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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH
TROPICAL FRUITS –
FROM CULTIVATION TO CONSUMPTION
AND HEALTH BENEFITS
GUAVA AND MANGO
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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION
AND HEALTH
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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH
TROPICAL FRUITS –
FROM CULTIVATION TO CONSUMPTION
AND HEALTH BENEFITS
GUAVA AND MANGO
SVETOSLAV DIMITROV TODOROV

AND
CRISTINA STEWART BOGSAN
EDITORS
New York

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CONTENTS
Foreword vii
Flávia Carolina Alonso Buriti
Introduction ix
Chapter 1 Mango and Guava: Nutrition and Postharvest Physiology 1
Shao Yin Ooi, Mei Kying Ong, Balakrishnan Kunasundari,
Kokila Thiagarajah and Huey-Shi Lye
Chapter 2 Mango Taxonomy 21
Gabriel Moretti-Almeida
and Thamires Simões Silva
Chapter 3 Postharvest Technology for Fresh Mangoes 33
Henriqueta Talita Guimarães Barboza,
Alexandra Mara Goulart Nunes Mamede,
Antonio Gomes Soares, Gil Fernandes da Cunha Brito,
Elen Vasques Pacheco and Marcos José de Oliveira Fonseca
Chapter 4 Bioactive Molecules and Health Benefits of Mango Peel 59
Mahendranath Gondi and U. J. S. Prasada Rao
Chapter 5 Rejuvenation of Old Mango Orchard 79
Disket Dolkar, Parshant Bakshi,
V. K. Wali and Amit Jasrotia
Chapter 6 Postharvest Physiology and Technology for Fresh Guavas 91
Alexandra Mara Goulart Nunes Mamede,
Henriqueta Talita Guimarães Barboza,
Antonio Gomes Soares, Augusto César Vieira Neves Jr.
and Marcos José de Oliveira Fonseca
Chapter 7 Feasibility of Thermosonication to Improve Mass Transfer during
Osmotic Dehydration of Seedless Guava (Psidium guajava L.) 109
Ali Ganjloo, Russly Abdul Rahman, Mandana Bimakr,
Jamilah Bakar and Azizah Osman

vi Contents
Chapter 8 Potential of Guava Seed as a Source of Feed Supplement 123

Ying Ping Chang and Kwan Kit Woo
Editors' Contact Information 151
Index 153

FOREWORD
Guava and mango are fruits mainly cultivated in tropical regions and are both highly
consumed worldwide, either as raw edible fruit or processed into a variety of food products. It
is unquestionable the high nutritional significance of these fruits as sources of dietary fiber,
vitamins, and minerals, as well as it is emerging to a greater extent the additional benefits to
health associated with the consumption of guava and mango fruits and their related products,
since they accumulate large amounts of pigments and a variety of other phytochemicals with
bioactive properties.
Both, guava and mango, are also fruits of economic significance in the regions where
they are cultivated. Their production chains are expanding progressively as their international
trade is increasing: the demand of guava and mango for row edible consumption exists at the
same time that a growing demand is appearing in consequence of the new opportunities of
industrial use of these fruits.
However, as a result of the increasing demand of these fruits, it appears several
challenges to be solved. Is it possible to act on the reduction of the global food losses,
improving food security, by avoiding fruit losses during their entire production chain? How to
keep undamaged and safety fresh guavas and mangoes throughout the logistics and trade
process? Is it possible to guarantee that a regular consumption of fresh fruits and fruit
products, which is necessary to achieve adequate nutrition and good health, will not result in
an impaired body function due to high levels of pesticides? How to promote sustainable
practices and minimize the possible impacts on the environment in the cultivation process and
the industrial use of guava and mango? How to add value to the by-products obtained from
these fruits?
In this way, important aspects associated to the production chains, technology and
science of guava and mango in addition to the contribution of these fruits for nutrition and
well-being, including the potential activity of the whole fruits, their constituents and other
parts of guava and mango plants for the prevention and the improvement of management of
diseases, are matter of book ―Tropical Fruits From Cultivation to Consumption and Health
Benefits Guava and Mango‖.
Firstly, the effects of guava and mango on nutrition and health, and also the characterization
and composition of these fruits are the subjects of Chapter 1. This chapter also summarizes
the main industrial uses of guava and mango, the safety concerns related to these fruits, along
with the significant features associated with the fresh fruits post-harvest management and
storage.

viii Flávia Carolina Alonso Buriti
Next, the Chapters 2 to 5 are dedicated to mango. Due to highly variable morphological
characteristics of mango, the taxonomy of genus Mangifera is presented in Chapter 2, which
details the historical classification, the botanical characteristics of the main species, with a
special attention to Mangifera indica, the most important mango species producing edible
fruits. Chapter 3 covers the main characteristics of post-harvested mango fruits and introduces
an innovative packing technology developed for mango preservation during the exportation
process. The health benefits of the mango peel components to health and the technologies to
transform mango by-products into new products source of bioactive compounds are shown in
Chapter 4. The strategies to restore or improve fruit productivity of old mango trees are
shown in Chapter 5.
The following four chapters are focused on guava. Chapter 6 describes the important
aspects of guava physiology during the postharvest period, and the techniques applied to fresh
guava preservation, with a special attention to the edible coating materials. Chapter 7 focuses
on fruit processing and preservation showing how thermosonication pretreatment can
overcome the limitations of conventional blanching on mass transfer during the osmotic
dehydration of seedless guava. The destination of guava seeds is still a problem of solid waste
management in guava industry processing and a sustainable strategy to solve this question by
transforming this by-product into meal to feed different livestock is detailed in Chapter 8.
The subject of this book, therefore, includes the most questions related to the science and
technology of guava and mango and brings valuable information to professionals, research
scientists and students, particularly graduates, of food science and technology, food
engineering, nutrition, pharmacy, agricultural and animal sciences, biology, and other related
areas.
Flávia Carolina Alonso Buriti

INTRODUCTION
Food or medicine? That was the question related to our everyday life. Reevaluation of
our nutritional habits from the point of view of the 21-century scientist is underlining that our
health is essentially related to everyday food. Fruits are an important part of nutritional habits
and can be recognized as a supplier of vitamins, minerals, fibers, antioxidants, etc. But from
another side they can influence our GUT microflora and can have the direct and indirect
impact on our health. Our ancestors had no knowledge on the plant taxonomy, enzymes,
antioxidants, microbiology, they even had no idea about the existence of the microbes and all
these molecules. However, they had a one very powerful knowledge, knowledge of traditional
know-how. Based on the personal experience and the knowledge transferred from parents to
children‘s through the centuries, they knew about beneficial properties of the fruits,
vegetables, and medical plants. The longest part of this history was based on empirical
knowledge, gained by experience without former knowledge of either mechanisms or the
scientific basis.
If we look back in history, we can find the use of various fruits, vegetables and medical
plants in the treatment of numerous diseases, appreciated for their nutritional value or used in
everyday domestic processes. Based on empiric experience, a high number of fruits have been
used in traditional medicine. Empiric knowledge, frequently transferred from one generation
to the next, was the only basis for preparation and application of these products.
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) and guava (Psidium guajava) have been widely acknowledged
as nutritionally valuable fruits that formed excellent sources of vitamins and minerals. They
have been cultivated in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Many research
investigations revealed that both plants exhibited numerous medicinal properties. They have
been used to treat many ailments by acting as antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory,
anti-diarrhoea, hypolipidaemia, and anti-cancer. Mango has been found to be widely used in
food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries while guavas were processed into many food
products. However, their physical, chemical, and sensory attributes of these fruits undergo
changes upon the ripening process. Thus, different methods of storage and packaging are
developed to prolong the shelf life and maintain the qualities of these fruits.
From a view of the 21-century scientist, we have sufficient knowledge to address various
beneficial properties to mango and guava. Nowadays, the application of different part of the
mango and guava plants could be seen in the preparation of numerous bioactive molecules.
These molecules include enzymes, antibacterial proteins, antioxidants, various extracts with
application in modern medicine, food industry, etc. In this book, we have tried to collect

x Svetoslav Dimitrov Todorov and Cristina Stewart Bogsan
materials covering some aspects from characterization and place of the mango and guava
plants, into the taxonomical position of the plants; to summarize information about
application of the fruits and other parts of the plant; to cover some aspects of the agro-
technical production of mango and guava fruits; present some points of the problem of
diseases attacking the plants and aspects of microbiology accompanying the production of the
fruits.
Svestoslav Dimitrov Todorov and Cristina Stewart Bogsan

In: Tropical Fruits ISBN: 978-1-63484-674-5
Editors: S. Dimitrov Todorov and C. Stewart Bogsan © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
MANGO AND GUAVA:

NUTRITION AND POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGY
Shao Yin Ooi1, Mei Kying Ong1,

Balakrishnan Kunasundari2, Kokila Thiagarajah3
and Huey-Shi Lye1,
1
Department of Agricultural and Food Science, Faculty of Science,
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, JalanUniversiti, Bandar Barat,
Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
2
Chemical Engineering Technology (Industrial Biotechnology) Program,
Faculty of Engineering Technology (FETech), Universiti Malaysia
Perlis (UniMap), Beseri, Perlis, Malaysia
3
Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Science, UniversitiTunku Abdul Rahman,
JalanUniversiti, Bandar Barat, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Mango (Magnifera indica L) and guava (Psidium guajava) have been widely
acknowledged as nutritionally valuable fruits that formed great sources of vitamins and
minerals. They have been cultivated in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Many
research investigations revealed that both plants exhibited numerous medicinal
properties. They have been used to treat many ailments by acting as antioxidant, anti-
diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoea, hypolipidaemic, and anti-cancer properties
Mangoes have been found to be widely used in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical
industries while guavas are processed into a number of food products. However, their
physical, chemical, and sensory attributes undergo changes during ripening. Thus,
different methods of storage and packaging are developed to prolong the shelf life and
maintain the qualities of these fruits. The present chapter outlines the nutritional profiles,
health benefits and industrial applications of mango and guava. Postharvest, physiology
and safety assessment of these fruits are also discussed.

Corresponding author: Dr Huey-Shi Lye. Email: lyehs@utar.edu.my.

2 Shao Yin Ooi, Mei Kying Ong, Balakrishnan Kunasundari et al.
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Mango
Mango scientifically known as Magnifera indica L is a species in the family

Anacardiaceae. There are 76 genera with more than 600 species associated with this family.
Mango is a perennial crop that can attain a height of 30–40 feet at maturity. This species is
originated from India (Janick and Paull, 2008) and now thrives in more than 90 countries with
tropical or subtropical climates. India has long been a major mango producer in the world
followed by China (FAOSTAT, 2015).
Mango cultivars can be classified into two main categories which are monoembryonic
and polyembryonic depending on the type of embryo develops from the seed.
Monoembryonic mangoes are mainly from India while polyembryonicones are from the
Philippines. Most of the commercial cultivars of M. indica are monoembryonic (Litz and
Gómez-Lim, 2004).
Mango is adaptable to a wide range of soil types and climatic conditions. However,
commercially planted mango performs best on a well-drained alluvial or lateritic soil with an
ideal pH range of 5.5-7.5 and a water table below 180 cm (Ara et al., 2005). The fruit is a
large fleshly drupe of irregular egg-shape and smooth leathery skin with color ranges from
light or dark green to clear yellow during ripening. A very large inedible compressed-ovoid
seed is surrounded by highly aromatic yellow-orange flesh. The quality of the underlying
flesh varies in terms of softness, sweetness and juiciness. Besides being consumed fresh, the
pulp of the fruit is also processed into products such as jams, juices and other products while
the seeds are discarded (Okpala and Gibson-Ume, 2013).
1.2. Guava
Guava (Psidium guajava) is a minor tropical fruit in terms of commercial world trade but
has been grown to a greater extent in the tropics. There are various prevailing opinions
concerning the origin of guava and has been widely postulated to be from southern Mexico
through Central and South America. Currently, guava has been cultivated in tropical and
subtropical parts of the world. It is belongs to the family Myrtacea with about 133 genera and
more than 3800 species (Wilson et al., 2001). Approximately 150 species of small trees and
shrubs have been classified under the genus of Psidium in which only 20 species produce
edible fruits and the rest are wild with inferior quality of fruits. P. guajava is the most
cultivated species of Psidium (Biswas et al., 2013; Mani et al., 2011).
Guava is a small tree or shrub, branching with not more than 10 m in height. The fruit
shape ranges from round, ovoid to pear-shaped, with an average diameter of 4-10cm Guava is
classified as a berry and composed of a fleshy pericarp with numerous small, hard yellowish-
cream seeds embedded throughout it. The exterior skin color ranges from light green to
yellow when ripe while its pulp usually will be white, yellow, pink, or light red. The texture
of unripe guava is hard and starchy. It is acidic in taste and astringent due to its low sugar and
high polyphenol content. The guava pulp becomes very soft and sweet upon maturation
(Adsule and Kadam, 1995). Due to its short shelf life, the fruit is commonly processed into

Mango and Guava: Nutrition and Postharvest Physiology 3
dried guavas, puree, jam and other products. The present chapter outlines the nutritional
values of mango and guava as well as the medicinal properties of various parts from both
plants. The industrial applications, the postharvest physiology and safety assessment of these
plants are also discussed.
2.0. NUTRITIONAL PROFILE AND HEALTH BENEFITS

2.1. Nutritional Composition
2.1.1. Mango
Mango is attractive due to its high nutritive value as well as being reasonably priced. The
fruit is an excellent source of vitamins and minerals. However, nutritional composition may
vary depending on the varieties, growing conditions and degree of the ripeness.
Table 1. Nutrient composition of mango and guava (USDA, 2015)
Nutrient* Unit Mango Guava

Water g 83.46 80.80
Energy kcal 60 68
Protein g 0.82 2.55
Carbohydrate g 14.98 14.32
Fiber g 1.6 5.4
Vitamins
Thiamin mg 0.028 0.067
Riboflavin mg 0.038 0.040
Vitamin A IU 1082 624
Vitamin C mg 36.4 228.3
Vitamin E mg 0.90 0.73
Minerals
Calcium mg 11 18
Iron, Fe mg 0.16 0.26
Magnesium, Mg mg 10 22
Phosphorus, P mg 14 40
Potassium, K mg 168 417
Sodium, Na mg 1 2
*
Value per 100g.
The nutritional value of ripe mango has been reported to be approximately 60 kcal per
100 g fruit (Table 1) (USDA, 2015). Generally, ripe mango has higher percentage of water
content when compared to unripe mango (Shobana and Rajalakshmi, 2010). Sucrose, glucose,
and fructose have been determined to be the major component of carbohydrates in the ripe
mango. Carotenoids such as β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, luteoxanthin isomers,
violaxanthin, and neoxanthin (all-trans and cis) are pro-vitamin A that found abundantly in
mango. The yellow-orange color of mango exocarp and mesocarp are formed by carotenoids.
Vitamin A is essential for vision, growth, cellular differentiation, and immune system
integrity. Ten times higher amount of beta-carotene is found in ripe mango while only trace

amount is detectedin unripe mango. Increasing quantity of mevalonic acid which is a

precursor of carotenoids is noticed during ripening stage of mango. Vitamin C also constitutes
one of the main nutrients in mango but the content decreases during ripening (Yahia, 2011).
Apart from that, vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin) and vitamin E are present in this fruit.
Minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and sodium could be
found in this fruit (Shobana and Rajalakshmi, 2010; Yahia, 2011). Additionally, mango is
rich in several types of antioxidants and phytochemicals such as phenolics (Ornelas-Paz et al.,
2007; Yahia, 2011).
2.1.2. Guava
Guava is considered as one of the exquisite and nutritionally valuable fruit. It formed an
outstanding source of antioxidants such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid), carotenoids, and
polyphenols (Table 1) (USDA, 2015). The fruit comprises three to fourfold higher amount of
vitamin C as a single orange (71 mg per 100g serving). Vitamin C is essential for immune
system stimulation, connective tissue formation as well as to reduce the incidence of
degenerative diseases such as arthritis, arteriosclerosis, and cancer. In addition, antioxidants
are known to retard aging as well as preventing or delaying oxidative damage of lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids caused by reactive oxygen species (Feskanich et al., 2000).
Besides, this fruit also has good levels of vitamin A and dietary minerals such as potassium,
magnesium, phosphorus, and calcium. The presence of pronounced amount of dietary fiber
makes guava as a popular choice for ensuring normal bowel movements parallel to preventive
treatment for constipation. Investigation also revealed that the presence of hydrocarbons,
alcohols, and carbonyls that formed volatile compounds are attributed towards the flavor of
guava (Yahia, 2011).
2.2. Medicinal Values
2.2.1. Mango
All the parts of tree including the leaves and barks of M. indica have been found to
possess numerous medicinal properties. Mangifera indica plant has been used to treat many
ailments where it acts as antioxidant, anti-diabetic, hypolipidaemic, anti-obesity, anti-
inflammatory, anti-diarrhoea, analgesic, and anti-cancer. Mango pulp, leaves, stem bark, and
peel are rich in antioxidants and possess free radical scavenging properties (Ajila et al., 2007;
Kim et al., 2009). Free radicals are responsible for cell damage by attacking important
macromolecules and cause homeostatic disruption. Therefore, continuous free radicals may
lead to tissue damage that will eventually contribute to diseases such as cardiovascular,
inflammatory disease, cataract and cancer (Lobo et al., 2010). On the other hand, antioxidants
play huge role as potent free radical terminator and are known to prevent diseases such as
cancer, macular degeneration, neurodegeneration and also immunodeficiency disorders
(Saljoughian, 2008).
It has been reported that M. indica is loaded with many phenolic compounds such as
gallic acid, benzoic acid, mangiferin, catechin, epicatechin, beta-carotene and ascorbic acid
(Sellés et al., 2002; Ribeiro et al., 2007). Thus, ingestion of any parts of the plant may provide
protection from getting diseases that are related to free radical accumulation in the body.

