collected for biochemical
Histology, and histological analysis respectively. Urea increased in all the groups
Honey, administered the different chemical substances compared to the control.
Olive oil, The increase is statistically significant (p<0.05) in groups 4 and 5, and
Palm kernel oil, non-significant (p>0.05) in groups 2 and 3 when compared to the control
Renal function. (group 1). Creatinine increased non-significantly (p>0.05) in all the test
groups compared to the control. Sodium decreased non-significantly
Please cite this (p>0.05) in group 2, but increased non-significantly (p>0.05) in groups 3,
article as: Imo, C., et 4 and 5 compared to the control. Potassium increased non-significantly
al. (2021). Effects of (p>0.05) in group 2, but increased significantly (p<0.05) in groups 3, 4
Palm Kernel Oil,
and 5, while chloride increased significantly (p<0.05) in groups 2, 3 and 5
Olive Oil, Crude Oil
and Honey on Renal
and non-significantly (p>0.05) in group 4 compared to the control.
Function of Male Photomicrographs of histoarchitectural state of the renal tissues showed
Albino Rats. 3(3), some forms of alterations in some parts of the tissues of the test animals
0121-0129. when compared with the control. This study showed that long term
administration of palm kernel oil, olive oil, crude oil and honey, as used in
this study could cause certain alteration to renal functions. The order of
renal intoxication caused by the administration of the chemical substances
is crude oil > honey > olive oil > palm kernel oil.
©2021 Published by International Journal of PharmaO2. This is an open access article.
*
Corresponding author: Dr. Chinedu Imo, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Federal
University Wukari, P.M.B. 1020, Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria. Contact: +2348037505543, e-mail:
chinedu04@yahoo.com