However, the total antioxidant capacities vary between the varieties of mango (Ma et al.,
2011).
Mango leaf extracts has also been reported to possess powerful anti-diabetic properties.
The effect of oral treatment with mango leaf extracts on blood glucose levels of six normal
and twelve diabetic rats of both sexes have been studied. The findings showed that the
extracts were able to reduce blood sugar in both normal blood glucose level
(normoglycaemia) as well as in high blood sugar level (hyperglycaemia). However, it is more
effective in type 2 diabetes compared to type 1 diabetes (Aderibigbe et al., 2001). The
extracts were found to induce the β-cells in pancreas to secrete more insulin which
subsequently reduced the blood sugar level (Sharma et al., 1997). Another possible
mechanism of action could be due to the extracts that caused the reduction in intestinal
glucose absorption (Aderibigbe et al., 1999). Sarmah and Hazarika (2012) also carried out an
experiment to analyze the anti-diabetic effect of ethanolic extract of mango leaves among
twenty albino rats. Similar observation was reported where the ethanolic mango leaves
extracts were proven to have positive hypoglycaemic effect. These researches indicated that
mango leaf extracts can be possibly used to alleviate the medical conditions of diabetic
patients.
On the other hand, hyperlipidaemia is a common problem in type 2 diabetic patients. In a
study on the effect of mangiferin with exercise on blood lipids which conducted on
genetically induced type 2 diabetic male KK-Aymice, the authors found that the extracted
mangiferin ingestion with exercise showed a higher reduction in cholesterol and triglyceride
levels due to metabolic improvement compared to exercise alone (Miura et al., 2001). In
another research, stem bark and leaf extracts were tested through both in vivo using eighteen
male rats and in vitro to study their lipid metabolisms properties. This study showed that both
extracts significantly reduced pancreatic lipase and lipoprotein lipase. This will reduce the
intestinal absorption of fat and fatty acid uptake of adipocytes. The stem bark and leaf
extracts also down regulated genes that are responsible for lipoprotein lipase, increased faecal
fat excretion and reduced serum glucose. This showed that the plant can regulate the lipid
metabolism which may prevent insulin resistance and also indirectly possesses the anti-
obesity property (Moreno et al., 2006).
Vimang is an aqueous decoction of M. indica stem bark extract which is widely used in
pharmaceutical formulations in Cuba. It has been reported to have strong anti-inflammatory,
analgesic and antioxidant activities (Elzaawely and Tawata, 2010). In vivo studies on mice,
rats and guinea pigs revealed that it was able to reduce carrageenan- and formalin-induced
oedema and the effect is similar to those common anti-inflammatory drugs in the market such
as indomethacin (Garrido et al., 2001). Besides, the ethanolic extract of mango leaves have
the potential of analgesic effect. In vitro studies elucidated that the mechanism behind the
anti-inflammatory effect of Vimangcanact by inhibiting the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and
human synovial secretory phospholipase (PL) A2 (Garrido et al., 2004).
Kernel of mango has been traditionally used to treat diarrhoea. Alkizim et al. (2012) has
revealed the mechanism of action of the kernel extracts. They reported that it was able to
inhibit contractility of jejunum. The effect was immediate but short lived or the wash out
period is transient compared to the reference drug, loperamide. The anti-diarrhoeal activity of
the extracts could be due to the presence of tannic acids and tannin (Sairam et al., 2003).
Mangoes also have some impacts on most of the cancers tested due to its high phenolic
and flavanoid content but were most effective with breast and colon cancers. It has free

radical scavenging property that prevents DNA damage which is the root cause for cancer
development. Mango peel was found to possess high radical scavenging property and anti-
proliferative effect on cancer cells compared to the flesh (Kim et al., 2009). Besides mango
flesh and peel, the kernel also has tremendous anti-proliferative properties. A study conducted
by Bakar et al. (2010) showed that the ethanolic extract of the kernel from M. pajang species
was able to suppress the proliferation of both hormone and non-hormone dependent breast
cancer cells. They found that cytotoxicity of the cells was achieved via programmed cell
death or apoptosis which is an ultimate target of most cancer chemotherapy drugs. The same
effect was also observed in colorectal cancer cells (Wu et al., 2015).
2.2.2. Guava
Psidium guajava has been traditionally used for treating a number of diseases throughout
the world. It is also well known for the treatment of ulcer, abscesses, wounds, sores, venereal
diseases, toothaches, and ear infection. Chah et al. (2006) revealed that the methanolic extract
of P. guajava leaves possess remarkable growth inhibitory activities against multiresistant
Gram-positive and Gram-negative wound isolates. Antibacterial activities of the extracts
against eleven wound isolates (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Proteus spp. and Shigella spp.) were determined using well diffusion method.
Psidium guajava extracts were found to inhibit the growth of wound isolates by 81.8%. A
more recent study by Pandey and Shweta (2012) evaluated the antibacterial properties of
ethanolic, methanolic, ethyl acetate and hot water extract from leaves, fruits and stems of P.
guajava against bacterial pathogens (P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and E. coli). The antibacterial
activities of the extracts were tested using agar well diffusion and minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC) values. Methanolic and ethanolic extract from stems showed a higher
antibacterial activity with inhibition zone of 28.5 mm against P. aeruginosa compared to
extracts from leaves and fruits. The MIC values of ethanolic, ethyl acetate and methanolic
extracts against P. aeruginosa were 1.98 mg/ml, 0.33 mg/ml and 0.05 mg/ml, respectively.
The authors also revealed that it might be due to the antibacterial compounds such as
reducing sugar, tannins, phlobatannins, saponins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and polyphenols that
are present in P. guajava.
Additionally, the leaves of P. guajava have been used in folk medicine for many years to
manage, control or treat diarrhoea. Several studies were conducted to study the anti-diarrhoeal
activity of P. guajava. Salgado et al. (2006) found that the administration of 1000 mg/kg
body weight of P. guajava aqueous extract induced significant (P < 0.05) diminution of
intestinal motilityin mice. Another study conducted by Ojewole, Awe and Chiwororo (2008)
reported that the P. guajava leaf aqueous extract (50-400 mg/kg) produced dose-dependent
and significant (P < 0.05-0.01) protection of rodents against castor oil-induced diarrhoea, as
well as inhibited intestinal transit and delayed gastric emptying. Psidium guajava leaf
aqueous extract also reduced the volume of castor oil-induced intestinal fluid secretion and
decreased number, weight and wetness of faecal droppings. These findings indicated that P.
guajava extract possessed anti-diarrhoeal activity and could be used as an effective treatment
for diarrhoea.
Moreover, P. guajava was reported to have hypoglycaemic properties and offered a good
opportunity in the therapy of diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorders characterized by
rapid elevation of blood sugar level. The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is becoming serious
threat to human health. Wild et al. (2004) estimated that the total number of people suffering

from diabetes would rise from 171 million in 2000 to 366 million in 2030. Protein tyrosine
phosphatase 1 B (PTP1B) has emerged as a therapeutic target in the treatment of type 2
diabetes (van Huijsduijnen, Bombrun and Swinnen, 2002). PTP1B acts as a negative
regulator of insulin in signaling and inhibiting the PTP1B-mediated negative insulin signaling
pathway that would increase insulin sensitivity (Saltiel and Kahn, 2001). Oh et al. (2005)
investigated the PTP1B inhibitory effect in vitro and anti-diabetic activities of P. guajava
leaves extract in both one- and three-month-old (n = 16) type 2 diabetes model, Leprdb/Leprdb
mice. A significant (P < 0.05) inhibitory effect was observed at 30μg/ml of methanol extract
of P. guajava (87% inhibition) during screening for PTP1B inhibitory activity. In addition, a
reduction in blood glucose level (P < 0.05) was observed in both 1- and 3- month-old
Leprdb/Leprdb diabetic mice upon administration of extract (10mg/kg) for 4 weeks. It was
concluded that extract from P. guajava leaves possesses anti-diabetic effect in type 2 diabetic
mice model, mediated by the inhibition of PTP1B.
Besides, P. guajava is also known to have anti-plaque effect. Streptococcusmutans have
long been implicated in the formation of dental plaque (Loesche, 1986) by adhering to enamel
surface (Weiss et al., 1982) and ferment dietary carbohydrates, especially sucrose (Hardie,
1992). Sucrose metabolism promotes firm adherence (Whittaker, Klierand Kolenbrander,
1996) and cellular aggregation of bacteria to tooth surface and acid produced leads to dental
caries. Prabu et al. (2006) reported that the active flavonoid compound, quercetin-3-O-α-L-
arabino-pyranoside (guaijaverin), demonstrated high potential antiplaque agent by inhibiting
the growth of the S. mutans. Guijaverin was found to possess bacteriostatic, heat and acid
stable and alkaline labile anti-S. mutans activity with minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) of 4 mg/ml for S. mutans MTCC 1943 and 2 mg/ml for S. mutans CLSM 001.
Nevertheless, extracts of P. guajava leaves have been used worldwide for the treatment
of various inflammatory ailments. The anti-inflammatory property of ethanolic leaf extract
was investigated on experimental animal models by Dutta and Das (2010). Four groups of
albino rats of either sex, weighing 150-200g (n = 6) were studied for acute inflammation by
carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, subacute inflammation by granuloma pouch method and
chronic inflammation by Freund‘s adjuvant-induced arthritis method. Two test groups were
administered orally with ethanolic extract of P. guajava leaves at doses of 250 mg/kg body
weight and 500 mg/kg body weight, respectively; while the control group was administered
with 3% gum acacia in 10 ml/kg body weight; and the standard group received 100 mg
aspirin/kg body weight, for up to 4 hours (acute inflammation), 4 days (subacute
inflammation) and 12 days (chronic inflammation). The ethanolic extract of P. guajava leaves
showed a significant (P < 0.05) anti-inflammatory activity against acute, subacute and chronic
inflammation on the experimental animal models. It might be due to the presence of
flavonoids in guava leaves that have anti-proliferative activity which can reduce weight and
volume of granuloma contents in inflammation.
2.3. Industrial Applications
2.3.1. Mango
Mangifera indica is a rich source of mangiferin, also known as super antioxidant. The
phenolic compound can be found mainly in young leaves and stem bark of mango tree. Thus,

it has been patented for its cosmetic use. It is claimed to prevent and reduce the effects caused
by heat stress on the lips, skin or hair (Charrier et al., 2006).
Herbal dye has become popular due to its nature of being softer and pleasant in tones and
ecological friendly compared to synthetic dyes. Mango bark contains color compounds such
as tannin, glycoside, flavonoid and phenolic compounds (Win and Sew, 2008). Mangiferin
that is extracted from bark and leaves are being used to dye silk in India which gives yellow
color (Gokhale et al., 2004). It has also been used in Myanmar to dye wool and silk.
On the other hand, gum or resin of mango which can be obtained from the incised trunk
was found to be useful as an excipient in uncoated tablet making. It can be used as a great
binding agent in pharmaceutical industry due to its moisture sensitivity, low level of ash,
good flow with moderate compressibility, pH sensitivity, and high structural stability (Singh
et al., 2010).
2.3.2. Guava
The main constituents of guava are vitamins, tannins, flavonoids, phenolic compounds,
essential oils, sesquiterpene alcohols, and triterpenoid acids (Barbalho et al., 2012). These
compounds are related to many pharmacological or health effects of guava. Although guava is
commonly consumed as fresh fruit, it is also processed into a number of products such as
puree, jellies, jams, juice, canned products and dehydrated or dried snacks (Cunha et al.,
2012).
In most cases, the guava is first converted into puree before further processing into other
products. Highly viscous guava puree is diluted to form nectar or subjected to enzymatic
treatments to make clarified juice. The ascorbic acid content in guava juice may be either
increase or decrease by using enzyme treatment. Brasil et al. (1995) reported that the
treatment of guava juice with 600 ppm of pectin enzyme at 45°C for 120 minutes, in
association with fining agents (silica sol and gelatin), produced guava juice with good
stability and maintaining the same ascorbic acid content as the puree before enzyme addition.
Similar conditions (700 ppm of pectin enzyme at 50°C for 90 minutes) were suggested by
Chopda and Barrett (2001) to produce juice with higher yields of ascorbic acid and soluble
solids contents, without a significant loss in guava flavor.
Canned guava is a popular product in India, Pakistan and Indonesia (Sidhu, 2012). It can
be produced by thermal processing of guava fruits in sucrose and/or glucose solution (Cunha
et al., 2012). Canned guava in syrup showed increased hardness and elasticity with higher
rupture stress and strain than fresh guava fruit. Dried guava slices can also be produced by
dehydrating guava slices via air-drying, osmotic dehydration or osmovac dehydration (Sidhu,
2012). Besides, guava powders are produced as value-added products. Osorio et al. (2011)
developed two types of guava powders by subjecting the whole guava fruits to hot-air drying
and lyophilization methods. Both powders obtained were rich in pectin and had good
retention of guava aroma. These value-added products are an alternative to process guava for
commercialization.

3.0. POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGY

Mango is a climacteric fruit and exhibits a burst in the respiratory activity and ethylene
production during ripening (Akamine and Goo, 1973; Biale and Young, 1981). The ultimate
aim of postharvest technology for mango is to minimize the rate of respiration and ethylene
biosynthesis of fruit. The respiratory patterns of mango are influenced by several factors such
as cultivar, harvest maturity, ethylene, and postharvest handling conditions such as storage
temperature and atmosphere, disease incidence, and heat treatments (Lalel et al., 2005; Nair
and Singh, 2003).
Guava has a characteristic of climacteric fruits because the flesh softens and the skin
color develops after harvesting. Thus, a number of authors consider it a climacteric fruit
(Bashir and Abu-Goukh, 2003; Sidhu, 2006), whereas some others consider it as
nonclimacteric (Chitarra and Chitarra, 2005). For some guava cultivars, such as ‗Pedro Sato,‘
it was observed that postharvest ripening and senescence occur independently of the carbon
dioxide and ethylene climacteric behavior (Azzolini et al., 2005).
3.1. Physical, Chemical and Sensory Attributes
Physical, chemical and sensory attributes of mango and guava were investigated by
several researchers as tabulated in Table 2. Physical attributes of fruit quality were assessed
by its peel color and fruit firmness or texture. Upon ripening, the fruit color changes from
green to yellow, orange or red due to degradation of the chlorophyll and the synthesis of
carotenoids and anthocyanins. Chemical attributes of fruits were analyzed in term of its
carbohydrates, organic acid, vitamin C, protein, minerals, lipids, phenolic compounds and
dietary fiber contents. Aroma is an integral component of fruit flavor which influences
consumer perception and regards as an important attribute for sensory evaluation of fruit
quality.
3.2. Postharvest Losses
3.2.1. Mango
There are many factors that cause postharvest losses of mango. One of the major causes
is the chilling injury. Mango fruit is highly chilling sensitive and cannot be stored below 13°C
(Malik and Singh, 2005). The severity of chilling injury (CI) depends upon the storage
temperature, duration of exposure, maturation stage, cultivar, and pre-storage conditions
(Phakawatmongkol et al., 2004). The symptoms of CI in mango include pitting or sunken
lesions, skin discoloration, lenticel spotting, flesh browning, uneven ripening, reduction in
carotenoid development, insipid flavor, and increased susceptibility to decay (Han et al.,
2006).
In addition, skin disorders of mango such as sapburn; etch browning and internal
breakdown lead to postharvest losses. Mango, being a member of Anacardiaceae family, has
an extensive resin duct system in fruit and stems with no continuity between the fruit and
stem ducts (Jole, 1981). When fruit is detached from the stem, the sap or latex bursts out with

a considerable pressure and smears over the fruit surface, damaging the skin with symptoms
ranging from small dark spots to dark sunken blotches (O‘Hare et al., 1999). Sapburn
seriously impairs the visual quality of fruit which leads to lower consumer acceptance
(O‘Hare et al., 1999).
Apart from sapburn, a number of forms of blemish have been identified and collectively
grouped under the term ‗etch‘ which consists of numerous small brown flecks, which when
viewed from a distance give the appearance of a brown blemish (O‘Hare et al., 1999).
Table 2. Physical, chemical and sensory attributes of mango and guava
Attributes Mango Guava

Color  -carotene, xanthophyll esters, and  The maturity of the guava is
xanthophylls are the principal usually indicated by its skin color
carotenoids in the mango peel and it turns from dark green to
(Lizada, 1993). yellowish green (Tucker, 1993).
 Anthocyanidinhexoside (peonidin-  Some cultivars maintain the green
3-O-glucoside) is a major color during maturation (Sidhu,
anthocyanin in skin of red colored 2006).
mango cultivars (Berardini et al.,
2005).
 
Physical
Texture/Firmness Cell wall polymers such as pectin, The texture of green and ripe
cellulose, and hemicellulose fruits is consisted of pectin
undergo substantial transformation polymers.
and solubilization during ripening of  The differences in the rate of
fruit. softening between cultivars
 Rapid increase in water soluble correlate well with the extent of
pectin (WSP), chelator-soluble loss of total pectin content (Chin
polyuronides, chelator soluble et al., 1994).
carbohydrates, and a decrease in
total polyuronides in mango during
ripening (Ali et al., 2004; Chaurasia
et al., 2006).
Carbohyd-rates and  Total soluble solids increased from  Guava cultivars are reported to
organic acids 7.0% to 15.0% in ‗Alphonso‘ differ in their final sugar contents;
(Thomas, 1975), from 4.9% to fructose varied from 5.6% to
11.6% in ‗Keitt‘ (Medlicott and 7.7%, glucose from 1.9% to
Chemical
Thompson, 1985) and from 6.2% to 18.1%, and sucrose from 6.2% to
about 14.0% in ‗Kensington Pride‘ 7.8% (El-Buluk et al., 1996).
mangoes (O‘Hare, 1995).  Citric, malic, glycolic, tartaric,
 Citric acid and malic acid have been and lactic acids mainly contribute
found as predominant organic acids toward the acidity of guava fruit.
in Keitt‘ mango (Medlicott and
Thompson, 1985).

Attributes Mango Guava

Vitamin C, protein  The decreased vitamin C contents in  Guava is a good source of many
and minerals fruits during ripening may be important minerals such as
ascribed to the vulnerability of phosphorus (23–37 mg/100 g),
vitamin C to oxidative destruction calcium (14–30 mg/100 g), and
(Othmanand Mbogo, 2009) iron (0.6–1.4 mg/100 g).
 A good source of many vitamins
 The protein content of Langra and
like ascorbic acid, niacin,
Samar Bahisht Chaunsa is 0.64% pantothenic acid, thiamine,
and 0.58%, respectively (Naz et al., riboflavin, and vitamin A (Paull
2014). and Goo, 1983).
Lipids, phenolic  Total lipids, as well as glycerides of  Total polyphenol content of 495
compounds and the fruit pulp, increased during mg/100 g fresh fruit, with a high
dietary fiber ripening of ‗Alphonso‘ mango content of gallic acid (374.3
(Bandyopadhyay and Gholap, mg/100 g fresh fruit).
1973).  High contents of dietary fiber
 The total phenol content is higher in (48.55–49.42%, dry basis) and
skin than pulp during all extractable polyphenols (2.62–
developmental stages of mango fruit 7.79%, dry basis) (Jimenez-
(Kondo et al., 2005). Escrig et al., 2001).
Aroma  Mango aroma is mainly contributed  Costa Rican guava aroma was
by volatile compounds, particularly mainly constituted by-
Sensory
terpenes and followed by esters, caryophyllene, α-terpineol, α-

ketones, and lactones. pinene, α-selinene, -selinene, δ-
cadinene, 4,11-selinadiene, and α-
copaene (Pino et al., 2002).
The etch symptoms are scattered all over the fruit surface but more at contact points
among fruit and towards the stem end (O‘Hare et al., 1999). The other disorder of mango is
internal breakdown. Internal breakdown is a common term used to describe disorders of
mango fruit mesocarp related to premature and uneven ripening. However, it is an umbrella
term which covers many disorders such as spongy tissue, soft nose, jelly seed, and stem-end
cavity.
Besides, the other factor that causes postharvest losses in mango cultivation is undeniably
the postharvest diseases. Mango fruit is highly susceptible to many post-harvest diseases. The
susceptibility to postharvest diseases increases during storage after harvest due to
physiological changes and senescence pathogen development (Prusky et al., 2002).
Anthracnose, stem-end rot, and Alternaria rot are the major postharvest diseases which limit
the long term storage of the fruit. The wide scale prevalence of anthracnose and stem-end rot
in humid tropical areas causes heavy losses in mango fruit (Arauz, 2000).
3.2.2. Guava
The main factors that depreciate the postharvest quality of guava are excessive softening,
mechanical injuries, high incidence of rottenness caused by fungi, shriveling of the fruit,
malformation, and loss of brightness (Kader, 2002). Among all these factors, mechanical
injuries and postharvest diseases are the main factors responsible for reducing guava quality,

leading to significant postharvest losses. Harvesting and postharvesting losses are estimated
to reach up to 40% in some countries, such as Brazil and Pakistan (Khushk et al., 2009).
For guava, over 90 pathogens of the fruit have been reported. Moreover, 17 fungi were
isolated from the washed surface of the fruits, which are responsible for various diseases such
as pre- and postharvest fruit rots (dry rots, wet rots, soft rots, sour rots, brown rots, ripe rots,
scab, ring rots, pink rots, and waxy fruit rots), canker, wilt, die back, defoliation, twig drying,
leaf spot, leaf blight, anthracnose, red rust, sooty mould, rust, seedling blight, and damping
off (Misra, 2004). Anthracnose is the most important disease of guava, caused by
Glomerellacingulata (Stonem) (Snowdon, 1990). Symptoms include brown or black spots,
leading to sunken patches are becoming more apparent as the fruit matures.
3.3. Storage and Packaging
3.3.1. Mango
Mango is commonly stored at chilled condition. However, mango is highly sensitive to
chilling temperatures because being a fruit crop of tropical origin. A wide range of storage
temperatures has been described in various investigations on the storage of mango, but the
most common safe storage temperature for mango is 12–13°C for 2–3 weeks of storage
(Malik and Singh, 2005).
Further to that, controlled atmosphere (CA) in combination with an optimum storage
temperature has been reported to prolong the shelf life and maintain fruit quality in mango.
However, the application of CA for mango is limited on a commercial scale. The research on
CA storage of mango began about seven decades ago when Singh et al. (1937) reported that
mango can be stored in CA containing 9.2% O2 to prolong their ripening period. The CA
requirements of mangoes vary among cultivars and also depend upon the harvest maturity.
Low-pressure storage (LPS), also known as hypobaric storage, has been found useful for
long-term storage of mangoes (Burg, 2004). The storage life of ‗Haden‘ mangoes was
enhanced to 8 and 13 days at room temperature when these were stored in LPS at a pressure
of 200 and 150 mmHg, respectively (Burg and Burg, 1966).
A variety of edible coating materials have also been tested on mangoes including
carnauba wax, shellac, zein, cellulose derivatives, chitosan and its derivatives and other
composite mixtures containing sucrose esters of fatty acids and a sodium salt of
carboxymethylcellulose. Results obtained were variable due to different coating materials,
concentrations, methods of application and maturity stages of fruit selected for
experimentation (Diaz-Sobac et al., 2000).
3.3.2. Guava
There are several ways of storage and preservation of guava. The use of low temperatures
is the most common practices for increasing the shelf life of guava. Guava, like most tropical
fruits, is highly chill sensitive and precise temperature range for storage is vital. Various
authors have observed that guava stored from 5 to 10C and 85-95% of relative humidity can
be preserved for 2–5 weeks (Barkai-Golan, 2001). Mature-green guavas are chiller sensitive
than fully ripe fruit. In the first case, the mature-green guava should be stored from 8 to
10C, while fully ripe fruits may be kept for up to a week at 5C without exhibiting signs of
chilling injury (Kader, 2009).

Besides cold storage, ionizing radiation has been reported to delay the ripening of guava.
Singh and Pal (2009) observed that the use of ionizing radiation treatment on guava cultivars
‗Lucknow-49‘ and ‗Allahabad Safeda‘ suppressed the respiration and ethylene production
rates, retarding fruit ripening during storage and consequently delaying the physical and
biochemical changes associated with ripening such as firmness, titratable acidity, soluble
solids, and vitamin C during storage.
Guavas are climacteric fruits and respond well to modified atmosphere storage. Storage
in low-density polyethylene films retards ripening by slowing down the processes of
softening and increasing soluble solids, acidity and ascorbic acid (Lazan and Ali, 1997).
Treatment with 10% O2 and 5% CO2 for 24 h, prior to storage in air for two weeks at 4°C,
delayed color development and reduced damage from chilling (Bautista and Silva, 1997). The
use of a coextruded polyolefin film maintained good sensory characteristics of cultivar.
‗Kumagai‘ guava for 28 days under refrigerated storage (Jacomino et al., 2001), while up to 6
weeks of shelf life was achieved for the cultivar ‗Pedro Sato‘ with the use of modified
atmosphere packaging (MAP) in Cryovac packaging under refrigeration at 8C (Yamashita
and Benassi, 2000).
The use of edible coatings has been also employed in enhancing the shelf life of guava.
As compared to non-treated guava, coated fruits exhibited lower weight loss during storage,
which was associated with the increase in shelf life and, consequently, a decrease in
postharvest losses (Ribeiro et al., 2005).
4.0. FOOD SAFETY CONCERNS

There are distinctly rare hypersensitivity reactions with life threatening consequences that
could be triggered through consumption of mango. Both immediate and delayed
hypersensitivity reactions have been documented. Immediate hypersensitivity reaction to
mango may manifest either as a systemic anaphylaxis or a local reaction. Some of the signs
are wheezing dyspnoea, erythema, urticaria, angioedema, and anaphylaxis. Delayed
hypersensitivity reactions have been observed in the form of contact dermatitis and periorbital
edema. It is also possible for an individual to develop allergic reactions to mango without
prior exposure, owing to cross reactivity. A comprehensive review on hypersensitivity
manifestations to mango with an updated summary of the evidences in the field is available
elsewhere (Sareen and Shah, 2011). Guava shows less common association towards food
hypersensitivities that is linked with latex-allergy when compared to mango (Blanco, 2000).
CONCLUSION
The reasonably priced and high nutritional values of mango and guava are proven to
possess medicinal properties which have increased their commercial interest worldwide.
Numerous ways of processing these fruits have also been exploited for industrial applications.
In term of postharvest aspect, ripening of the fruits depends on the changes of physical and
chemical physiology of mango and guava fruits. In addition, handling care and storage
conditions are the main factors that affect the postharvest loss of both fruits. Although rare,

the fruits may cause life threatening consequences such as hypersensitivity reactions or latex-
allergy.
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Chapter 2
MANGO TAXONOMY
Gabriel Moretti-Almeidaand Thamires Simões Silva

Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology,
São Paulo University, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Mango is the fruit produced by the mango tree. The mango tree root system is
characterized as the articulated and superficial way, with thin, fibrous roots in its
composition. In its inflorescence are present hermaphrodites and male flowers on the
same panicle characterizing (polygamous inflorescences). The mango fruit has different
weight and size according to the studied species. The fruit can be more or less fibrous
according to the variation in climate and soil quality. Within the Mangifera genus have
the wild type mango tree are represented by different species of Mangífera. Found in
tropical Asia, particularly in northeastern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-
China, South China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and
Solomon Islands. Inside the Mangifera genus are included about 60 species. M. indicates
the most significant, although there are other species that produce edible fruits such as M.
altissima, M. caesia, M. lagenifera, M. macrocarpa, M. odorata and M. sylvatica, today
the sleeve is already produced in 94 countries. Most species have thick twigs and rather
coriaceous leaves seated on protruding pedestals. The small, hardly flattened ovoid or
ellipsoid fruits that are black or partly red at maturity in several species are also
characteristic. Rawais the malay word for marsh, indicating that these species usually are
found in periodically or permanently inundated areas. The five species that occur in West
Malesia (M. gracilipes, M. griffithii, M. microphylla, M. paludosa and M. paroifolia)
grow primarily in the Sumatra and Western Borneo, and occasionally in peripheral
uplands. It has also been reported from the Andaman Islands and Thailand.

e-mail: gabrielmoretti@usp.br.

22 Gabriel Moretti-Almeida and Thamires Simões Silva
INTRODUCTION
Mango is the fruit of the mango tree (Mangifera indica L.) and has highly variable
characteristics as to its size, weight, shape and colour (Bally, 2011). In general, its weight
varies from a few grams up to about two kilograms. The sleeve may be found in an ovate
shape, oblong, rounded, reniform, codiforme, with a colour ranging from green, yellow and
red.
Nowadays, the mango has gained prominence among the most exported fruit in the
world, with Brazil as prominent among the largest exporters along with Mexico, Philippines,
Pakistan, and India. The mango is the seventh most cultivated product in the world and the
third in the tropics (Fonseca, 2002).
Botanical Classification
The mango tree root system is characterized as the articulated and superficial way, with
thin, fibrous roots in its composition. In its inflorescence are present hermaphrodites and male
flowers on the same panicle characterizing polygamous inflorescences. The mango fruit has
different weight and size according to the studied species. The fruit can be more or less
fibrous according to the variation in climate and soil quality (Borges et al., 2005). The pulp of
mango, wrapped in a soft and waxy shell, has a yellowish colour and fibrous texture, and the
flavour are associated with the variety of the fruit. The kernel inside the pulp show a fibrous
appearance with similar formats besides the different sizes among the fruit cultivar.
Characteristics of Mangífera
The wild type mango tree are represented by different species of Mangífera as Mangifera
indica, Mangífera foetida, Mangífera lagenifera among others. They are mainly found in
tropical Asia, particularly in northeastern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China,
South China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Solomon Islands.
The Mangífera gender has a wide variability in shape and colours of their leaves, flowers,
and fruits, which can be exploited in high value ornamental plants, highlighting the
Mangíferafoetida species Mangíferasimilis. Among the 60 species that are found in greater
diversity of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Sumatra, the Mangífera species are well
adapted to the tropical and subtropical climate (Bampard and Schnell, 1997).
M. indicates is the most important, although there are other species that produce edible
fruits such as M. altissima, M. caesia, M. lagenifera, M. macrocarpa, M. odorata and M.
sylvatica, today the sleeve is already produced in 94 countries (Angeles, 1991).

Mango Taxonomy 23
TAXONOMIC HISTORY
Subdivision of the Genus
A historical review of Mangifera genus subdivisions had shown two large groups being
differentiated by flower disc format: Section I-with a broader record than the ovary, and
Section II - with a disk-like or wanting to pursue.
Mukherjee (1948) recognizes two unnamed sections, saving Hooker's division then, in
1869, would been appointed that these two sections were subsequently named as Amba, an
Indian name for the common sleeve, and Limus a Sudanese name for M. foetida in the West
Java, respectively. He also added a mango section for M. ieschenaultii, which belongs to
Limus section.
Ding Hou (1978) adopted the same method in his review of Anacardiacea emalesian
recognizing only Hooker's two original sections of Mangifera, briefly described Section I,
Ambamarchand section and Section II, Limus and Manga marchand.
In 1883, Engler maintained the Hooker's classification and divided it into two groups, one
group that contains four or five petals and another group with four petals. The sequence what
he considered were the important morphological aspects for the classification: (i) texture of
the leaves; (ii) number of fertile stamens; (iii) prominence of veins, (iv) hairiness of
inflorescence and leaf shape (v).
Ten years later, Pierre(1897) reclassified the Mangifera according to gender flowers, i.e.,
the number of stamens, the stamens attachment to disk, and style.
The listed taxonomic classification follows that proposed by Kostermans and Bompard
(1993), raised the sections to the rank of subgenus, i.e., subgenera Limus (Marchand)
Kosterm, having a disc narrower than the base of the ovary, stalk-like even lacking and
subgenus Mangifera (Ding Hou) Kosterm, having a disc broader than the base of the ovary,
cushion-like, often divided into four or five lobes. This treaty includes the results of
collections and research conducted between 1986-1998 in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia,
which were initiated and sponsored by the International Institute of Genetic Resources (now
International Biodiversity) and World Wide for Nature Found. The International Board for
Plant Genetic Resources (now Plant International Institute of Genetics Resources) and the
Linnean Society of London.
The current classification and characterization reflect the fragmented knowledge, which
can provide tools for further studies for mango crops and their creation, determining
phylogenetic markers to understand the relationship between Mangifera species and other
cultivated forms of M. indica occured intra-relations and inter-specific.
The morphological characters used for identification have been placed in the following
sequence of importance according, Kostermans and Bompard (1993):
1) The shape of the floral disc.

2) The number of fertile stamens.
3) Seed labyrinthine or not.
4) The shape of secondary branches of the inflorescences: open or lax panicle, flowers
glomerulate or sub-glomerate, the ramifications racemoid or spike like.
5) The pubescence of the inflorescence.

6) The shape, number and attachment of the nerves (ridges or fingers) at the inner
surface of the petals.
7) The shape and size of the petals.
8) Flowers tetra-or pentamerous (not a very constant character and often overlapping).
9) Reticulation of the leaves, especially of the lower surface.
10) The shape of the leaf (only fully grown leaves of sterile branches can be used).
11) The texture of the leaves.
12) Deciduous or non-deciduous trees.
13) Colour of the flowers.
14) Shape, colour and smoothness of the fruit.
15) The number and the size of the stone fibbers.
Subgenera Limus (Marchand) Kosterm
Mangifera species of the subgenera Limus are quite distinct and only show remote
affinity with the common sleeve. This taxon should be originated from two different
ancestors. The Limus subgenera consists of 11 species, which are native to the Western
rainforests of Peninsular Malaysia (Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and West
Borneo), with the exception of M. foetida, which extends to the East, possibly New Guinea
and known as the only cultivation M. odorata. Kostermans divided the Limus subgenerais
divided into two sections: Section I-deciduae to deciduoud trees (i.e., M. kemanga, M. pajang,
M. superbaand possibly M. blommesteinii, M. decandra and M. lagenifera), and Section II-
for non-deciduous or perennial species (i.e., M. foetida, Leschenaultia M., and M.
macrocarpaodorata) (Kostermans & Bompard, 1993). In deciduous trees, the bracts
enclosing the buds leave show a characteristic collar of dense, narrow scars, which persist in
old branches and are especially prominent in M. caesia and M. kemanga.
Lagenifera mangifera and M. decandra have ten stamens, five of which are fertile. The
other nine species have only one (and rarely two) fertile yarn and two to four staminode. The
two species with five fertile stamens (M. decandra in lagenifera, M. caesia, M. kemanga and
M. blommesteinii), whose leaves are apically aggregated into rosettes at the end of huge
branches are particularly distinctive. The fruits of these species are widely ellipsoid or pear-
shaped, with no compression, and has whitish meat, dirty pink and lance-shaped, and fibrous,
not ligneous cored wax.
Mangifera indica species some affinity with M. lagenifera and M. blommesteinii;
however, it has been placed between the species of uncertain taxonomic position due to lack
of complete study material. This is not a very rare species, but flowering and fruiting seem to
occur at intervals of, or many years, similar in this regard to M. lagenifera, which can be
found growing in old orchards in Peninsular Malaysia. The flowers and fruits of M.
subsessilifolia are still unknown Mangifera subgenera. The Mangifera subgenera contains
about47species, and is divided into four groups: (i) marchandorapierre; (ii) euantherae group
pierre; (iii) rawa group Kosterm; and (iv) Mangifera (ding) hou. marchandorapierre group.
The labyrinthine seed is unique to this species, wherein the inner integuments penetrate
the cotyledons and form numerous irregular folds. The flat, discus-like fruit has only a very
thin mesocarp. Mangiferagede be grows in inundated places along rivers or lakes. The seed

Mango Taxonomy 25
floats in water and is dispersed during periods of high water, and this may explain its wide
distribution, from Myanmar through Malaysia to New Guinea and the Bougainville Island.
Euantheraepierre
The three species in this section, M. caloneurakurz (syn. M. duperreanapierre), M.
cochinchinensisengler and M. pentandra hook. F., appear to be the most primitive among the
species of the subgenera Mangifera. The flowers are characterized by five fertile stamens.
The three species are confined primarily to Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina and Northern
Malay Peninsula. The region is in the transition zone between the tropical rainforest to
monsoon forest, and these species show an adaptation to low rainfall.
Mangiferacochinchinensis, which occurs in South-eastern Thailand and Vietnam, have a
small elongated fruits with a thin seed; fruits are much appreciated by local people in
southern Vietnam, although they are very acidic. Caloneura mangifera and M. pentandraare
closely related, and can be confused with M. indicates. However, its leaves are waxier, shows
more conspicuously dense crosslinking, and the panicles are much more common than hairy
sleeve. Mangifera caloneura occurs from Myanmar through Thailand for Indochina,
evergreen forests of low altitude, as Myanmar through Thailand to Indochina in icergreenlow
land forests and semi-deciduous forests. It is grown for its sour-sweet fruit and was planted
along the streets of Vientiane and Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). Pentandra mangifera,
apparently native to Northern Malay Peninsula near the transition zone Kra Isthmus, is found
in Old Orchard, in dispersed locations, especially in Kedah and possibly also in peninsular
Thailand. It is also grown in both islands and Sabh where should be introduced in the early
days. It is a prolific carrier, with small sleeves 8 cm of length and long and green or yellow
ripening. The pale orange aqueous slurry has a sweet flavour and low fibber content.
Rawakosterm
This group, consisting of nine species, is not well delimitated. Most species have thick
twigs and rather coriaceous leaves seated on protruding pedestals. The small, hardly flattened
ovoid or ellipsoid fruits that are black or partly red at maturity in several species are also
characteristic. Rawa is the malay word for marsh, indicates that these species usually are
found in periodically or permanently inundated areas. The five species that occur in West
Malaysia (M. gracilipes, M. griffithii, M. microphylla, M. paludosa and M. paroifolia) grow
primarily in the Sumatra and Western Borneo, and occasionally in peripheral uplands. It has
also been reported from the Andaman Islands and Thailand (Sreekumar et al., 1996;
Eiadthong et al., 2000).
Mangifera and amanica and M. nicobarica are endemics from the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, respectively. Mangifera merrillii is a rare species endemic to the Philippines, and M.
minutifolia is known solely from a single collection from Southern Vietnam. Mangifera
griffithii and M. micropylla are the only cultivated species within section rawa. The former
species is considered to be representative of the section and is cultivated along the eastern
coast of Peninsular Malaysia and in western Borneo, and rarely in Sumatra. The fruits are
small (9 cm long) and oblong or ovoid; the skin is rose-red, turning purplish-black at
maturity. The rind is thin and easily removed from the orange-yellow pulp, which is juicy and
pleasantly sweet. Different forms are recognized by local people, according to the size and
taste of fruits. Mangifera microphylla is a related, but less well-known species, having thinner
leaves and a rather similar fruit.

Mangifera Ding Hou

With more than 30 species, section Mangifera is by far the largest. The common mango
and the related M. laurina belong here. Species within the section have the same distribution
range as the genus. The section may be divided into three groups based on floral structure and
organ number variation: (i) those having pentamerous flowers; (ii) those having tetramerous
flowers; and (iii) an intermediate group of species having both pentamerous and tetramerous
flowers. Within these three groups, it is possible to distinguish species with either puberulous
or glabrous panicles.
Only characteristics of representative species within each group, especially those found in
cultivation are described below.
Pentamerous flowers (14 species): three species, M. laurina, M. minor and M. sylvatica,
show affinity with the common mango. Mangifera laurina is a species of the lowland forests
of Malaysia, where it is also under cultivation in old orchards. It can be distinguished from
the common mango by having lax and widely pyramidal, glabrous or sparingly puberulous
panicles. The flowers are smaller and are not glomerulate; the petals have a different shape,
texture and colour. The fruit resembles those of a small common mango, with orange-yellow
pulp, which is almost liquid at maturity. It is generally consumed when unripe. Several forms
are in cultivation; however, these are now becoming rare. Mangifera laurina is well suited to
the humid tropical lowlands, fruiting well in areas where the common mango cannot be
anthracnose (Bompard, 2009).
Mangifera minor occurs east of Wallace´s line, from Sulawesi to New Guinea (East
Malaysia) and to the Carolines Islands in the East. It is adapted to a wide range of ecological
conditions, growing equally well in dry savannahs and in tropical rainforests. The fruits are
obliquely oblong, 5-10 cm long, much narrowed, the tip obtuse, that a distinct beak and sinus.
It is found in cultivation, although the yellowish fruit pulp is acidic and scant.
Mangiferasylvaticais found from Sikkim to northern Myanmar and Thailand, and
apparently also in Yumman. The fruit is obliquely ovate, 8 – 10cm long; much compressed
distally forming a hook, and has scanty whitish-yellow pulp that is almost fibreless. Other
species are occasionally found in cultivation, for example, M. rufocosta, which is esteemed
by the banjarese people of South Kalimantan for its very sour fruits that are used to prepare a
spicy condiment with chili.
Tetramerous flowers (15 species): Mangifera altissima is apparently endemic to the
Philippines, where it occurs mainly at low elevations in the forests from Northern Luzon to
Mindoro (brown, 1950; Angeles 1991).
Mangifera torquenda occurs wild in West Malaysia, and is cultivated in South Sumatra
and in Borneo, where it is common in the forests and orchards of Eastern Kalimantan. The
sub-globose fruit, 7.5 cm long and 6.5 cm in diameter is yellow pulp has a rather pleasant
sweet-acid, slightly resinous taste and a light turpentine smell. Short fibers are attached to the
seed. It is closely related to M. longipetiolata.
Mangifera magnifica is a common species in the rainforests of western Malaysia,
occasionally cultivated in central Sumatra and in West Kalimantan, where it has a special
importance in the myths of Land Dayak peoples. The fruit is ovoid-oblong, up to 12cm long,
10 cm in diameter, only slightly compressed, grayish green with brown spots. The pulp is
whitish, soft at maturity, sweetish acid. Sweeter forms are reposted in central. The stone is
unique in the genus in that it lacks fibbers adhering to it.