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Vol.3/Issue3/May-June 2021 Inter. J. Pharma O2
Introduction
Currently, different chemical substances,
including palm kernel oil, olive oil, crude oil
and honey are used in traditional medicine for
various reasons such as in management or
treatment of certain diseased conditions. Some
people also use these substances as antidote for
poison.
Palm kernel oil is edible oil which is extracted
from the kernels of the fruits of tropical palm
tree (Hartley, 1997; Ugbogu et al., 2006). Palm
kernel oil has high energy content and is
underutilized as edible oil in Nigeria. In some
regions such as Central Africa and Southeast
Asia, it is a common cooking oil and becoming
popular in some areas due to its low
manufacturing cost compared to some other
cooking oils (Ugbogu et al., 2006; Akubugwo
and Ugbogu, 2007). According to Sutapa and
Analava (2009), the consumption of palm
kernel oil as a source of dietary fat does not
pose any additional risks for coronary artery
disease when consumed in realistic amounts as
part of a healthy diet. Oxidized palm kernel oil
has been reported to induce reproductive
toxicity and organ toxicity particularly of the
kidneys, lungs, liver and heart (Sutapa and
Analava, 2009).
Olive oil appears to be a functional food with
various components such as monounsaturated
fatty acids that are known to possess nutritional
benefits. It has been reported by Moreno and
Mitjavilab (2003) that an increased
consumption of monounsaturated fatty acids
instead of polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces
the risk of atherosclerosis due to its ability to
decrease the circulating lipoprotein’s
sensitivity to peroxidation. In an experimental
study, olive oil phenolic compounds showed
strong antioxidant properties against oxidation
of lipids, DNA and LDL (Covas et al., 2006).
Hydroxytyrosol (2-(3,4 dihydroxyphenyl)
Ethanol, DPE), one of the phenolic compounds
present in extra virgin olive oil has been
suggested to be an active antioxidant which
contributes to the beneficial properties of olive
oil (Deiana et al., 1999).
Crude oil has been described by Orisakwe et al.
(2004) as a complex mixture of over 6000
potentially different hydrocarbons and metals.
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Crude petroleum contains hundreds of
compounds and the chemical composition
varies among geologic formations (Coppock et
al., 1995). In Nigeria, crude oil is
predominantly found in the riverine areas. For
a long period till now, the use of crude oil has
been practiced by the local population for the
management or treatment of various ailments
such as gastrointestinal disorders, burns, foot
rot, leg ulcers and poisoning, and also used
against witchcraft (Umezurike et al., 2016).
Knowledge of human responses to acute
exposures to petroleum components comes
from studies with several solvents containing
benzene and petroleum. There is a concern that
workers and other individuals exposed to crude
oil might have an increased incidence of some
organ damage due to toxicities associated with
it. After absorption through pulmonary or
gastrointestinal routes, crude oil is transported
in plasma: initially bound to albumin and other
larger proteins to the liver (Umezurike et al.,
2016).
Honey is a natural product with very complex
chemical composition. It is composed mostly
of glucose and fructose. It contains more than
180 substances, including amino acids,
minerals, vitamins and enzymes (Lopez-Garcia
et al., 1999; Merken and Beecher, 2000).
Though it is well used in nutrition, it is not well
recognized as a medicine, yet it is one of the
oldest medicines known and has continued to
be used (Jones, 2001). Honey has been known
for so many properties, including as an
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antitumor.
It possesses a considerable hydroxyl radical
scavenging activity and prevents the depletion
of the antioxidant enzymes. It has been
reported to normalize kidney functions and
protect the liver from intoxication (Bariliak et
al., 1996).
In traditional medicine, palm kernel oil, olive
oil, crude oil and honey are used for various
purposes, including as antidote for poisons.
This study is therefore essential because it will
provide information on the effects of using
these chemical substances on the renal
function. This warrants research into the effects
of palm kernel oil, olive oil, crude oil and
honey on renal function of male albino rats.
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Materials and Methods
Chemicals
Crude oil, olive oil, honey and palm kernel oil
were obtained from Port Harcourt, Wukari,
Kurmi L.G.A., and Umuahia, Nigeria
respectively.
Experimental animals
Thirty healthy male albino rats of seven weeks
of age were used in this research study. The
rats were purchased and kept at the
experimental animal house, Department of
Biochemistry, Federal University Wukari,
Nigeria. The albino rats were allowed access to
feed and water ad libitum throughout the period
of the experiment. Standard laboratory
protocols for animal studies were followed. All
methods were performed in accordance with
the relevant guidelines and regulations.
Experimental design
The thirty male albino rats were randomly
placed into five groups of six rats each. Group
1 rats served as normal control (they were not
administered any chemical substance), while
rats in groups 2, 3, 4 and 5 served as the test
animals. The rats in groups 2, 3, 4 and 5
received palm kernel oil (5 ml/kg bw), olive oil
(5 ml/kg bw), crude oil (5 ml/kg bw) and honey
(5 ml/kg bw) respectively for three weeks prior
to animal sacrifice. The corresponding
chemical substances were administered to the
rats once daily through oral route.
Blood collection
After administration of the chemical substances
to the test rats, all the rats were starved
overnight, anaesthetized using chloroform and
sacrificed by cervical dislocation. Blood
samples were collected from each rat through
cardiac puncture and dispensed into plain
sample tubes and allowed to clot for about
fifteen minutes. The samples were centrifuged
at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant
(serum) was collected by simple aspiration
with Pasteur pipette and dispensed into clean
tubes for the biochemical analysis. The kidney
of all the test animals were also harvested for
histological analysis.
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Biochemical and histological analysis
The biochemical parameters selected were
creatinine, urea and electrolytes such as
chloride, potasium and sodium. Urea,
potassium and creatinine were determined
using an auto-analyzer (Reflotron Plus).
Chloride and sodium were determined using
the method of Schonfeld and Lowellen (1964)
and Tietz (1976) respectively.
The kidneys of the rats were harvested and
fixed in 10% formalin. The kidneys were
processed using an automatic tissue processor,
embedded in paraffin wax, and sections cut
using a rotary microtome. The sections were
stained by haematoxylin and eosin (H&E)
method, and were examined. Photomicrograph
of the kidney sections were taken.
Statistical analysis
The biochemical analysis results were analyzed
statistically using One-Way Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) and further with Duncan’s
multiple comparison with the use of Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.
The means were compared for significance at
p≤0.05 and the group results were presented as
mean ± SD (n=6).
Results and Discussion
The result of the biochemical analysis is
presented in the Table 1.
Urea increased in all the groups administered
the different chemical substances compared to
the control. The increase was statistically
significant (p<0.05) in groups 4 and 5, and
non-significant (p>0.05) in groups 2 and 3.
Creatinine increased non-significantly (p>0.05)
in all the test groups compared to the control.
Sodium decreased non-significantly (p>0.05) in
group 2, but increased non-significantly
(p>0.05) in groups 3, 4 and 5 compared to the
control. Potassium increased non-significantly
(p>0.05) in group 2, but increased significantly
(p<0.05) in groups 3, 4 and 5 compared to the
control, while chloride increased significantly
(p<0.05) in groups 2, 3 and 5 and non-
significantly (p>0.05) in group 4 compared to
the control.
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Table 1: Concentration of selected biochemical indices of kidney function in rats administered