Mango Taxonomy 27
Mangifera quadrifida is found from peninsular Malaysia to the Moluccas. The fruit is
ellipsoid-globose, 6-8 cm long; green covered with black dots turning completely black at
maturity and has a pale yellow, sweet-acid pulp. Another form is recognized by its more
coriaceus leaves, smaller fruits, 4 cm long, having dark yellow pulp, purplish around the
stone, and a sweet, palatable taste, somewhat like prunes. Both forms are cultivated in old
orchards.
Tetraandpentamerous flowers (four species, and also M. indica): Mangifera casturi is
related to M. quadrifida, from whichit can be distinguished by leaf and fruit characters. It has
never been collected in the wild and is a favorite among the banjarese people in South
Kalimantan. The fruits are small, a little compressed and up to 6 cm in length, becoming
completely black at maturity. The orange pulp is very sweet and palatable and resembles
honey mango that grown in the East Java. Although M. casturi bears heavily, it has a strong
to alternate bearing habit. It is an excellent fruit for the humid tropical lowlands and appears
to be resistant to anthracnose. Several differently named forms exist; these have
polyembryonic seeds. Mangifera rubropetala also only known in cultivation, and may be a
primitive race of M. indica.
SPECIES IN THE UNCERTAINTY TAXONOMIC POSITION

There are 11 disparate species of the uncertain taxonomic position that cannot be placed
with certainty due to the absence of adequate material. There are three species only known in
China.
Mango Characteristics
The mango tree belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, and Mangifera, there are other
important genus such as Anacardium, Pistachio, and Spondias. In the genus Mangifera,
Mukherjee (1997) describes 39 species, while Bompard (1993) describes 69 species including
the Mangifera indica, the most prominently specie.
Mangífera indica
The Mangifera indica L. belongs to the dicotyledonous class and Anarcadiaceae family,
native to India, with good adaptation to tropical regions, historically brought by Portuguese
colonists in one of his expeditions. They have androecium consists of four to six stamens, of
which only one or two are fertile, ovarian supero-lateral, unicolar, fertile anther and stigma
were rudimentary. It is commonly accepted that the natural pollinator as the domestic fly
(Agrianual, 2002). The species is quite stable and has 2n=40 chromosomes, although the
plants, with the highest number of chromosomes, in tetraploid plants (2n=80) have also been
reported, may make polyembryonic flowers (one or more embryos) and monoembryonic(one
zygotic embryo) (Singh, 1969).
The mango tree is a leafy tree, medium to large, with the crown rounded, symmetrical
and evergreen leaves, ranging from low and dense upright and open. The shape of the crown
can vary from low to the high rounded pyramid. The leaves are lance-shaped, waxy texture;

they have a flat upper face and a short petiole. They measure 15 cm to 40 cm in length and
feature coloration ranging from light green to a slightly brownish or purplish hue when young
and green-normal to dark when ripe. A key feature for differentiating the leaf age in this
coloring midrib that presents this yellowish when mature leaf. Moreover, when it is in purple
growth its trunk is wide and features dark bark, rough and resinous latex (Nascimento et al.
2002).
Climate
One of the biggest problems of semi-arid regions is the irregularity of rainfall, coupled
with the occurrence of high temperatures, causing major water deficiency rates. Under the
climatic parameters considered important for the commercial cultivation of mango culture are
presented:
Solar Radiation
For fruit ripening and to increase its juiciness are necessary the uniform radiation
availability in the entire tree, as the mango trees have a dense foliage and prevents the
penetration of sunlight, is necessary for pruning different ways to fosters to sunlight
distribution, leading to an increasing in carbohydrate production in its fruits thereby
preventing lose their commercial value.
Air Temperature
The ideal temperature for the considered mango tree cultivation is between 24°C to 30°C,
while temperatures above 48°C limit their production. Low temperatures are also limiting and
when near 0°C for a few hours, causing severe injury or death of plants. Due to the range of
temperatures the mango tree may have altered metabolic pathways negatively doing lose their
commercial value.
Air Humidity
The humidity has to be balanced when making the cultivation of the mango tree have to
take into account the area to be cultivated because high humidity makes the emergence of
fungi and low humidity hinders their evapotranspiration.
Type of Soil
The mango tree is a rustic species that vegetation and fruit both in sandy soils and in clay,
slightly acidic or alkaline. When the goal is the commercial exploitation of culture should,
whenever possible, prefer loamy sandy soils, loose, deep and with good natural fertility.
While the mango tree is tolerant to high water table, the lowland soils subject to soak, and
stony, should be avoided. The areas that allow for mechanization are the most suitable for the
implementation of the mango grove.
The mango fruit is considered the dupra type and has size, weight, shape and varied
color. As for the shape, this may present as kidney-shaped, oval, oblong, round or codiform.
Generally the fruit color varies between the tone green to yellow and red and is associated
with the colour of the rachis. The bark, leathery and soft involves yellow pulp roughly and
flavor variety. Within the fruit is a fibrous seed that can have different shapes and sizes.
(Kostermans and Bompard, 1993).

Mango Taxonomy 29
COMMERCIAL MANGOES VARIETIES FROM SPONTANEOUS

HYBRIDIZATION TO EMERGENCE OF NEW SPECIES
There are several varieties of mangoes, some with higher commercial value and others
with little or no commercial application. The most cultivated varieties are those with better
productivity, more attractive colour, sweet pulp and partial absence or total fibber, to illustrate
the emergence of different new species (adapted from São Jose, 1996).
Figure 1. Diagram to illustrate the emergence new species (adapted from São José, 1996).
Faleiro et al., (2004) used molecular markers to characterize the main parents used in the
breeding program have shown the usefulness of molecular markers to study the genetic
relationships between the parents and provide useful information for planning future
intervarietal crossings. The results showed that new parents can be selected based on the
combination of agronomic traits with genetic diversity data.
Tommy Atkinse
Originally from Florida, USA, the cultivar Tommy Atkins is characterized by producing
medium to large fruit, reaching 13 cm long and weigh from 400 to 700g. The fruit has the
oval and oblong shape, smooth and thick bark with color ranging from yellow to red and
intense purple. The pulp firm texture and dark yellow colour, has little fibber, juiciness and
pleasant sweetness (17°Brix). The seed is monoembrionic and small, may represent up to 8%

of the fruit weight. It is one of the most interests to export crops due to resistance for transport
and anthracnose, with a good maturity and post-harvest life.
Keitt
The fruits of Keitt variety have large reaching up to 15 cm long and weigh 800g. With an
oval shape and a slightly oblique glance, it has a not very attractive colouring peel ranging
from yellowish green to red-rosy. Its pulp is intense yellow, firm, free of fibbers and has a
pleasant flavour, with about 19°Brix. Its seed is monoembrionic and small, representing 7 to
8.5% of the fruit weight. It has a good yield pulp/fruit, approximately 70%, and good shelf-
life.
Kent
As well as the variety Tommy Atkins, Kent cultivar originates from Florida, USA, and
produces large fruit with about 13 cm long and with an average weight of 650g, but can
weigh up to 1000 g. With an oval shape, has an average shell thickness ranging from staining
green to purplish red during ripening of the fruit. Its pulp is orange-yellow and is considered
very tasty for high sweetness account that presents, with about 20°Brix, and almost no fibber.
Its seed is small, corresponding to about 9% of the fruit weight, and monoembrionic. It is a
variety that has low shelf-life to be susceptible to major diseases such as anthracnose.
Van Dyke
Van Dyke variety is characterized by its medium-sized and light variable, weighing
between 300 and 400g. Its bark has a yellowish colour with red tones. With a firm flesh and
free of fibbers, it has a mild and pleasant flavour, intense aroma, and high sweetness. His seed
is small and monoembrionic. Due to its irregularity in the production, not presents great
marketing.
Palmer
For presenting great resistance to diseases, mango cultivar Palmer has won the preference
of cultivation compared to other varieties. A medium-sized plant produces large fruit that can
reach 15cm long in its elongated shape and weigh up to 900g. Its bark is thin and shows the
colour from yellow to bright red. Its pulp handles the wide acceptance, representing on
average 72% of the fruit weight, has a sweetness and sharp flavour, low in fibber. This seed is
medium-sized, representing about 10% of the fruit weight, and monoembrionic.

Mango Taxonomy 31
Rosa
The pink sleeve is a medium-sized fruit coming to weigh about 350g. It has an oblong-
codiform format and is characterized by having a sloping base and a rounded apex. The thick
and smooth bark, red and pink colour, involves a firm, fibrous pulp, yellow-golden colour and
a pleasant sweetness, ranging from 14.5 to 17 oBrix. The seed is poliembrionic medium sized.
It's quite a variety marketed in Brazil and is consumed mostly in the Northeast, which has
wide acceptance.
REFERENCES
Agrianual (2002). Anuário da Agricultura Brasileira. [Brazilian Agriculture Annual.] Sã o
Paulo: FNP, 2002.
Angeles, D.E. (1991). Mangiferaaltissima. In: E.W.M. Verheij and R.E. coronel (Eds). Edible
Fruits and nuts, Plant resources of South East Asia 2. (prosea). pudoc, Wageningen: p.
206-207.
Bally, I. S. E. (2011). Advances in research and development of mango industry. Rev Bras
Frutic. Vol. 33, pp. 57-63.
Bompard, J.M. (2009). Taxonomy and systematics. In: LITZ, R. (Ed.). The Mango, botany,
production and uses. 2nd ed. Wallingford: CAB, p. 19-41.
Bompard, J.M.; Schnell, R. (1997). Taxonomy and systematic. In: LITZ, R. (Ed.). The
Mango, botany, production and uses. Wallingford: CAB, p. 21-48.
Borges, A. L., Magalhães, A. F. de Jesus., Nascimento, A. S., Matos, A. P., Cardoso, C. E. L.,
Almeida, C. O., Coelho, E. F., Souza, F. V. D., Filho, H.P. S., Santos-Serejo A. J., Júnior,
L. S., Neto, M. T. C., Santana, M, A., Pereira M. E. C., Fonseca, N., Godoy, R. C.
B.(orgs.), (2005) Manga – 500 Perguntas, 500 Respostas. [Mongo – 500 Questions, 500
Answers.] Brasília, DF: 1°ed. Márcio Eduardo.
Brown, W. H. (1950). usef Pl. Philipp.2, pp. 340.
Candole, A.L.P. De, Candolle, A.C.P. de. 1883. Monographiae phanerogamarum prodromi,
vol. 4: t. 4 (1883) [H.G.A. Engler].
Ding Hou (1978) Flora Malesia Praecursores 56 (Anacardiaceae). [Flora Malesiana Precursors
56 (Anacardiaceae)]. Blumea 24, 1-41.
Eiadthong, W.; Yonemori, K.; Kanzaki, S.; Sugiura, A.; Utsunomiya, N.; Sabhadrabandhu, S.
(2000). Amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis for studying genetic
relationships among Mangifera species in Thailand. Journal of the American Society of
Horticultural Science, Alexandria, v.125, n.2, p. 160-164.
Engler, A (1883) Anacardiaceae. In: de Candolle, A.P (ed.) Monographiae Phanerogamarum.
Vol. 4. Masson, Paris, pp. 195-215.
Faleiro, F.G., Pinto, A.C.Q., Cordeiro, M.C.R., Ramos, V.H.V., Bellon, G., Andrade, S.R.M.,
Pinto, J.F.N. (2004). Genetic variability of mango (Mangifera indica L.) varieties used in
Embrapa Cerrados breeding program using RAPD markers. In: International Symposium
on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. 3, Fortaleza. Fortaleza. p. 72.

Fonseca, N. (2002). Paclobutrazol e estressehídrico no florescimento e produção da

mangueira (Mangiferaindica L.) [Paclobutrazol and water stress during flowering and
production of mango (Mangifera indica L.)] ―Tommy Atkins.‖ Lavras: UFLA.
Kostermans, A. J. H. G., Bompard, J. M, (1993). The Mangoes: Their Botany, Nomenclature,
Horticulture and Utilization.
Mukherjee, S. K. (1997). Introduction: Botany and importance. In R. E. Litz [ed.], The
mango: Botany, production and uses, 1 – 19. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Mukherjee, S. K., (1948). The varieties of mango (Manfigera indica L.) and their
classification. Bull. Bot. Soc. Beng. 2: 101-133.
Nascimento, A. S., Carvalho, R. S., Mendonça, M. C., Sobrinho, R. B. (2002). Pragas e
seucontrole. Cap. 14, 277-298. In: Genú, P. J. C. & Pinto, A. C. Q. (org.) A cultura da
mangueira. Embrapa Informação Tecnológica [Mango cultivation. Embrapa Information
Bulletin], Brasília, 454 p. il. color. ISBN 85-7383-160-X.
Pierre, L. (1897) Flore Forestiere de la Cochinchine. Vol. 1, fasc. 23. Doin, Paris.
São José, A. R. (1996). Considerações gerais sobre a mangicultura. [General considerations on
mango production.] In: SÃO JOSÉ, A. R. et al. Manga: tecnologia de produção e
mercado. [Mango: production technology and market.] Vitória da Conquista: DFZ/UESB,
1996. p. 1-6.
Singh, L. B. (1969) Mango. In: Ferwerda, F. P. and Wit, F. (eds) Outlines of Perennial Crop
Breeding in the Tropics. Veenen and Zonen, Wageningen, the Netherlands, pp. 309-327.
Sreekumar, V. B, Binoy, A. M. and George, S. T. (2007). Genetic and morphological
variation in breadfruit (Artocarpusaltilis (Park.) Fosberg) in the Western Ghats of India
using AFLP markers. Gen. Res. Crop Evol. 54: 1659-1665.

Chapter 3
POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY FOR

FRESH MANGOES
Henriqueta Talita Guimarães Barboza¹,

Alexandra Mara Goulart Nunes Mamede¹,
Antonio Gomes Soares¹, , *
Gil Fernandes da Cunha Brito²,

Elen Vasques Pacheco³
and Marcos José de Oliveira Fonseca¹
1
Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India
3
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) a commercially relevant crop and is an important
agricultural commodity in the global trade and economy of its producing countries. This
fruit, the second most important food for the inhabitants of tropical countries, is
considered as a source of antioxidants including ascorbic acid (mango fruit provides
about 50% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin C) and carotenoids. However a
significant amount of production is wasted is estimated at 2 e 33%, before even reaching
the consumer. This happend due to several factors included mechanical damage caused
during harvesting or improper field handling. Collateral effects of damage include water
loss, moisture loss of a single bruised. The development of adequate packaging is
essential to protect the fruit from postharvest mechanical injuries. In this work, it was
design an appropriate packaging for different size e shapes of mango using conceptual
and 3D models. The new packaging was composed by thermo injected and thermoformed
pieces. It was evaluate the quality and shelf life of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed in the
conventional and in the new packaging. All mangoes were storage and transport in 10°C
and kept in environment temperature, 22 ± 2°C and 66 ± 5% RH. It was observed the
*
E-mail: antonio.gomes@embrapa.br.

34 H. T. Guimarães Barboza, A. M. Goulart Nunes Mamede, A. Gomes Soares et al.
new packing has more capacity to pack and is more effective to protect the fruits from
damages and injuries when compared with the convectional packaging.
INTRODUCTION
A primary solution to meet future global food demands is to increase the production of
fruits and vegetables. Furthermore, it is necessary to facilitate the arrival of food at its final
destination - the consumer. Therefore, efficient solutions along the supply chain need to be set
up to reduce losses, wastes and to ensure food and nutrition security worldwide. Each
component part of the supply chain must be integrated becomes essential to manage such
losses, since each part has a positive or negative effect on the next (Spricigo 2015).
The consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with a low incidence of
degenerative diseases due to the protective effects of the antioxidant components in these
foods. Studies of dietary patterns have shown that the consumption of fruits and vegetables
are crucial for preventing cancer, heart disease, childhood and adult diabetes and obesity, and
that they are essential for good health and a balanced diet (Cadena et al. 2013; Kremer-Sadlik
et al. 2015).
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data, 78% of the 82 million
tons of tropical fruits produced in 2014 were mango, pineapple, avocado and papaya, while
22% were other fruits such as lychee, rambutan and guava (Wall-Medrano et al. 2014).
Mango, Mangifera indica L., is native to India and is now grown in tropical regions
around the world, where it is known as the 'King of Fruits' due its delicious taste,
differentiated flavor, attractive fragrance and commercial value. It is the most valuable of all
tropical fruits and is commercially cultivated in more than 87 countries (Agriculture 2013;
Razzaq et al. 2013).
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, in the order
Sapindales and there are more over 1,000 varieties worldwide (Jahurul et al. 2015).
India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world contributing to more than 50% of
global exports and China is the second largest mango producer. Mangoes are one of the most
important and popular Asian fruits and besides being an important agricultural commodity on
the global markets, there is a growing demand for the traditional varieties in Western
countries(K. Liu, Wang, and Young 2014; Mahto and Das 2013; Rymbai et al. 2012).
Mangoes are the 2nd tropical fruit crop in terms of production and acreage, only behind
bananas. Annual production of this fruit is about 27 million tons and the cultivated area is
approximately 3.7 million ha worldwide. Brazil alone produces about 5% of the mangoes
consumed, and is one of the eight largest producers in the world. Mangoes are consumed
fresh or in a processed form and they are an important source of micronutrients, vitamins and
other phytochemicals (Baloch and Bibi 2012; Jahurul et al. 2015; Sivakumar, Jiang, and
Yahia 2011; Sogi, Siddiq, and Dolan 2014; de Souza et al. 2015). Mangoes can provide
significant amounts of bioactive compounds with antioxidant activities. Mangoes are tropical
climacteric fruits, so when harvested at full maturity they can ripen off the tree; however, they
ripen very fast in adverse climatic conditions. Due to their high perishability, the post-harvest
shelf life of mangoes is relatively short. The high susceptibility to various pathogenic
infections, improper harvesting time (maturity), ripening conditions and lack of suitable
storage facilities are the main factors responsible for most of the damage caused to the fruit.

Postharvest Technology for Fresh Mangoes 35
Postharvest losses have been estimated to range from 25% to 40% from harvesting to
consumption (Baloch and Bibi 2012; Danalache, Mata, et al. 2015; Khaliq et al. 2015; K. Liu,
Wang, and Young 2014; Zhao et al. 2015).
Mango fruit is an important cash crop for many rural populations and its production may
be affected by different biotic and abiotic factors. Among the biotic factors, anthracnose is
known as the most important biological disease and is caused by Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides, a pathogen of mango, which restricts mango production in Southeast Asia.
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causes infections on the stems, leaves and young
inflorescences during storage. Relative humidity above 95% and temperatures ranging from
20 to 30°C for 12h are ideal for the infection and development of C. gloeosporioides on
mango fruit. The progress of the infection is faster in wounded tissues and ripe fruits (Kamle
et al. 2013; Liu, Wang, and Young 2014; Zheng et al. 2013). Infection occurs during
production and postharvest operations. In unripe fruit, this disease acts as a quiescent
infection and may manifest its symptoms only during or after the ripening process, when
conditions for pathogen development are more favorable. The results can lead to heavy
postharvest losses of up to 60% in some regions (Alvindia and Acda 2015).
Usually mangoes are harvested at the mature-green stage, from a marketing point of
view, and after ripening these mangoes have a good eating quality (Kotwaliwale 2012).
Postharvest management of mangoes and the short shelf life of this fruit can restrict its
transportation to distant markets. Although low temperatures are the most effective way to
maintain post-harvest quality and extend the shelf life of mango fruits, they are extremely
sensitive to chilling injury. Temperatures below 13°C, particularly during transportation and
marketing, may affect the postharvest quality (Khaliq et al. 2015).
Postharvest losses of this fruit are very significant. The major physical causes of
postharvest losses are: injuries during the harvest due to inadequate harvesting methods,
impact, abrasion, friction, lack of classification and standardization, inadequate handling and
packaging, poor transport conditions, overloading of fruit, heat buildup or lack of ventilation
in transport vehicles, delays during transport, inappropriate storage conditions (temperature,
relative humidity, air circulation, sanitation) (Barros, Goes, and Minam 1994).
Fruit losses during export may vary dramatically depending on postharvest handling and
export conditions, especially with regard to rates of decay, pests and physiological
breakdown.
Generally, physical, physiological and chemical parameters are used to define the
maturity stage. These factors are very useful, but their application depends on the type of
mango, region of cultivation, and type of market and consumers. Traditionally, mangoes are
harvested based on the appearance of the fruit. The use of suitable maturity indices for harvest
is very important because the quality and postharvest life depend on the maturity stage when
harvested. Fruits harvested at the correct maturity stage present optimum sensory quality
attributes and an extended postharvest life. When the fruits are immature, they are more
sensitive to chilling injury during cold storage and may not ripen adequately. On the other
hand fruits harvested at an over mature stage are highly susceptible to mechanical damage
such as bruising, decay and water loss, resulting in quality deterioration due to a complex
number of biochemical and physiological processes involving chemical reactions and
enzymes such as glycosidases, glucanases, beta-d-galactosidase, protein kinase and ethylene.
Over-ripe fruit show defects like jelly seeds or jelly pulp after harvest. Suitable maturity

indices for harvesting are essential to minimize the quantitative and qualitative losses (Musa
Kaleem Baloch, Bibi, and Jilani 2011; Sivakumar, Jiang, and Yahia 2011).
MANGO
Mango is globally valued for its unique aroma, flavor and high nutritive value. Mango
fruits are mostly consumed as fresh fruit; however, around 1% is used for preparing juice,
conserves, purees, fruit drinks, jams, squashes, etc. (Dorta et al. 2014; Kaushik et al. 2014;
Moalemiyan, Vikram, and Kushalappa 2007).
The fruit is large, fleshy and differs in size, shape, color, fiber content, aroma, flavor and
taste depending on the cultivar besides it has a characteristic conical projection termed as
‗beak.‘ The fruit can be divided into three parts: exocarp is the part that protects the fruit,
which initially is green and but after ripening changes to yellow, reddish or orangish
according the cultivar; the mesocarp is the fleshy edible portion known as the pulp, which is
always yellow due to the carotenoids. The pulp contains mainly glucose, fructose and sucrose.
The total sugar content of mangoes may range from 11.5 up to 25% depending on the type of
mango and ripening stage. The endocarp is the third part, thick, tough, and leathery covering
of the seed. The fruit has a single seed in the middle of the fruit, which is large, flat, and
ovoid-oblong shaped (Sivakumar, Jiang, and Yahia 2011).
The quality of the fruit may be classified as external or internal. Internal quality includes
the following components: texture, taste, nutritional value and defect factors. External quality
components are the size, shape and color. However, the exterior appearance is not a guarantee
to the internal quality of the fruit. There are some mango cultivars that do not change their
peel color during ripening. In these cases, the assessment of maturity and ripening based on
just external appearance is difficult. Therefore, growers use their knowledge such as: changes
in fruit appearance, knocking on fruit, onset of fruit drop and specific gravity to define the
best harvest time (Abu Izneid and Al-Kharazi 2013; Kienzle et al. 2011; Kotwaliwale 2012).
Mango exhibits climacteric behavior. Climacteric fruits are characterized by decreasing
fruit respiration during development leading to a minimum, followed by a rise in respiration
levels until full ripeness. The climacteric mango fruit is harvested at physiological maturity
(mature-green), after the pre-climacteric minimum and before the onset of ripening, which
means mature but not ripe for consumption. At this time, the mature fruit is still firm and
supports postharvest handling. Also at maturity the fruit has completed its growth and the
seed is fully developed, which are prerequisites for proper ripening (Cantre et al. 2014;
Kienzle et al. 2011).
During ripening and storage of mango fruits there are various qualitative and nutritional
changes including change in color, texture softening, accumulation of sugars, organic acids,
and development of taste, flavors, aroma and phytochemicals. This climacteric process is
regulated by genetic and biochemical events that cause changes in the firmness, total titratable
acidity, total soluble solids content, carotenoid content, nutritional content and flavor. The
changes in the color from green to reddish orange or yellow occur due to chlorophyll
degradation and the increase of pigments including anthocyanins and carotenoids. Fruit
maturity at harvest plays an important role in deciding the end use of the mango. However,
differences among cultivars and growing conditions have precluded universal mango mature