palm kernel oil, olive oil, crude oil and honey
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5
Parameters (Normal (Palm kernel oil: (Olive oil: 5 (Crude oil: 5 (Honey: 5
control) 5 ml/kg bw) ml/kg bw) ml/kg bw) ml/kg bw)
Urea 5.03 ± 1.35a 6.72 ± 1.61a,b 5.64 ± 2.05a 11.09 ± 1.83c 8.96 ± 0.60b,c
(mmol/L)
Creatinine 47.43 ± 2.24a 54.47 ± 4.20a 56.03 ± 13.00a 67.20 ± 13.42a 56.47 ± 12.24a
(µmol/L)
Sodium 239.27 ± 9.47a 224.37 ± 19.71a 254.13 ± 15.20a 269.60 ± 21.95a 254.10 ± 38.19a
(mmol/L)
Potassium 5.00 ± 0.09a 5.68 ± 0.48a,b 6.21 ± 0.92b 6.87 ± 0.31b 6.71 ± 0.88b
(mmol/L)
Chloride 119.67 ± 5.25a 162.87 ± 31.81b 164.40 ± 27.76b 150.03 ± 19.69a,b 181.03 ± 2.66b
(mmol/L)
Result represent mean ± standard deviation of group serum result obtained (n=6).
Mean in the same row, having different letters of the alphabet are statistically significant (p<0.05).

Photomicrographs of the kidney sections are presented below:

Fig. 1: Photomicrograph from kidney section of normal rat (group 1) showing normal
histoarchitecture of the renal tissue. The normal glomerulus (G), Collecting duct (Cd), Bowman’s
capsule (Bc), Convoluted tubule (CT) and Bowman’s space (Bs) are shown.

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Fig. 2: Photomicrographs from kidney section of rat administered palm kernel oil showing normal
glomerulus (G), Collecting duct (Cd), Bowman’s capsule (Bc), and Bowman’s space (Bs). However,
some areas of the renal tissue appear to be mildly distorted.

Fig. 3: Photomicrographs from kidney section of rat administered olive oil showing normal
glomerulus (G) and Bowman’s capsule (Bc). Some collecting ducts (Cd) and Bowman’s spaces (Bs)
appeared mildly shrunken.

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Fig. 4: Photomicrographs from kidney section of rat administered crude oil showing evidence of
infiltrations in some arears of the renal tissue. Although, the glomerulus (G) and Bowman’s space (Bs)
appeared normal.

Fig.5: Photomicrographs from kidney section of rat administered honey showing some normal and
some shrunken glomerulus (G). Most of the Bowman’s spaces (Bs) and some of the convoluted
tubules (CT) are enlarged.

The kidney helps in maintaining homeostasis products. The absorption and excretion of
of the body by reabsorbing important materials materials by the kidney is very essential for
such as electrolytes and excreting waste life. Amino acid deamination takes place in the