stage indices although mesocarp yellowness is regarded as most consistent parameter among
cultivars. Mesocarp starch is changed into soluble sugars during the ripening process and may
be correlated with rising sugar/acid ratios (TSS/TA). Ripening modifies the fruit softening
rates (Jha et al. 2014; Jyotshna et al. 2015; Kienzle et al. 2011, 2012; Razzaq et al. 2014;
Subedi, Walsh, and Owens 2007).
The age of the fruit may also be used as a simple method to confirm the mature stage and
is calculated from induction, full bloom and fruit set. The time after full bloom depends on
cultivar and climatic conditions. Generally, the mature stage of mango is reached about 12 to
16 weeks after fruit set. However, the use of days from the full bloom is usually
recommended, and it can be used as a standardized parameter. However, it is important to
remember that this parameter varies according to different geographical regions and
cultivation conditions (Sivakumar, Jiang, and Yahia 2011).
Ripening of mango fruit is closely linked to softening, mainly due to changes in cell wall
structure and composition. During the fruit softening process, cell wall polysaccharides such
as pectins, cellulose and hemicellulose undergo various modifications through solubilization
and de-polymerization. The maturity stage at harvest must prevent ripening during transport,
especially for long supply chains, while ensuring acceptable potential for subsequent
ripening. Fruit harvested too early may be unable to ripen, since the ripening ability of a fruit
is acquired on the tree (Eccher Zerbini et al. 2015; Razzaq et al. 2015).
Brazil is one of the largest producers and exporters of mangoes because it is able to
produce mangoes during a period of short supply, September to March. The main importers
are the Netherlands, the United States, Spain, the UK and Portugal.
The production of mangoes has a strong participation in the national fruit market.
Mangoes are ninth in terms of commercial production and third in volume for export. The
main producing regions are the Northeast and Southeast (Batista et al. 2012).
The Tommy Atkins cultivar is still the most widely produced and exported cultivar due to
its excellent fruit coloration, relative resistance to disease and easy postharvest preservation
(Cruz et al. 2012; Ribeiro et al. 2015).
Mango pulp constitutes about 58 to 77% of the total fruit weight depending upon the
variety and is the part consumed. Mangoes are a rich source of carotenoids, particularly β-
carotene, responsible for the yellow-orange color of ripe fresh mango. Carotenoids have
various health benefits, including pro-vitamin A and antioxidant activity (Low, D‘Arcy, and
Gidley 2015).
Moreover, mangoes are considered a good dietetic source of antioxidants, ascorbic acid
and phenolic compounds. The main phenolic compounds identified are: flavonol glycosides
(quercetin and kaempferol derivatives and rhamnetin hexoside), xanthone glycosides
(mangiferin derivatives), gallotannin and benzophenone derivatives. Flavonoids present in
mangoes help build the human immune system. Twelve flavonoids and xanthans can be found
in mangoes, but mangiferin is the predominant antioxidant in the pulp, peel and seeds. The
insoluble dietary fiber found in mangoes helps prevent colon constipation. Both qualitative
and quantitative phenolic composition depends mainly on the variety, stage of maturity and
the part of the mango that has been analyzed. Gorinstein et al., (1999), compared 8 tropical
fruits and concluded that ripe mango had the highest content of gallic acid and total
polyphenolics, which makes this fruit valuable for human health (Cadena et al. 2013;
Danalache, Beirão-da-Costa, et al. 2015; Dorta et al. 2014; Harnkarnsujarit and Charoenrein
2011; Liu et al. 2014).

Over 95% of the national and international mango fruit trade is as fresh. Therefore the
handling systems and packaging are very important to keep quality and extend the shelf life
of mangoes after harvesting. During ripening, enzymatic modifications of polysaccharides
from the cell walls induce an extensive softening of the fruit. Mangoes are easily infected by
microorganisms and are susceptible to chemical or enzymatic reactions. The change of pulp
firmness is another important quality parameter that affects not only consumer acceptance but
also susceptibility to bruising and resistance to compression during transportation and
handling (Cantre et al. 2014; Jamsazzadeh Kermani et al. 2015; Júnior 2007; Ong et al. 2014).
Particularly for long supply chains, the different forms of shipment may generate notable
postharvest quality losses of fresh mangoes as a result of inadequate handling in the field, and
tight packaging of the fruits during transportation and storage (Kienzle et al. 2012).
The storage life of mangoes is limited to 3–4 weeks at 10–15 C. Most of the time, the
fresh mangoes are not commercialized or exported over long periods because of their high
perishability. High-quality fruit should be free of external damage, bruises, latex or sap
injury, and decay (Feygenberg et al. 2014). Effective technologies are necessary to ensure a
long shelf life. Several methods are currently available including low temperature, controlled
atmosphere (CA)/modified atmosphere (MA) storage, hypobaric storage, irradiated storage,
and coatings (Liu, Wang, and Young 2014).
Mango fruits are frequently in contact with soil, insects, animals and humans during
growth, harvesting and in the processing plants and lead to microbial contamination. Latent
infections such as anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Alternaria black
spot, Alternaria alternata and stem-end rot caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae or
Dothiorella dominicana or Botryosphaeria spp. are the predominant postharvest diseases.
They are responsible for severe postharvest losses and affect fruit quality during the supply
chain. Following infection, the fungus remains quiescent until fruit harvest and ripening. The
external symptoms are not visible despite extensive internal damages. The observable
external symptoms become apparent only after ripening, when the fruits are ready to eat. The
presence of anthracnose during the storage may contribute to postharvest losses ranging from
25% to 40% from harvesting to final consumer. Postharvest disease control begins in the field
and involves cultural and chemical practices and cultivar selection. The economic cost of
such losses are higher than the field losses because the expense of harvesting, sorting,
packing, shipping and storage must be added to those of production (Liu, Wang, and Young
2014; Moalemiyan, Vikram, and Kushalappa 2007; Narsaiah et al. 2012; Sivakumar, Jiang,
and Yahia 2011).
PACKAGES
Postharvest losses are limiting factors in the production of horticultural crops and may
occur due to mechanical, pathological and physiological injuries. Packaging is one of the
most important parameters to prevent such losses during postharvest handling of horticultural
products. It influences the shelf life of fruit and has multifunctional purposes. Appropriate
packaging should be considered in the integrated management of postharvest injuries,
working as a physical barrier for the stored product. Good packages reduce the risk of
contamination, weight loss, help reduce breathing, maintaining the characteristics of the

product and may provide the formation of a modified atmosphere. Moreover, packaging has
benefits that include supplying a specific product in an attractive way, keeping the product
clean and hygienic and retarding any microbial decay (Delele et al. 2013; Lima 2015; Parisi;
2007; Rinaldi 2011).
The high demand for mangoes by other countries indicates the need for new technologies
to be able to commercialize the fruit overseas. Tropical and subtropical fruits, such as
mangoes, present greater problems in storage and transportation than temperate fruits because
of their perishable nature. Packing of fruits is essential for their safety during transportation.
In India, baskets made of bamboo with paddy straw as a cushioning material are preferred
because of their low cost, however, this type of packaging is not considered adequate.
Ventilated wooden boxes of different sizes have been recommended for packing different
varieties of mangoes (Subramanyam, Krishnamurthy, and Parpia 1975).
The concept of packing is to place a commodity into a protective wrapper or container for
transport and storage. Packaging has three functions: keep, protect and commercialize. It
provides protection to the product against contamination, losses, damage or degradation due
to microbial action. It also helps to sell the products. It constitutes an important link between
the manufacturer and final consumer for the safe delivery of the product through different
stages of production, storage, transportation, distribution and marketing (Chauhan, and Patil
2013).
External quality and direct sensory quality are the most important attributes. The
consumer evaluates the color, texture, size, shape, and any visual problems. The appearance
of fruits influences the buying behavior of the consumers (Kirtil et al. 2014; Zhang et al.
2014).
Physical and chemical changes that take place in the fruit during packaging, storage, and
transportation are correlated to the fruit quality and consumer acceptance. Bruising is the
most common postharvest mechanical injury. Most postharvest pathogens cannot infect
healthy tissue, but typically penetrate through wounded tissue before contaminating the rest
of the fruit. Thus mechanical injury may be the most important cause of problems and disease
(Van Zeebroeck et al. 2007).
For fresh horticultural produce, temperature is the single most important environmental
parameter because it affects the deterioration rate and the postharvest shelf life of the product.
Rapid removal of field heat after harvest through cooling and maintaining optimum product
temperature throughout the supply chain are thus the keys to keep fruit quality. In this way,
cold chain management extends postharvest life and maintains the overall quality of
horticultural products during the supply chain by slowing down the metabolic and ripening
processes. However, many tropical and subtropical fruits are sensitive to low temperatures,
causing chilling injury. The type of packaging used may have an influence on this type of
injury (Defraeye et al. 2015).
During transportation, packaging may be submitted to different environmental conditions
such as temperature changes, which can be harmful to the quality of the product: mold or
dehydration are the most common damages. Package design is an interesting research line
within the food industry due to its importance in the forced-convective cooling processes and
its complexity. To design an optimal packaging the characteristic of products must be
considered since there are a large range of sizes, shapes and thermal properties involved
(Acevedo, Sánchez, and Young 2007; Defraeye et al. 2013).

Improving fresh-produce packaging with technology and design is one of the most
effective ways to overcome these economic losses. The high impact of packaging on the
quality and shelf life of the product, the relatively low cost of packaging and the ease of
altering its design are reasons for the continuous improvement of packaging. Packaging is
also one of the few flexible elements in the cold chain that is not overly subject to regulations,
standardization and legislations. The trial and error method to choose an appropriate material
is still commonly used taking into account the knowledge and experience of food industries.
However, in some cases and mainly for fruits, it is important to note that their metabolic
processes continue and changes in quality may occur, causing a decrease in the commercial
value (Cagnon et al. 2013).
Fresh horticultural products are predominantly packed in ventilated fiberboard boxes but
also in plastic or wooden boxes, which may all be stacked on pallets. Although these
individual boxes are considered the basic level of packaging, other scales of packaging
include internal packaging, such as trays and polyliner bags. Recently, the search for
biodegradable packaging material made from renewable natural resources has increased.
Although plastic materials produced from petrochemicals are widely used due to their
versatility, good mechanical properties and low cost, these materials can cause environmental
and post-consumer impacts. The residues from packaging made from expanded polystyrene
or other conventional polymers are rarely recycled because of technical and economic
restrictions (Defraeye et al. 2015; Razza et al. 2015; Reis et al. 2015).
Embrapa Food Technology, National Institute of Technology and the Macromolecules
Institute at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro researched the development of new
packaging for mangos. The Brazilian National Economic and Social Development Bank
(BNDES) supported this research. The mangoes were harvested with different sizes and
shapes in order to design the packaging.
The National Institute of Technology (INT) scanned the fruits in a three-dimensional
scanner to study different packaging possibilities. The packages were developed by injection
(composite/extrusion) (Figure 1 and 2).
Conceptual models and 3D models of packaging for mangoes were created and several
prototypes were made in rapid prototyping equipment to determine the fittings and tolerances
of the final packaging. Using the designs and the 3D files the final mango packaging molds
were developed and tested.
The packaging was split into two parts: thermo injected and thermoformed. The thermo
injected was made using rigid plastic with a vegetable fiber composite. The thermoformed is
a tray, made using flexible plastic.
The aim of this study carried out by Embrapa Food Technology, National Institute of
Technology and the Macromolecules Institute at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil) was: a) to evaluate the quality and shelf life of ―Palmer‖ mangoes, packed
in two different types of packaging. First of all the mangoes werestored and transported at
10°C, after they were kept at environment temperature of 22 ± 2°C and 66 ± 5% RH,
respectively, and b) to evaluate the quality parameters.
The fruits were produced in state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. First of all, the mangos were
harvested at the commercial mature stage and then transported to Embrapa Food Technology,
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Figure 1. Thermo injected plastic base 300 x 400 x 115 mm for Palmer and Tommy Atkins mangoes.
Figure 2. Thermoformed tray for six different fruit sizes for Palmer and Tommy Atkins Mangoes.

Figure 3. a) cardboard box packaging; b) new packaging.
Table 1. Damages, injuries and defects, from handling during pre-harvest,

harvest and post-harvest
Pre-harvest Harvest and post-harvest

1. Anthracnose 1. Abrasions
2. Damage by insects 2. Rots
3. Seed gelatinous 3. Damage caused by high level of carbon dioxide
4. Deformation 4. Discoloration of the skin (due to damage from
heat or cold injury)
5. Damage of lenticels (spots) 5. Immature fruits (low quality when ripe)
6. Scars 6. Discoloration pulp (due to damage from heat or
cold injury)
Pre-harvest Harvest and post-harvest
7. Spots (darkening) 7. Badly trimmed (peduncle with more than 12.7
mm [0.5 inch])
8. Openings and cracks in the peel 8. Excessive ripening (too soft)
9. Soft nose 9. Burn by latex
10. Stem-end cavity 10. Wrinkle (water loss)
11. Burn and stains due to the sun 11. Deepen discolored areas (result of cold damage)
After harvest, the fruits were placed in packaging of cardboard boxes (conventional) - T1;
and in plastic packaging manufactured by composites of plant fibers developed by the project
supported by BNDES - T2 and immediately transported to the Embrapa Food Technology,

located in Rio de Janeiro, under 10°C (Figure 3). When the fruits arrived at Embrapa, the
packaging were inspected and the fruits were stored at a temperature of 22°C ± 2 and relative
humidity of 66 ± 5% RH. Physicochemical analyses were performed, and the damages and
injuries caused by improper handling during harvest and post-harvest were also evaluated.
The parameters analyzed included: fresh weight loss (FWL); the color of the peel;
instrumental Firmness; pH; total titratable acidity (TTA) and total soluble solids (TSS).
Table 2. Summary of the variables analysis of variance: FWL (%), SST (Brix),
TTA (% citric acid); ratio (of SST and TTA), pH and firmness from mango “Palmer”
packed for twelve days in cardboard boxes and BNDES boxes, after storage at room
temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH) storage
Meansquare
SV DF FWL SST TTA Ratio pH Firmness
Time (T) 5 50.64 ** 116.71 ** 0.647 ** 13634.33 ** 2.010 ** 387.82**
Packing (P) 1 5.32 ** 10.73 NS 0.023 NS 6.62 NS 0.097 NS 16.86 NS
TxP 5 0.19 ** 3.00 NS 0.028 NS 411.70 NS 0.073 NS 24.03 NS
Error Total 26 0.05 3.45 0.02 820.90 0.058 10.92
Coefficient of 47 3.65 14.68 26.42 62.77 6.05 34.05
variation
SV - Source of variation, DF - Degree of freedom, ** Significant to 1%, * Significant at 5% and NS Not
Significant.
The appearance of the fruit, which included damage, injuries and defects, in addition to
fruit ripening advancement, was visually evaluated according to the criteria established by
Brecht et al. (2011), as shown in Table 1.
The physicochemical analysis evaluated: FWL, TTA, SST, ratio, pH, firmness and color
parameters b * and chroma of the peel, brightness, a *, b * and chroma pulp were influenced
by time storage. The packaging used influenced the FWL, brightness and chroma of the peel
and pulp and b * of pulp. There was a significant interaction of factors, storage time and types
of packaging for the variable FWL; brightness, chroma and b * in ―Palmer‖ mango pulp
(Table 2 and 3).
At the end of the 12-day evaluation, the FWL presented no significant differences
between the fruits packed in cardboard boxes (8.65%) than those that were in the BNDES
boxes (9.54%). The difference being only 0.89%. The FWL in the plastic boxes did not result
in any visible weight loss or wrinkling of the fruit, and the fruit from both boxes were similar
in their visual turgidity. Yamashita (2006) mentioned that this weight loss is due to
respiration and water loss by fruit transpiration. There was an increase in soluble solids and a
decrease in titratable acidity of the mangoes, 147% (Figure 5) and 82.55% (Figure 6),
respectively after 12 days storage at ambient conditions.

Table 3. Summary of the analysis of variance: color parameters peel and pulp from mangos “Palmer”; Brightness (L), a *, b *, chroma
(C) and Hue Angle (Hue) packed in cardboard and BNDES boxes for twelve days, after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C)
and humidity (66 ± 5% RH) storage
Mean square
Peel color Pulp Color
SV DF L a* b* C Hue L a* b* C Hue
Time (T) 5 11.12 NS 65.34 NS 101.83 ** 138.61 ** 247.61 NS 331.50 ** 233.00** 643.70** 566.90** 228.81 NS
Packing (P) 1 90.83 * 80.49 NS 70.45 NS 83.31 * 572.63 NS 503.04 ** 100.49NS 274.06** 172.37** 159.50 NS
TxP 5 5.00 NS 13.22 NS
20.45 NS
27.45 85.13 NS 443.87 ** 11.29NS 395.83** 301.77** 30.72 NS
Error Total 26 13.50 31.28 19.94 19.77 457.06 2.90 27.88 6.71 12.09 123.80
Coefficient 47 8.72 61.76 34.63 26.72 38.12 2.46 105.19 5.16 6.81 13.13
of variation
SV - Source of variation, DF - Degree of freedom, ** Significant to 1%, * Significant at 5% and NS Not Significant.

Figure 4. Fresh weight loss of‖Palmer‖ mangoe spacked for twelve days in cardboardand BNDES
boxes, after storageatroomtemperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity(66 ± 5% RH).
Figure 5. The soluble solids content of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in BNDES boxes
after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH).
Ribeiro et al. (2009) also found an increase in soluble solids content and a decrease in
titratable acidity of ―Tommy Atkins‖ over time, especially at room temperature. The ratio
between soluble solids and titratable acidity increased with storage time (Figure 7). The
average pH values of the fruits evaluated increased approximately 33.1% after 12 days stored
under ambient conditions (Figure 7).

Figure 6. The titratable acidity content of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in BNDES boxes.
Figure 7. The pH values of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in BNDES boxes after storage at
room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH).
This happens because fruit respiration causes oxidation of the tricarboxylic acids during
the ripening process and therefore decreases the organic acid content (Chitarra and Chitarra,
2005).
The average firmness values decreased with storage time (Figure 8). These decreases in
pulp firmness were expected due to the maturation of the mangoes and it is due to the

degradation of hemicellulose and pectic substances as well as the hydrolysis of

starch(Chitarra and Chitarra 2005).
The values of b * and chroma fruit peel increased with storage time by 42.1% and 67.3%,
respectively (Figure 9).
Figure 8. Firmness values of‖Palmer‖ mangoespacked for twelve days in d BNDES boxes after storage
at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH).
Figure 9. a*, chroma, Brightness, Hue angle and b*average values of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for
twelve days in cardboard and BNDES boxes after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity
(66 ± 5% RH).

The increase in a * values indicates that the green color changed to red, and an increase in
chroma values indicates higher color intensity.
The brightness and chroma of the fruit peel varied according to the type of packaging
(Figure 10). Fruits packed in plastic boxes from BNDES project had the highest brightness
and chroma values, indicating that the peel had more intense color compared to the fruits
packed in cardboard boxes.
Figure 10. Average Brightness and chroma values of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in
cardboard and BNDES boxes after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH).
Figure 11. Brightness estimation of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in cardboard and
BNDES boxes after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH).

Figure 12. Estimation of a* and Hue angle average of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in
cardboard and BNDES boxes after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH)
a* pulp (Ŷ1).
The average ―Palmer‖ mango pulp brightness values were about 5% higher in fruits
packed in plastic boxes from the BNDES project compared to those kept in cardboard boxes.
The fruits packed in cardboard boxes decreased in brightness up to the 3rd day, followed
by an increase up to the 10th day and then decreased again up to 12th day of storage after
transferring these to ambient temperature conditions (Figure 11).
Mangoes packed in plastic BNDES boxes showed a decrease in brightness values with
storage time. Probably there is a water loss from the fruit tissues to the storage atmosphere,
causing the reduction in brightness and a decrease in the quality of product appearance. There
was a linear increase in pulp a* values up to the 12th day for ―Palmer‖ mangoes (Figure 12).
According to the scale proposed by Minolta (1998), these data indicate the change of pulp
color to red. The b * values of the ―Palmer‖ mango pulp packed in plastic boxes from
BNDES were 8.3% higher those kept in cardboard boxes (Figure 13) which indicates the
change of pulp color to yellow.
There was an increase in the chroma values of the ―Palmer‖ mango pulp, which indicates
a storage time dependence of the fruit, stored in the plastic BNDES boxes, compared with the
cardboard boxes (Figure 14). This increase indicates a greater intensity or color purity of the
pulp. The results obtained for a *, b * and chroma of the pulp during the storage time were
expected and showed the evolution of color pigments from the synthesis of carotenoids
during the natural process of fruit ripening.
Some evaluations of subjective aspects of the fruit quality were performed. Initially the
fruits were inspected to verify physical, physiological and pathological problems caused by
any inadequate management in the harvest and postharvest periods. The fruits presented non-
uniform maturity. In addition, the mangoes evaluated presented ripening stages of between 3
and 4 according to the scale proposed by Brecht et al. (2011) as shown in Figure 15.

According to Brecht et al. (2011), in most field operations, the ripening of mangoes may
be classified according to a 5-point scale for the color of the pulp. The scale focuses on the
ratio between the different colors of white or green and yellow-orange present in the pulp of
the mango (Figure 15 b).
Figure 13. Estimation of b* of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in cardboard and BNDES
boxes, after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH).
Figure 14. Estimation of ―Palmer‖ mango chroma packed for twelve days in cardboardand BNDES
boxes after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH).

Figure 15. a) Pulpcolor of ―Palmer‖ mangoes packed for twelve days in cardboard and BNDES boxes,
after storage at room temperature (22 ± 2°C) and humidity (66 ± 5% RH) and b) Color stages of mango
pulp on the point scale proposed by Assis et al. (2004).
Mango pulp without any yellow color and with white or green color, receives the
classification 1. They are immature fruits. Fruits with ¼ of the pulp surface with a yellow
color is ranked as 2; ½ the surface of the pulp showing a yellow color is classified as 3, ¾ the
surface of the pulp showing yellow is classified as 4 and 100% of yellow and orange pulp is
rated 5.
During storage, there was no sign of anthracnose. Some fruits presented stem rot;
however only for the fruits in the cardboard boxes from the 8th day. Some fruits germinated
as of the 8th day. The literature dos not mention this problem. The main damage related to
loss of quality was the wrinkling of the fruit, as of the 8th day.
This problem probably happened due to the excessive loss of water through transpiration
(Finger and Vieira, 1997). There were empty spaces in the pulp from the 10th day. No
damages and injuries were expected on the ―Palmer‖ mangoes because all fruits were looked
after carefully during pre-harvest and harvest, and because during the packaging process any
mangoes with injuries and damage were removed.
Also according to Brecht et al. (2011), abrasions, injuries and bruises in fruit peel are the
main mechanical damages that may occur during handling procedures in harvesting and post-
harvest. The mechanical damages may increase the water loss of mangoes, providing the start
of fungal infection. Careful handling during harvest, packaging and transportation on

wholesale and retail markets are the main strategy to reduce the incidence and severity of
mechanical damage.
Figure 16. Damage to the BNDES plastic boxes caused by increased pressure from the plastic strap.
Figure 17. a) BNDES boxes improperly seated and b) condensation of water in the trays.
In terms of the physical aspects, the packaging presented full recovery after compression
due to the plastic strap for transportation. However some plastic straps were not well fitted, as
can be seen in the Figure 16.
Such a problem may have been caused due to placing the strap incorrectly in the middle
of the boxes and not diagonally, which would avoid excessive pressure on the middle of the
pack and distribute the pressure more evenly on the stack (Figure 17a). Some packaging were
improperly seated, probably due to a lack of training of personnel involved in packing and
stacking process.
Another problem observed was the condensation of water in the trays where the fruits
were, as can be seen below (Figure 17b). This problem can be overcome by making some
holes in the thermoformed parts, where the fruits are placed and the condensation water will
be eliminated by gravity.
In conclusion the cardboard packaging can pack 08-10 fruits per box, depending on the
size and shape of the fruits, while the plastic boxes developed by the project can pack 10

fruits per box, regardless of size and shape of the fruits. Another advantage is an increase in
speed to pack the mangoes at the packinghouses. Thus, independent of size and shape of the
packed fruits, the plastic boxes developed by the project presented 7.5% more capacity than
the conventional cardboard packaging. Moreover, the plastic boxes do not require special
handling rules that are compulsory for the cardboard boxes used for the domestic market.
Among the subjective aspects of quality loss, wrinkles were the main problem that decreased
the appearance quality of the fruit. Further studies involving this new packaging with edible
coatings to minimize water loss and maintain the quality of the fruit are suggested.
Despite significant differences for some physical and chemical attributes of the ―Palmer‖
mango there was little influence between the plastic boxes and cardboard boxes in terms of
final quality and shelf life of the fruits. This may be due to the specialist Logistics Company
that transported the samples from Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. They are specialists in
transporting samples sensitive to mechanical damage, such as mangoes. If the transportation
had been performed by ordinary trucks, the results may well have been different. The plastic
boxes were developed to absorb the impact caused by the transportation. Fruits packaged on
conventional cardboard boxes are more susceptible to damages and injuries during
transportation.
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Chapter 4
BIOACTIVE MOLECULES AND HEALTH BENEFITS

OF MANGO PEEL
Mahendranath Gondi and U. J. S. Prasada Rao*

Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition,
CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India
ABSTRACT
Mango is one of the important tropical fruits in the world and it ranks fifth in the
total production of major fruit crops. It is valued for its excellent flavor, attractive
fragrance, delicious taste and nutritional benefits. Therefore, it is referred to as the ‗King
of fruits,‘ in Asia. Several hundreds of mango varieties are grown in the world. However,
sensory properties and biochemical constituents vary depending on the variety. As the
mango is a seasonal fruit, a variety of processed foods are prepared. During processing of
mango into pulp, the peel is one of the major by-products, apart from the kernel. Peel
constitutes, about 15-20% of the fruit and it is reported to be a good source of various
biologically active compounds like enzymes, polyphenols, carotenoids and antioxidant
vitamins. The peel extract exhibited antioxidant properties in different in vitro systems by
scavenging reactive oxygen species and protected DNA from oxidative damage. Peel
extract exhibited better antioxidant and anticancer properties compared to that of flesh
(pulp) extract. The unripe mango peel contains antifungal compounds. Silver and gold
nanoparticles were synthesized with the aid of mango peel extract and the reaction rate
for the synthesis process was reported to be relatively higher than other plant extracts.
Mango peel powder supplemented diet has the ability to control diabetes and its
complications in experimental rats. Use of mango peel in biscuits and macaroni has
improved the antioxidant properties and increased the dietary fibre content of these food
products. Thus, the peel can be used in the preparation of functional foods and the extract
can be used as a nutraceutical. This chapter covers a brief overview of various bioactive
compounds present in mango peel and their health benefits.
*
Corresponding author: Dr. U.J.S. Prasada Rao, Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore – 570 020, India, Tel: + 91 0821 2514876, Fax: + 91-821-2517233,
E-mail: prasadarao_ummiti@yahoo.com.

60 Mahendranath Gondi and U. J. S. Prasada Rao
Keywords: mango, food products, peel, bioactive compounds, antioxidant properties, dietary
fibre, health benefits, diabetes, cancer, functional foods
1. INTRODUCTION
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to family Anacardiaceae, genus Mangifera and
species indica. It is one of the important tropical fruits and ranks 5th in total production of
major fruit crops in the world, after musa, citrus, grapes and apples (Mukherjee, 1997). It is
valued for its excellent flavor, attractive fragrance, delicious taste and nutritional benefits.
Therefore, it is referred to as the ‗King of fruits,‘ in Asia. More than a thousand varieties of
mango are grown in the world. However, sensory properties and biochemical constituents
vary depending on the mango variety.
Mango is native to Indo-Barman region. Its cultivation in India is at least 4000 years old
(de Candolle 1884). Several hundred varieties are produced in India, and only a few of them
are commercialized based on their regional preferences. India produces about 50% of the total
world mango fruit production. It was reported that during the 2012-2013, India produced
about 16.2 million metric tonnes of mangoes (NHB, 2013). Mango cultivation in the world
was reported to be around 3.7 mn ha (Jahurul et al., 2015) and its cultivation in India was
estimated to be approximately 2.46 mn ha, which is the highest among the mango growing
countries (Sekhar, 2013). Although the production of mango is initially limited to Asian
countries, currently its production has spread to different parts of the world such as South and
Central America, Africa, Australia, and some parts of Europe especially Spain (Mukeherjee,
1997). Mango is grown commercially in more than 90 countries. The top ten mango
producing countries are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Principal mango producing countries in 2010 (metric tons)
Country Production
India 16,337,400
China 4,351,593
Thailand 2,550,600
Pakistan 1,784,300
Mexico 1,632,650
Indonesia 1,313,540
Brazil 1,188,910
Bangladesh 1,047,850
Philippines 823,576
Nigeria 790,200
Source: FAOSTAT, 2012.
2. BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN DIFFERENT

PARTS OF THE MANGO TREE
Most of the parts or tissues of mango tree such as stem bark, leaves, flowers, latex, pulp,
peel and seed contains various nutrients and nutraceuticals. Extracts of mango stem bark and

Bioactive Molecules and Health Benefits of Mango Peel 61
leaves were found to lower effectively blood glucose in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats
and glucose-induced hyperglycemia in rats and mice (Aderibigbe et al., 1999, 2001).
Gallotannin is one of the major bioactive compounds in seed and unripe peel (Saleh & EI-
Ansari, 1975). However, mangiferin is present in most parts of the mango tree (Saleh & EI-
Ansari, 1975; Ajila et al., 2010a). Mangiferin has anti-diabetic and antihyperlipidemic
potential. It showed antiatherogenic and antioxidant activities (Rouillard et al., 1998)
immuno-stimulating and antiviral properties (Zheng et al., 1990), and it was found to protect
hepatocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils and macrophages from oxidative stress
(Muruganandan et al., 2005). Mangiferin significantly reduced plasma total cholesterol,
triglycerides and decreased in the atherogenic index in diabetic rats (Muruganandan et al.,
2005).
3. MANGO FRUIT PULP AS SOURCE OF

NUTRIENTS AND NUTRACEUTICALS
Mango fruits are a good source of micronutrients and nutraceuticals. It is a good source
of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and antioxidants. As pulp is an edible part of the fruit,
most of the work related to nutrients or nutraceuticals on mango fruit was focused on pulp.
Nutrients: Fruits are rich in vitamins, nutraceuticals and dietary fibre and are essential
components of the human diet. Mango fruit is rich in nutrients, especially micronutrients
(Table 2). The fruit is rich in vitamin C, and vitamin A as well as β-carotene, which function
as provitamin A. Mango fruit is a good source of potassium with a low amount of sodium.
Potassium is an important element in cell and body fluids, and it helps in controlling heart
rate and blood pressure (Dias, 2012).
Nutraceutical components of mango: Mango fruit is rich in nutraceutical compounds
like polyphenols and carotenoids and many of the pharmacological properties of mango are
attributed due to the presence of these nutraceuticals present in them (Singh et al., 2004). It is
also rich in dietary fibre. It is rich in flavonoids like quercitin and glucosylxanthones such as
mangiferin. The major phenolic acids identified were chlorogenic acid [28–301 mg/100 g
dryweight; (DW)], gallic acid (94.6–98.7 mg/100 g DW) and vanillic acid (16.9–24.4 mg/100
g DW) (Palafox-Carlosa et al., 2012). Scheiber et al. (2000) reported the presence of gallic
acid, caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, mangiferin, p-coumaric acid, quercetin and its
glycosides, kaempferol and its glycosides,and gallotannin in mango puree. Saed et al. (1976)
reported that pulp extract contained gallic acid, m-digallic acid, gallotannin, mangiferin.
Mango pulp contains good amount of carotenoids (0.9–9.2 mg/100 g). The attractive color of
mango is mainly due to the presence of abundant β-carotene, which provides the largest
portion of the total carotenoids (48-84%) in it (Mercadante& Rodriguez-Amaya, 1998).
3.1. Health Benefits of Mango Fruit Pulp
Evans et al. (2014) reported that supplementation of diet with mango fruit improves
blood glucose in obese individuals. Mango extracts are popularly used as drugs in Indian
traditional medicine. Raw and ripe mango fruits are known for their medicinal properties. The

raw fruit is an astringent and stimulant tonic. It cures constipation. The acid content in the
green mango increases the secretion of bile and has a role in intestinal absorption. Ripe
mangoes are beneficial in the treatment of night blindness. The ripe mango is antiscorbuetic,
diuretic, laxative and astringent. It increases seven dhatus (tissues) in Ayurvedic medicine
namely, plasma, blood, flesh, fat, bone marrow and reproductive tissues. In Sanskrit, they are
rasa, rakta, mamsa, medas, asthi, majja and shukra. These are the structures that make up the
body. The fruit is beneficial in liver disorders, loss of weight and cures constipation
(www.indian Gyan.com).
Table 2. Nutrients in mango (100 g edible portion)
Component Content
Moisture 81.7 g
Protein 0.51 g
Fat 0.27 g
Carbohydrates 17 g
Fiber 1.8 g
Ash 0.5 g
Calcium 10 mg
Phosphorus 11mg
Iron 0.13 mg
Sodium 2 mg
Potassium 156 mg
Vitamin C (total ascorbic acid) 27.7 mg
Thiamine 0.058 mg
Riboflavin 0.057 mg
Niacin 0.584 mg
Pantothenic acid 0.160mg
Vitamin B6 0.134 mg
Folate, total 14 µg
Vitamin A 765 IU
Retinol 0 µg
Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) 1.12 mg
Vitamin K (phylloquinone) 4.2 µg
Source: USDA/ARS, 2007).
3.2. Processed Products of Mango
As mango is a seasonal fruit, considerable amount of the mango fruits are processed into
various food products like canned mango slices, jam, juices, squashes, nectars, beverages,
pulp, chutney, pickles, raw mango slices, raw mango powder (amchur), and mango leather,
among others (Table 3). These products are available throughout the year. Some products like
chutney, pickle, amchur and green mango beverage are made with the raw mango and the
most of them are made with ripe mango fruits. Most of these products are prepared after
removal of the peel. Juice, squash, nectar and pulp mango leather are made with ripe fruits
while chutney, pickles, mango powder and slices are made with raw mango. Except pickles,
chutney and slices most of the above-mentioned products are made after removal of the peel.
Peel and kernel are the by-products of in mango processing industry. One of its most

processed forms is pulp, which is further used for manufacturing final products such as fruit
drinks, powders, jams, purees and dehydrated slices (Djantou et al., 2011; Ledeker et al.,
2014; Sogi et al., 2015).
Table 3. Processed products from different stages of mango
Type of fruit Products prepared By-products

Raw fruit Amchur Peel, kernel
Pickle kernel
Chutney kernel
Slices Kernel
Ripe fruit Pulp Peel, kernel
puree Peel, kernel
Juice Peel, kernel
Fruit bar and candy Peel, kernel
Slices Peel, kernel
Cereal flakes Peel, kernel
beverage Peel, kernel
Nectar Peel, kernel
Jam Peel, kernel
4. MANGO FRUIT PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS AND HEALTH

BENEFITS OF MANGO PEEL
Tropical fruits like mango contain lesser content of edible portion compared to the
temperate zone fruits like apples. Hence, mango fruit produces higher content of byproducts
during their processing (Figure 1). In mango fruit, the peels and seeds amount to 35-60% of
the total fruit weight (Larrauri et al., 1996). Seed constitutes about 20-40% of the whole fruit
and it is rich in fat. Mango seed fat finds various applications in chocolate industry as it has
physicochemical properties similar to coco butter (Hemavathy et al., 1988; Jahurul et al.,
2013). The melting and crystallization behavior of mango seed fat closely resembles those of
cocoa butter. The melting temperatures of mango fats in different varieties from different
countries varied from 25-47˚C. Mango seed contains a significant amount of protein (4.76-
8.5%) (Morton, 1987) and the quality of protein with respect to essential amino acids is high
in mango seed (Abdallaet al., 2007). Apart from fat and protein, the seed also rich in starch
and antioxidants. It showed potential antioxidant activity due to high phenolic contents.
Soong et al. (2004) reported that mango seed kernel was also shown to be a good source of
phytosterols (campesterol, β-sitosterol and stigmasterol) and tocopherols. Incorporation of
mango seed powder up to 40%into biscuits yielded an acceptable product with mango flavour
(Ashoush & Gadalla, 2011).
Another major by-product in mango fruit processing industry is peel. Peel constitutes
about 15-20% of the fruit. It is being wasted and causes environmental pollution. Hence,
investigations on the valuable compounds in peel and its health benefits will provide value
addition to mango peel. Extensive research work on biochemical, nutritional and nutraceutical

composition, and health benefits of mango pulp and seed were carried out. However,
investigations on the composition and possible utilization of mango peels are comparatively
scarce. Earlier work indicates that peel contains nutrients like proteins, and fats in small
quantities but rich in carbohydrates. It is rich in crude fibre andpectin (Table 4). Recent
investigations have indicated that mango peel extracts are rich in various bioactive
compounds, and they exhibit antioxidant properties and various health benefits. Peel extracts
were reported tocontrol the proliferation of cancer cells (Ali et al., 2012) and theyfind
applications in nanotechnology (Yang & Li, 2013; Yang et al., 2014). Mango peel was
reported to ameliorate diabetes (Gondi et al., 2015) and its complications, and it can be used
in the preparation of functional foods (Ajila et al., 2008). Hence, this chapter reviews the
recent finding on the health benefits of mango peel.
Figure 1. Cross-section of mango fruit.
Table 4. Proximate composition and antioxidant compounds of mango peel
Component Content
Moisture (%)* 10.5
Fat (%)* 2.2
Ash (%)* 3.0
Protein (%)* 3.6
Crude fibre(%)** 8.4
Carbohydrate (%)* 80.7
Total polyphenols (mg GAE/g MPP)* 96.2
Tannin** 2.3
Pectin** 12.9
Carotenoids (μg/g MPP)* 3092
Source: *Ajila et al., (2007a); **Beerh et al, 1976); GAE- gallic acid equivalents; MPP- mango peel
powder.