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liver, where ammonia is converted into urea
and excreted through urine whereas, creatinine
phosphate metabolism is an energy generating
process that takes place in the skeletal muscle
and produce creatinine as a waste which is
equally excreted via urine. Renal
diseases/impediments which diminish the
glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption
rate for urea, creatinine and electrolytes will
lead to their retention in the blood and hence
their level of presence in the blood can be used
as biomarkers for kidney dysfunction. In this
study, creatinine, urea, sodium, potassium and
chloride were used as indices of kidney
function. From the present study, the evident
significant (P<0.05) elevation of serum urea in
rats administered crude oil and honey, as well
as the significantly (P<0.05) raised potassium
and chlorides levels could be attributed to the
damaged of nephron structural integrity (Khan
and Siddique, 2012; Yacout et al. 2012).
However, the result did not show any
significant (P<0.05) variation in creatinine and
sodium ion levels when compared to the
normal rats.
Urea and creatinine are well known general
markers of renal function. Urea is a product of
general cellular metabolism while creatinine is
a specific product of muscle breakdown. A
high level of serum urea is indicative of acute
renal dysfunction, while a high level of serum
creatinine is indicative of chronic renal
dysfunction (Shaikh and Gautam, 2014). There
was an increase of urea level in all the groups
administered the chemical substances (Table
1). The increase was statistically significant
(p<0.05) in groups 4 and 5, and non-significant
(p>0.05) in groups 2 and 3. The increase in
urea suggests alteration of kidney function and
this may be due to the inability of the kidney to
filter urea up to normal levels (Shaikh and
Gautam, 2014). The result of group 4 is in
tandem with the work of Uhegbu et al. (2015)
where similar substances were used. The non-
significant increase in urea level in groups 2
and 3 when compared to the control is
indicative of mild negative effects of palm
kernel oil and olive oil on the kidney. There
was an indicative of more renal toxicity in the
group administered crude oil and honey than
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ISSN: 2582-4708
the groups administered olive oil and palm
kernel oil.
The retention of creatinine in the blood is
indicative of kidney impairment (Okpala et al.,
2014). In this study, Creatinine increased non-
significantly (p>0.05) in all the test groups
compared to the control. However, this non-
significant alteration showed that creatinine
was retained in the blood as a result of the
chemical substances administered to the
animals. The effect is more evident in group 4
administered crude oil which also agreed with
the work of Uhegbu et al. (2015), showing an
indication of kidney impairment. Hence,
according to Imo and Uhegbu (2015) an
elevation in urea and creatinine levels may
possibly be attributed to the damage of nephron
structural integrity. It is therefore obvious that
some structural integrity of the test animals has
been compromised.
Electrolytes are chemicals with either positive
or negative charges. This means they can
interact with water or cellular signals. When
electrolytes such as sodium, potassium and
chloride in the blood are balanced, they suggest
a balance in some organ’s functions, such as
the kidneys. Crook (2007) reported that
abnormal concentration of some electrolytes in
the plasma or serum is an indication of kidney
function impairment. High increase in sodium
level is associated with high blood pressure,
while a significant decrease in sodium indicates
a low blood pressure. The result of this study
(Table 1) indicates that apart from palm kernel
oil which showed the potency of reducing the
serum sodium level, olive oil, crude oil and
honey have the ability to increase sodium level.
Potassium is the primary intracellular
electrolyte that modulates electrical signaling
within the cell, controlling vesicles and
channels. Potassium increased non-
significantly (p>0.05) in group 2, but increased
significantly (p<0.05) in groups 3, 4 and 5
compared to the control. This is an indication
of hyperkalemia (elevated potassium levels)
and maybe be associated with alteration of
kidney function and also indicates that
membrane channels may be possibly affected
by exposure to the chemical substances
(Uhegbu et al., 2015). Chloride is essential for
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the control of osmotic pressure and acid/base
equilibrium. Elevated serum chloride
concentrations may be seen in conditions such
as urinary obstruction, dehydration and
congestive heart valve (Tietz, 1976). From this
study, chloride increased significantly (p<0.05)
in groups 2, 3 and 5 and non-significantly
(p>0.05) in group 4 compared to the control.
These alterations in serum chlorides levels in
all the test animals when compared to the
control is a clear indication of alterations in
acid/base balance and may cause alteration of
the renal function of the test animals.
Different forms of alterations in some parts of
the tissues of the test animals when compared
with the control were observed in the
photomicrographs of histoarchitectural states of
the kidney sections (Figure 1-5). The different
forms of alteration observed is believed to be
due to the effects of the different chemical
substances administered to the test animals.
These alterations showed that despite the
acclaimed medicinal effects of these chemical
substances in traditional medicine, they possess
the ability of interfering with the
histoarchitectural state of the kidneys when
administered for a long time. The alterations
may have contributed to the imbalance of the
serum levels of the electrolytes evaluated,
including the elevation of urea and creatinine
levels in the test animals.
Conclusion
Administration of palm kernel oil, olive oil,
crude oil and honey in the test animals caused
various levels of alterations in renal functions
which was evident based on the alterations of
the indices of renal functions evaluated in this
study. Long term exposure of the chemical
substances for the period used in this study is
therefore discouraged. The order of renal
intoxication caused by the administration of the
chemical substances is crude oil > honey >
olive oil > palm kernel oil.
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict
of interests.
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ISSN: 2582-4708
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