4.1. Digestive Enzymes in Mango Peel
Mango peel contains digestive enzymes like proteases, xylanase and amylase. Xylanase
activity was found to be more in raw mango peel while amylase activity was determined more
in ripe peels (Ajila et al., 2007a). Mango peel aqueous extracts had good protease activity and
it was found to be more in the ripe mango peels than in the raw mango peels. The protease
activity ranged from 4573 to 11173 U/g of dry peel. Proteases catalyze the hydrolysis of
peptide bonds in proteins and polypeptides. Proteases have various applications in leather,
food as well as in medicine and pharmacology. They are used in cleaning wounds from
necrotized tissues, accelerating post-operational scar tissue prevention, contact lens cleaning
formulations, and treatment of inflammation, respiratory tract disorders, cardiovascular
disease and cancer. In dermatology, antioxidant and collagenolytic activities of proteases are
used. They are also used as digestive supplements and in waste treatments (Tochi et al., 2008;
Chanalia et al., 2011).
A significant amount of work was reported on the purification and characterization of
proteases in mango peel. Amid et al,. (2011b) reported that stability of enzyme can be
effectively enhanced by the use of coating agents in freeze drying. They demonstrated that
Arabic gum, maltodextrin and calcium chloride as coating agents protected serine protease
from activity loss during freeze drying. Furthermore, it was found that the interaction between
Arabic gum and calcium chloride enhanced the serine protease activity, and Arabic gum
proved to be the most effective amongst the examined stabilizers. Arabic gum should,
therefore, be considered as a potentially important stabilizer in the freeze drying of serine
protease. Amid et al., (2011a) determined optimum extraction variables with respect to buffer
content, temperature, pH and mixing time to obtain maximum protease (serine protease)
activity employing response surface methodology. Subsequently, Amid et al. (2012)
employed alcohol/salt-based aqueous two-phase system to purify serine protease from mango
peel. The purified protease had a yield of 96.7% with 11.6 fold purification.
4.2. Methods to Obtain Dry Mango Peel Powder
The peel contains high amount of moisture, and in raw and ripe fruits, it varied from 66-
75% (Ajila et al., 2007a). As the water activity is more in the peels, they are susceptible to
microbial contamination. Drying is a major food processing method used to extend the shelf
life of food product, and various drying methods have been used to improve the shelf-life of
perishable fruits, vegetables and their tissues. Hot air, vacuum, freeze, spray and microwave
drying are different methods used for drying in food industry.
Dorta et al. (2012) reported the drying treatments like freeze-drying and oven-drying (at
70°Cwith static or forced air). Drying treatments improved the total chlorophyll extraction
from mango peel. The content of phenolic compounds in the freeze-dried mango peel was
higher (9.2g/100g DW) than that of undried as well as oven dried peels. The capacity of
mango peel extract (ethanol: water) to protect lipids from oxidation and to scavenge the
DPPH free radical was not affected by the drying treatment compared to non-dried material.
Sogi et al., (2013) compared different drying methods to retain optimum antioxidant activity
in peels. The total phenolics, carotenoids and antioxidant properties of dehydrated powders
were lower when hot air, vacuum and IR drying methods were used compared to freeze

drying. The highest antioxidant capacity was also found in the freeze dried kernel, followed
by vacuum dried, cabinet dried, and IR dried samples, which might be due to lack of heat-
related damage in freeze drying(Sogi et al., 2013).
4.3. Bioactive Compounds, Dietary Fibre and Health Benefits of Mango Peel
4.3.1. Composition and Importance of Mango Peel Dietary Fiber

Dietary fibre is non-digestible by the human gastrointestinal enzymes (Eastwood &
Passmore, 1983). Depending on solubility in water, dietary fibres are classified into two
groups, soluble and insoluble dietary fibres. Compounds such as cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin are some of the examples for insoluble dietary fibres (IDF) while pectin, β-glucan and
gums are few examples of soluble dietary fibres. The total dietary fibre content in raw and
ripe mango peels range from 44-78% of which, soluble dietary fibre (SDF) content was
reported to range from 15-28% and insoluble dietary fibre range from 29-50%. In general,
raw peel contains low dietary fibres compared to ripe peels (Ajila et al., 2007a; Gondi et al.,
2015).
Table 5. Bioactive compounds in mango peel
Bioactive compounds
Polyphenols
Iriflophenonehexoside
Gallic acid (sodium adduct)
Maclurinhexoside
Maclurin-tri-O-galloylglucoside
Syringic acid hexoside
Mangiferinpentoside
Ellagic acid
Gentisyl protocatechuic acid
Free and bound phenolic acids
Gallic acid
Gentisic acid
Protocatechuic acid
Bioactive compounds
Flavonoids
Quercetin
Rutin
Genistein
Kaempferol
Catechin
Carotenoids
Violaxanthin
Lutein
-Carotene
Source: Ajila et al., 2010a; Ajila & Prasada Rao,2013; Gondi et al., 2015.

A preparation containing 30–50% SDF and 50–70% insoluble dietary fibre of the total
dietary fibre is considered to be well-balanced fibre in health point of view (Schneeman,
1987). The content of SDF in mango peel powder is high compared to most plant sources
such as cereals. The soluble dietary fibre content in both raw and ripe mango peels are more
than 35% of TDF. Dietary fibre has various health benefits. Short chain fatty acids generated
from dietary fibre by intestinal microflora has the ability to reduce the risk of hyperglycemia,
hyperlipidemia and hypercholesterolemia (Melissa et al., 2012). IDF helps in prevention of
constipation and colon cancer. SDF associates with cholesterol in blood and diminishes its
intestinal absorption. The characteristic feature of mango peel is that it has high content of
soluble dietary fibre, which is reported to have more health beneficial effects. SDF has been
reported to ameliorate type II diabetes and lower the plasma cholesterol levels by diminishing
the absorption of cholesterol by the digestive tract (Melissa et al., 2012).
Presence of dietary fiber reduces oil uptake by the food product during its processing
(Dreher, 1995). Thus, dietary fiber now-a-days is used as a fat replacer in food processing
industry. The nutritional value of dietary fiber is enhanced if antioxidant compounds like
polyphenols are bound covalently to dietary fiber (associated dietary fiber). Mango peel
dietary fibers contain significant amount of neutral sugars like arabinose, galactose and
glucose (Larrauri et al., 1996; Ajila & Prasada Rao, 2013). It was proposed that mango peel
dietary fibers may consist of arabinogalactans (pectic type, β-glucan type and glucomannan
type) and cellulosicpolysachharides (Ajila & Prasada Rao, 2013).
Mango peel has dietary fibre associated with polyphenols (Ajila & Prasada Rao, 2013)
and there is a demand for the dietary fibre that has associated antioxidant polyphenols due to
their health enhancing properties (Navarro-Gonzalez et al., 2011; Vitaglione et al., 2008).
Some of these have been proven to be health beneficial fibers. The bound phenolics content
varied from 8-30 mg/g peel and the bound flavonoids content varied 0.1-0.4 mg/g peel
depending on the variety and raw or ripe stage of the fruit peel.
The polyphenols bound to dietary fibre reach the large intestine along with dietary fibre.
Some of the polyphenols get fermented in the large intestine along with dietary fibre and
produce absorbable metabolite like phenylacetic, phenylpropionic and phenylbutyric acids.
These compounds may exert systemic effects (Manach et al., 2005; Rechner et al., 2004).
However, the non-fermentable and non-absorbable polyphenols present in the large intestine
may form an antioxidant environment in the large intestine (Goni & Serrano, 2005).
Characteristics of Mango Peel Pectin

Pectin is a polysaccharide found in between plant cell wall and middle lamella and it
contributes to the rigidity of plant cell (Bagherian et al., 2011). It is a soluble dietary fibre and
mango peel is rich in pectin. Mango peel powder was reported to contain 12.2 to 21.2% of
pectin and degree of esterification ranged from 56.3 to 65.6% depending on the variety
(Berardini et al., 2005). Sudhakar & Maini (2000) developed an efficient method for the
preparation of good quality pectin from the dry peels of Totapuri mango variety. Dried mango
peels could be stored for six months at ambient conditions (14.5–33.9°C) without any
significant effect on the recovery of pectin. Using the optimum extracting conditions about
20.8% (DW) of purified pectin was obtained from mango peels.

4.3.2. Bioactive Compounds of Mango Peel

Under normal aerobic cellular metabolism, free radicals are produced and the antioxidant
system in the cell prevents damage caused by the free radicals. However, the imbalanced
defense mechanism of antioxidants, overproduction or incorporation of free radicals from
environment to living systems causes cellular damage and leads to pathophysiological
conditions. Regular consumption of the diet rich in antioxidant compounds prevents the
disease conditions. Agro-residues are rich in phenolic compounds and carotenoids, which
exhibit antioxidant properties.
Phenolic compounds exhibit a wide range of physiological properties, such as anti-
allergenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic and cardio
protective. Mango peel contains polyphenols, carotenoids, tocopherols and ascorbic acid.
Different extraction methods were used to estimate polyphenols and carotenoids in mango
peel. Ajila et al. (2007a) used different solvents like phosphate buffer, 80% ethanol and 80%
acetone to extract total polyphenols, and they found that 80% acetone extracted high quantity
of polyphenols. Total polyphenol content was found to be higher in raw peel (110 mg gallic
acid equivalents/g; DW) compared to ripe peel. In contrast, carotenoid content was found to
be more in ripe fruit peel (3337g/g) compared to that of raw fruit peel (547 g/g) (Ajila et
al., 2007a). Even the individual carotenoids like violoxanthine, lutein, -Carotene were found
to be more in ripe fruit peel (Ajila et al., 2010b). Total polyphenol content was higher in peel
rather than pulp at all stages of fruit (Laksminarayan et al., 1970).
4.3.3. Antioxidant Properties of Peel

Polyphenols consist of phenolic acids, flavonoids and anthocyanins, and they exhibit
antioxidant properties by donating hydrogen or electrons to free radicals and thus, prevent the
oxidative damage. Mango peel extract exhibited antioxidant properties in different systems.
The peel extract showed DPPH radical scavenging activity and reducing power, inhibited
lipoxygenase activity and microsomal lipid peroxidation, prevented the oxidative damage in
erythrocytes from H2O2, and inhibited hydroxyl radical induced λDNA damage (Ajila et al.,
2007; Ajila & Prasada Rao, 2008; Gondi et al., 2015). All these antioxidant properties are due
to the presence of polyphenols and carotenoids in mango peel extracts.
Various phenolic acids and their derivatives, flavonoids and carotenoids present in mango
peel extracts were identified by different workers (Tabel 5). Ajila et al. (2010a) reported that
both raw and ripe peels contain hepta-O-galloyl hexose, gallic acid, syringic acid hexoside,
mangiferinpentoside, ellagic acid, gentisyl- protocatechuic acid. Flavonoids like rutin,
quercetin. kaempferol and genistein were present in mango peels. On the other hand, Schieber
et al. (2003) identified seven quercetin O-glycosides, four xanthones C-glycosides and
kaempferol in the extracts of Tommy Atkins variety mango peel. Ellagic acid was the
predominant in peel (Prabha & Patwardhan, 1986). All these compounds exhibit different
antioxidant properties and health benefits. Mangiferin, a xanthone C-glycoside exhibits a
variety of pharmaceutical effects such as hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, antioxidant,
hepatoprotectiveas well as immunomodulatory, antiviral and antitumor activities (Schieber et
al., 2003). Gallic acid is one of the prominent phenolic acids identified in both raw and ripe
mango peels extracts. This phenolic acid was reported to possess potential antioxidant
properties and prevents the formation of chronic diseases. It stimulates insulin secretion
(insulin secretagogue) (Latha & Daisy 2011). Gallic acid and protocatechuic acid are reported

to exhibit higher antioxidant activities compared to the most of the phenolic acids reported in
the literature (Palafox-Carlos et al., 2012). Rutin improves the hyperglycemia and
dyslipidemia and prevents nephropathy in STZ-induced diabetic rats (Fernandes et al., 2010;
Hao et al., 2012).
4.3.4. Antifungal Properties of Peel

Most plants produce antimicrobial secondary metabolites, either as part of their normal
program of growth and development or in response to pathogen attack or stress. These
compounds include saponins and phenolics, among others. Mango peel contains resorcinols,
viz., resorcinol-5-(12-cis-heptadecenyl) and resorcinol-5-(pentadecyl) and the levels of these
compounds decrease during ripening. These compounds were found to have antifungal
properties against Alternaria alternata, a fungus responsible for the black spot disease of
mango fruits (Jacoby & Goldman, 1986). The concentration of these two resorcinol
compounds in the peels of unripe fruits was about 200 μg g−1 (fresh weight) and in ripe peels,
it was 100 μg g−1 (fresh weight). The ED50 of the compound for inhibition of germ-tube
growth of germinated conidia of A. alternata was 120 μg ml−1. Thus, the unripe fruits are
resistant to Alternaria rot as unripe fruits contain fungitoxic concentrations in the peel. It was
hypothesized that the mixture of the 5-substituted resorcinols were involved in the latency of
Alternaria alternata infections in unripe mango fruits (Droby et al., 1986; Cojocaru et al.,
1986).
4.3.5. Use of Mango Peel for Controlling Diabetes and Cancer

Mango peel is rich in a variety of bioactive compounds like free and bound phenolic
acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids as well as dietary fibre. These compounds
exhibit various health benefits due to their potential antioxidant properties and decreased
blood glucose levels. Mango peel powder and extracts have been used to ameliorate diabetes
and its complications (Gondi et al., 2015) and proliferation of cancer cells (Ali et al., 2012).
Effect of Mango Peel on Amelioration of Diabetes

Diabetic patients are increasing worldwide and it is a great concern to many countries.
The number of people in the world with diabetes is projected to rise to 439 million by 2030
(Chen et al., 2012). Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder and it is characterized by
hyperglycemia. It is caused due to deficiency of insulin secretion, resistance to insulin action
or both. Oxidative stress in the body generates free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS),
which is a serious contributor to the appearance and progression of diabetes mellitus (Maritim
et al., 2003; Tiwari et al., 2013; Palanisamy et al., 2011).
Another mechanism by which hyperglycaemia takes place is due to break down of starch
by pancreatic α-amylase and intestinal α-glucosidase, and increases the postprandial blood
glucose. Diabetes can be controlled by different approaches like scavenging of free radicals or
improving the antioxidant enzyme activities or control of postprandial glucose levels by
inhibition of intestinal α-glucosidase and pancreatic α-amylase (Kwon et al., 2007). Currently
used drugs for diabetes are reported to cause side effects such as increase in appetite and
weight gain, increase in the occurrence of cardiovascular risk, gastrointestinal disturbances
and diarrhea, among others (Feinglos et al., 1999; Bolen et al., 2007). Therefore, use of
natural products for the management of diabetes and its complications is the current strategy.

Traditionally, plant sources are used to treat diabetes. Therefore, different plant tissues can be
an alternative source to find antihyperglycemic agents. Antioxidants and other dietary
components like dietary fibre may improve hyperglycemia and prevent diabetes. Food rich in
dietary fibre, polyphenols and carotenoids are reported to scavenge free radicals and decrease
ROS content and ameliorate diabetes.
A recent report by Gondi et al. (2015) indicates that mango peel can ameliorate diabetes
and its complications. These authors have evaluated the antidiabetic effect of the diet
supplemented with mango peel powder instreptozotocin-induced diabetic male Wistar rats.
Diet supplemented with mango peel powder at 5 and 10% levels showed beneficial effect on
basic diabetic parameters such as urine sugar, urine volume, fasting blood glucose, total
cholesterol level, triglycerides, low density lipoprotein and high density lipoprotein,
glomerular filtration rate, glycated hemoglobin and antioxidant enzyme activities. Diabetic
rats fed with diet supplemented with mango peel powder showed a significant increase in
their body weight compared to that of untreated diabetic rats. Fasting glucose and urine sugar
levels were significantly decreased in the diabetic rats supplemented with mango peel
powder. Glomerular filtration rate, which measures the kidney function, was increased under
diabetic conditions, however, it was significantly reduced by 48% in diabetic rats fed with
diet supplemented with 10% mango peel. Glycated hemoglobin is one of the important
parameters to assess the progression of diabetes and its complications. Diabetes is also
associated with abnormalities in lipid profiles. Diabetic rats fed with the diets supplemented
with 5 and 10% mango peel powder have ameliorated the glycated hemoglobin levels as well
as lipid profiles. Feeding the diabetic rats with the diet containing mango peel has improved
the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, glutathione reductase, glutathione
peroxidase and superoxide dismutase and decreased the lipid peroxidation levels in plasma,
kidney and liver compared to diabetic rats.
Another recent report also indicated that oral administration of aqueous ethanol extract of
mango peel through an intragastric tube to experimental animals ameliorated the basic
diabetic parameters in STZ-induced diabetic rats (Gondi & Prasada Rao, 2015). In addition to
ameliorating the fasting blood glucose levels, mango peel extract also decreased the
fructosamine and glycated hemoglobin levels in serum and increased the antioxidant enzyme
levels serum, kidney and liver in diabetic rats. The peel extract also inhibited the α-amylase
and α–glucosidase activities (Gondi & Prasada Rao, 2015).
The health benefits of mango peel in amelioration of diabetes in experimental rats may be
due to the synergistic effect of phenolic compounds, carotenoid and soluble dietary fibre
present in the mango peel. There have been many reports concerning the role of dietary fiber
in lowering postprandial serum glucose. Ou et al., (2001) reported that dietary fibers lower
the postprandial serum glucose levels by different mechanisms such as, i) increasing the
viscosity of small intestine juice and hindering diffusion of glucose, ii) decreasing the
concentration of available glucose in the small intestine by binding toglucose and iii)
retarding the α-amylase action through capsuling starch and the enzyme. Antidiabetic
properties of dietary fibre may also be due to the generation of short chain fatty acids such as
butyric acid that is known to play an important role in the insulin sensitivity. Polyphenols
present in mango peel may ameliorate the glucose homeostasis during diabetes by inhibition
of α-amylase and α-glucosidase, stimulation of insulin secretion from the pancreatic β-cells,
activation of insulin receptors and glucose uptake by in the insulin sensitive tissues and

modulation of hepatic glucose output (Iwai et al., 2006; Iwai, 2008; Cabrera et al., 2006; Jung
et al., 2007).
Inhibition of Proliferation of Cancer Cell Lines by Mango Peel Extract

Apoptosis is an active physiological process resulting in cellular self-destruction. Cancer
is characterized by cellular proliferation and impediment to apoptosis. Hence, Targeting of
apoptosis has been regarded as a valid therapeutic strategy for developing antitumor drugs
(Hong et al., 2003). Researchers have been searching for safer anticancer drugs from natural
products. The anticarcinogenic potency of mango peel extract and its biochemical mechanism
by which it induces cell death was reported by Ali et al., (2012). It was reported that peel
extracts were found to have better antioxidant and antiproliferative properties of HeLa human
cervical carcinoma cells compared mango flesh (pulp) extracts. Peel extract was found to be
rich in phenolics and unsaturated fatty acid (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid. The peel extract
significantly inhibited the proliferation of HeLa cells in a dose-dependent manner. The
mechanism by which peel extract–induced apoptosis of HeLa cells was through alteration of
Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and activation of caspases-3, -8 and -9 (Ali et al., 2012). The authors
suggested that apart from phenolics, the unsaturated fatty acid and α-tocopherol, which are
present in the mango peel may be responsible for the strong inhibition of proliferation of
HeLa cells and peel can be a candidate for the development of a drug for the treatment of
cervical cancer.
4.3.6. Use of Mango Peel Extract as Reducing Agent in Preparation of Silver

Nanoparticles in Medicinal Applications
Nanoparticles are used not only in electronics, solar energy conversion, water treatment,
catalysis, photonics, and biosensors but also in medical fields such as drug delivery,
biodiagnostics, etc. (Murphy et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2012; Alkilany et al., 2013). Silver and
gold nanoparticles garnered more attention due to their unique properties such as large
specific surface area, small sizes, and optical, mechanical, electronic, chemical and magnetic
properties (Majumdar, 2013). In humans, the bioavailability of these nanoparticles will likely
depend on a number of factors including particle size distribution, shape and stabilizer used in
their preparation. The drawbacks in their preparation include toxicity as well as instability to
acid conditions that occur during their transit through the gastrointestinal tract (Anastas et al.,
2002).
Capping agent plays an important role in the synthesis of nanoparticles. The capping
agent prevents further aggregation of nanoparticles for a sustained time of 1-2 months and
improves their stability (Neena et al., 2012). To improve their stability, nanoparticles are
typically prepared by reducing the metal ions [Au(III) to Au(0) or Ag(I) to Ag(0)]using
reducing agents, organic solvents, or non-biodegradable stabilizing agents. However, some of
these reagents make them potentially dangerous to the environment and biological systems.
Therefore, reduction of these metals by plant extracts, which is also called green synthesis of
nanoparticles, has gained significant importance in recent years due to nontoxic nature of the
plant extracts, eco-friendly aqueous medium, and mild reaction conditions. Also, this method
becomes more advantageous over the currently used synthetic methods since the plant extract
itself acts as a stabilizer, and no additional stabilizers or capping agents are required
(Nadagouda & Varma, 2008).

Plant extracts rich in polyphenols can be utilized for the synthesis of nanoparticles. As
mango peel is rich in phenolic compounds, silver nanoparticles were synthesized from
aqueous silver nitrate through a simple green route using mango peel extract as a reducing as
well as a capping agent (Yang & Li, 2013). The antibacterial application of these biologically
synthesized silver nanoparticles were loaded onto non-woven fabrics and showed that non-
woven fabrics loaded with biosynthetic silver nanoparticles displayed excellent antibacterial
activity (Yang &Li, 2013). Recently, Yang et al., (2014) also synthesized gold nanoparticles
using mango peel extract. It was reported that the reaction rate for the synthesis process was
relatively higher than other plant extracts. The biosynthesized gold nanoparticles had no
biological cytotoxicity on African green monkey kidney normal cells (CV-1) and normal
human fetal lung fibroblast cells (WI-38), even at a concentration of 160 μg/ml. Use of plant
extracts having bioactive compounds with health benefits will have further biomedical
applications, in addition to their applications in nanoscience as reducing agents.
Table 6. Total polyphenol content, carotenoids, dietary fiber and free radical scavenging
activity (IC50 value) of 10% MPP enriched biscuits and 5% MPP macaroni
Product Polyphenols Carotenoids (g/g) TDF (%)

(g GAE/g)
Biscuit 5402a 173a 6.470.2a
b b
1,80032 538 11.000.2b
2,25010c 8914c 12.420.8c
d d
2,63040 14523 14.540.6d
Macaroni 4608a 4.650.15a 8.580.2a
b b
147030 26.501.0 13.800.3b
160515c 41.000.8c 15.800.09c
Mean followed by different letters in the same column differs significantly (P  0.05). SDF- soluble
dietary fiber, IDF- soluble dietary fiber, TDF Total dietary fiber; Source: Ajila et al., 2008; Ajila et
al. 2010b.
4.3.7. Functional Foods with Mango Peel

As peel is a good source of antioxidant compounds and dietary fibers with bound
phenolics it can be used as an ingredient in functional foods. Mango peel powder
incorporated at 10% level in biscuits and at 5% level in macaroni yielded products with
acceptable sensory properties (Ajila et al., 2008; Ajila et al., 2010a). In addition, mango peel
incorporated food products were enhanced with polyphenols, carotenoids and dietary fibre.
Incorporation of peel at 10% level into biscuits, the polyphenols, carotenoids and dietary
fiber contents were increased by 5-,8.5- and 2-fold, respectively. At 5% level incorporation of
peel into macaroni, total phenolics, carotenoids and dietary fiber contents increased by 3.5-,9-
and 2-fold, respectively (Table 6). The biscuits incorporated with 10% mango peel powder
had high antioxidant potential by 5-fold while macaroni incorporated with 5% peel powder
had a 7-foldincrease in antioxidant potential. The increase in antioxidant property may be
attributed to the increased content of bioactive compounds (Ajila et al., 2008; Ajila et al.,
2010a).

CONCLUSION
Food industry generates a large quantity of by-products that are being wasted. As most of
the plant tissues present in these by-products are rich in bioactives like polyphenols,
carotenoids, enzymes and antioxidant vitamins, isolating various bioactive compounds from
the food processing by-products not only gives value addition to the by-products but also
decreases the environmental pollution. As mango is a seasonal fruit, a significant amount of
raw and ripe fruits are processed into various food products. During processing of fruits, peel
and seed are by-products. Mango peel is a good source of bioactive compounds, vitamins,
enzymes and dietary fibers with associated phenolics. The peel extract exhibited antioxidant
activities indifferent systems. Peel extract showed various pharmaceutical effects and
antifungal activities. The mango peel extract inhibited the proliferation of cancer cell lines
and the peel powder exhibited antidiabetic properties. Peel is an edible tissue of mango and
some fruit varieties like Totapuri mango fruits are consumed with the peel. Also, some food
products like pickles and chutney, among others are prepared along with the peel. Therefore,
whole peel powder can be incorporated into food products to prepare various functional
foods. Alternatively, peel extract can be used as a natural source for nutraceuticals. One of the
limitations of mango peel is that it is not available throughout the year. Therefore, it has to be
stored with low water activity. Drying is one of the approaches to decrease water activity and
increase the shelf-life of the peel. Although few methods are reported for its drying, there is a
need to develop an economically viable method to dry the mango peel.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Gondi, M., acknowledges to the Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi for the
award of Senior Research Fellowship.
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Chapter 5
REJUVENATION OF OLD MANGO ORCHARD
Disket Dolkar, Parshant Bakshi,

V. K. Wali and Amit Jasrotia
Division of Fruit Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences
and Technology of Jammu, Chatha, Jammu, India
ABSTRACT
India has witnessed tremendous increase in the production of horticultural crops,
especially fruits since its independence, the country is now among the top fruit producing
countries of the world ranking second next only to China. However, the productivity has
still remained low as against area under the fruit cultivation. Several neglecting issues
related to the production technology have remained unattended so far. The old and senile
orchards are now reverting towards a declining trend of production because of plant age
factor, non-compatible varieties and poor canopy management. Such a type of decline
may be seen in whole orchards, on a single tree or in patches. It is a rare site to get any
plantation free of this malady; even intensity varies from plant to plant and from month to
month in the same plant. The growers do not adopt the proper management practices in
terms of plant protection; manuring, irrigation; mulching, pruning etc. and the orchards
become sick. In general, the canopy of fruit crops has an irregular shape. Trees of
irregular shape and size are difficult to deal with and even culminate a poor yield in the
subsequent years, as the lower branches of canopy gradually turns inert and infertile as
well. The present paper aims at highlighting the basics of rejuvenating the old and senile
orchards for sustaining the fruit production to meet the present need and optimize the
fruit potential of our country.
INTRODUCTION
India is a vast country and is gifted with a variety of soils and climates; as a result, almost
all kinds of fruits can be grown successfully in this country. It is a matter of great surprise that
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ddketkardd@gmail.com.

80 Disket Dolkar, Parshant Bakshi, V. K.Wali et al.
in spite of adequate resource provisions, the per capita consumption of fruits in India is
perhaps one of the lowest in the world. The existing orchards are not able to meet the present
requirements of the country. Poor selection of planting material, haphazard plantation and
poor management has made many orchards uneconomic. One of the main handicaps that have
led to slow pace of evolution of the mango industry in India is the preponderance of seedling
trees which are mostly of inferior type seedling plantations of ―desi‖ mango varieties, the fruit
of which is essentially ―sucked out‖ rather than ―eaten,‖ which are still found in the
countryside, where no commercial cultivars are grown (Chauhan et al., 2013; Reddy et al.,
2015). Mango is a huge tree: a single tree growing in the open can occupy up to an acre of
land, it can bear fruit for 60 years. The yield may vary from a few kilograms to a ton,
depending on the age and bearing capacity of the tree. There are reports that nearly 30-35%
seedling mango trees, which had been bearing good crop of high-quality mangoes for juice
and pickle, are old and unproductive and waiting for uprooting and sale for wood across the
region. Manuring of such orchards is rare. Thus due to bad sanitation, the trees are generally
affected by mango hopper, stem borer, shoot borer, die- back, gummosis, powdery mildew,
black tip and mango malformation. Besides, the trees are erratic in their bearing habit and the
fruits produced are mostly of inferior quality, fetching low price in the market (Davenport,
2006). Because of their large stature, it is difficult to apply insecticidal and fungicidal sprays.
Thus such plantings are more a liability than an asset. The commercial plantations of grafted
mango trees that have grown old and are not bearing good crop are also being replaced with
new plantations. Planting of new orchards may involve a cost of Rs. 80-90 thousand per ha.
Instead of uprooting the inferior seedling trees and other low or non-bearing mango trees of
20-25 years, they can conveniently be top worked with scion woods of commercial varieties.
The process provides fuel wood worth Rs. 40-50 thousand and orchard space may be used for
inter crops.
The term ‗rejuvenation‘ means renewal or making new or young again. As applied to the
orchard tree, it would mean restoring the productive capacity of the fruit trees. The meaning
of ‗rejuvenation,‘ according to Chamber‘s dictionary is ‗to recover youth character or to grow
again.‘ Obviously, this would apply to those plants which have attained a stage where they
are no more profitable from the grower‘s point of view.
Objectives of Rejuvenation
 To increase the productivity and economic age of plant.

 To convert the low yielding and inferior varieties/seedling origin trees into superior
and high yielding trees.
 To exploit the better root system of a plant who has survived in adverse soil and
climatic conditions.
 To lessen the time of gestation period.
 To increase the orchard income.
 To lessen the incidence of diseases and pests.

Rejuvenation of Old Mango Orchard 81
Causes Which Makes the Orchard Uneconomic
A survey of uneconomic orchards would reveal following defects:
 Growth of wild shrubs and grasses

 Overcrowding and unsystematic planting
 Inferior varieties
 Damage due to adverse weather conditions, rodents and other enemies
 Infestation of pests, diseases and parasites
Need for Rejuvenation
The old fruit orchards need to be rejuvenated as they show decline in yield and quality of
produce which may be attributed to any one of the following factors:
 Reduction in the photosynthetic surface area.
 Non availability of productive shoots.
 Increased incidence of insect pests and diseases.
Principle of Rejuvenation
 Trees have latent buds which are activated by heading back of branches at certain
point to put forth new sprouts which grow into branches forming fruiting area.
 When the branches are cut back, imbalance is created in root: shoot ratio as a result
new shoots arise from plant to balance it.
TECHNIQUES FOR REJUVENATION OF OLD MANGO ORCHARDS

There are four techniques for rejuvenation of old and senile mango orchards developed
by different institutions in India (Wali et al., 2013) and abroad which are as under:
Technique - 1
In this technique, the tall central trunks are cut back to about 3-4 m height from the
ground. The actual site to cut back should be at a point where there are side branches. A chain
saw is necessary for the job to make a smooth cut. Here, one half of the tree is cut back and
the remaining trunks and leaves will help to protect the stump from sunburn. The freshly
exposed trunks and branches to the sun should be painted with white water-based paint
diluted three or four times. This is done to prevent sunburn, which could attract borer on to
the damaged bark. In a short time, numerous shoots will develop; select the most vigorous of
these, spaced evenly around the stump and if possible at differing heights. Remove all the
unwanted shoots. This process should be repeated as often as necessary until the selected

shoots begin to dominate and take over. Then, the rest of the tree can be cut back and the
operations may be repeated. By this method, half the yield will be realized throughout the
process till it regains the vigour.
Technique - 2
Old, unthrifty trees can often be rejuvenated by a moderate to severe pruning. This is in
the form of skeletonising the tree, i.e., cutting back the branches of the tree till only the basic
frame is left. Moderate skeletonising would entail cutting back the large branches to healthy
wood, while at the same time maintaining the basic structure of the tree. Particularly large
unthrifty trees would benefit from a more severe skeletonising, where all the main branches
are cut back to the main trunk only leaving about a meter or so of branch. The whole trunk
and remaining branches should be painted with diluted paint to prevent sunburn and borer
attack. In both these cases, there will be a proliferation of sucker growth. These should be
treated as mentioned previously.
Technique - 3
In old and dense mango orchards, light interception and photosynthetic potentials of trees
is reduced resulting in poor yield. The branches existing on main trunk are considered as first
order branches, the branches existing on first order branch are called second order branches,
the branches existing on second order branch are called third order branches, similarly fourth
and fifth order. At (Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, pruning third order
branches 30 cm from point of origin recorded the maximum yield in Alphonso (86.3 kg/tree).
A trial was conducted at Central Institute of Sub-tropical Horticulture where Lucknow
revealed that pruning second order branches recorded maximum pooled fruit yield in
Dashehari mango after twelve years of pruning (57.99 kg/tree).
Technique – 4
CISH, Lucknow conducted a trial to rejuvenate 40-50 years old mango trees in the
farmers field. In this process, main branches were pruned at a height of 5 m from the ground
level during December. About 3-4 diverging branches were kept for developing healthy
umbrella-shaped canopy and rests were removed from the base. Pruned surfaces were
smeared with copper oxychloride paste immediately after pruning to check the microbial
infection. Pruned trees were kept under intensive care and management. Cultural practices
like nutrition, irrigation, hoeing, weeding etc., were done properly. Profuse shoots emerged
from April onwards in prune branches only 8-10 outward growing well-spaced healthy shoots
were retained per branch and the rest were removed. Plant-protection measures were seriously
adopted especially against stem-borer, leaf cutting weevil and anthracnose because pruned
trees came into flowering and fruiting after 2 to 3 years of pruning and growers ended up with
loss by missing crops for 2 to 3 year, hence, technology was refined to undertake the pruning
work in the alternate rows in these orchards. With alternate row pruning, availability of light

to unpruned trees in two adjacent rows was greatly improved and their fruiting increased by
2-3 times. Thus, enhanced production from unpruned trees compensated the loss to some
extent (Kalloo et al., 2005).
CULTURAL PRACTICES IN THE REJUVENATED MANGO ORCHARDS

Inter Cultivation
Regular intercultural practices are essential for proper upkeep of the pruned mango
orchards. It improves physical conditions of soil, ensures aeration by breaking soil surface
crust and removes those weeds which compete for soil moisture and nutrition. In order to
manage the orchard soil, two time ploughing is necessary in the year. One ploughing should
be done during June, while second ploughing should be done in the month of December. The
first ploughing helps in checking the run off losses and facilitates maximum intake of water
into the soil. The second ploughing checks the weed growth and induces vegetative shoots.
Orchard Floor Management
Besides rejuvenation of trees, this technology also offers opportunity for employment and
income generation by raising intercrops in the floor space of the pruned orchards.
Intercropping is intended to maximize land and space use efficiency, to generate
supplemental income, particularly during the phase of canopy development in pruned
orchards. After rejuvenating the mango orchard, tree takes about two to three years to develop
canopy and cover the area. However, care should be taken in selecting the right type of
intercrops within the rows of pruned mango trees. Vegetables and leguminous crops can
easily be grown up to three years after rejuvenation. The crops like cowpea, bean, cabbage,
cauliflower, chillies, okra and partial shade loving plants (ginger, turmeric and elephant foot
yam) as an intercrop in the orchard provide suitable return from the initial stage of canopy
development.
Water Management
The chief economic consideration, which encourages growers to go for mango

rejuvenation is that, the tree does not suffer much, if it is not watered during hot months.
Adequate moisture is required soon after heading back of branches for proper initiation and
development of shoot growth. Care of pruned tree requires regular watering during the dry
season. Due to moisture stress in the pruned trees, emergence of new shoots as well as
rejuvenation process is severely affected. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure irrigation in
rejuvenated trees which is required at regular intervals for initiation of shoots below the cut
portion. To promote the proper development of tree canopies and fruiting twigs, irrigation
should be required at an interval of every seven to ten days in summer and fifteen to twenty
days in winter in addition to the period of rainfall during the monsoon season.

Surface Mulching
Mulching at the base of pruned trees is done by using black polythene sheets (100 micron
or 400 gauges) or heavy mulching with organic material, such as straw, dried grass, banana
leaves surrounding the main trunk. Mulching with the organic material should be applied
thick enough (12 to 15 cm) to prevent weed growth yet permit rain water penetration to the
root area. Black polythene sheets prevent soil surface evaporation and tend to produce water
under the sheets through condensation, supporting tree growth besides checking weed growth.
There is considerable reduction in water application in polythene mulched orchards as
compared to unmulched orchards.
Integrated Nutrient Management
Integrated nutrient management in mango refers to maintenance of soil fertility and plant
nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity in
rejuvenated orchards through optimization of the benefits from all the possible sources in an
integrated manner. Therefore, it is a holistic approach where we first know what exactly is
required by plants for optimum level of production, in what different forms these nutrients
can be applied in soil, at what different timings is the best possible method, and how best
these forms can be integrated to obtain higher productivity with efficiency of economically
acceptable limits in environmental friendly way. In rejuvenated mango trees, integrated
nutrient and water management assumes much more significance. These two inputs are
essentially required to be managed in a manner, which provides maximum output. The
amount of fertilizer to be applied, depends upon the age and condition of tree and type of soil.
For proper growth and profitable yield, fertilizer should be applied in the required optimum
dosage.
Control of Pests, Diseases and Parasites
Both unhealthy as well as diseased limbs should be cut off and pruned parts are suitably
disposed. Bark boring caterpillars are prevalent in many mango orchards. Individual holes
should be treated, cleaned and then a mixture of carbon bisulphide and chloroform (2:1) or
any other insecticide should be injected in it. The plants should be covered with insecticide or
fungicide before an attack is apprehended. Nematodes cause serious setback to several fruit
trees, therefore, nematocides should be promptly applied. Among other steps included to
check the effect of insects and pests are killing of weeds, loosening the soil around the tree or
disinfecting it. Regular spraying of the orchard trees with insecticides and fungicides must
form a routine practice.

Pruning
An imbalanced root-shoot ratio can be corrected by judicious pruning (Lal et al., 2000).
The branches which have died or broken or one which interferes with natural growth, and
water sprouts should be removed. If the exposed wounds are big enough, they should be
disinfected with arsenical paints. Old bearing trees that have reached their middle age have
become somewhat low in vigour due to constant cropping or neglect, should be pruned
heavily. Such trees respond better to a heavier pruning because of their reduced vigour. This
treatment is to be supplemented with a heavy dose of manure later on. Rejuvenation in guava
and peach plantation is achieved by heading the trees back almost to the base of the trunk.
The low stems thus left produce vigorous growth and fair head is attained in two years. Grape
vines are also similarly rejuvenated when they loss vigour. The deciduous plants respond
better to severe pruning whereas evergreen ones are said to grow slowly for some time
afterwards. Root pruning also sometimes restore the vigour of unproductive plants.
Adventitious Method of Feeding
Old trees with weak growth can be invigorated by infusing the sap of younger seedlings
into them. Several seedlings are grown close to the trunk of the tree. When they attain an age
of two or three years, they are headed back to the height of 2’ to 3’ from the ground. The cut
ends are shaped to a wedge from up to a length of about 2” and are inserted into the bark of
the tree. If needed both surfaces might be nailed and would be finally covered by grafting
wax followed by firm tying with tape. If the tree is lacking in vigour due to unsatisfactory
rootstock, the seedlings should be grafted into the scion not into the rootstock. In course of
time, the seedlings get united to the tree and serve as its feeder. This could be practiced in
mango, citrus, apple and in many other fruit plants. This method may also be followed when
the collar region has been damaged.
Repairing of Wounds
Any wound on the tree if allowed to remain exposed may attract the organisms of
diseases from the surrounding atmosphere. So they should be properly treated to encourage
healing. If wound is small, simply painting with colour or any other disinfectant may suffice
the purpose. In case of bigger wounds on the trunk, a special method of grafting called
‗bridge grafting‘ is followed. Big hollows may be strengthened by scrapping off the inside
diseased or rotten parts smearing the exposed portion with coal tar and filling them with
bricks and kankar. These are finally plastered with cement.
Top Working and Frame Working
These are done to change the trees of inferior varieties into good ones. The scaffold
branches of the trees are cut back 2’ to 3’ from the point of origin and when the new sprouts
come out, they are budded or grafted with the scion of desired variety, keeping in view that

the scion is compatible to the headed trunk. After top working, only scion branch is allowed
to grow and the rest are removed promptly. Top working has been practiced successfully in
many fruit plants such as aonla, bael, stone fruits etc. Mango plant has been top worked by
side, bark, veneer and crown grafting and approach inarching as well as budding (Mukunda et
al., 2006). So far as citrus plants are concerned, shield budding has proved most satisfactory
though other methods of propagation have also been practiced thereby. For ber, ring budding
was previously recommended, but now shield budding is gaining importance. Top working in
loquat can be done by cleft grafting and in fig by cleft and side grafting both. Cleft and bark
grafting and budding have been successfully practiced for rejuvenating apples. Peach trees are
best worked by inlay bark grafting.
In frame working, only the smaller branches and shoots are replaced by scion of desired
variety. The frame working is not successful in tropical and sub-tropical fruit plants, while
temperate fruit plants are successfully frame worked by stub, awl and inverted ‗L‘ method of
grafting.
Wind Breaks and Fencing
Wind breaks are necessary for reducing the force and adverse effects of winds. The most
effective are the double rows of tall trees, alternatively placed. Trees like sheesham,
carambola, jamun, samal, paper mulberry and Terminalisarjuna can be effectively used for
this purpose. Orchard area should be fenced with barbed wire along with suitable protective
and economical hedge.
CALENDAR OF ACTIVITIES FOR REJUVENATION

OF OLD/UNPRODUCTIVE MANGO ORCHARD
December – January
 Marking of trees and their undesired branches for pruning. Pruning of marked
branches in December.
 Pruning to be followed in alternate row.
 Pruning to be initiated from lower surface of the branch and alter from upper surface
to avoid cracking of branch and bark splitting.
 Application of copper oxychloride paste or biodynamic tree paste on the trunk,
branches as well as cut surfaces to check microbial infection.
 Cleaning of the dust on the polythene band, applied in the month of December, to
prevent ascent of nymphs of mealy bug.
 Ploughing and weeding of orchards in January.
 Preparation of basins and irrigation channels.

February – March
 Application of recommended full dose of single super phosphate (3.00 kg/tree and
half dose of urea (1.25 kg per tree) in basins by the end of February.
 Careful observation for infestation of stem borer insect pest in pruned trees.
 Upon identification of infestation, placing cotton wick soaked with dichlorvos or
kerosene oil or inject water emulsion of 0.05% monocrotophos or chlorpyriphose.
 Spray carbendazim 50 g /100 liter of water or wetable Sulphur 200-250g/100 liter of
water Spraying against hopper
April – May
 Irrigation as per requirement.

 Mulching in basins around trees.
 Hoeing and weeding in basins.
 Care for new emerging shoots.
 Observation for incidence of stem-borer and its management.
June – July
 Thinning out of undesired shoots while retaining about 8-12 healthy shoots with
outwardly growth per pruned branch during June followed by spray of copper
oxychloride 3 gm/litre.
 Irrigation at an interval of 10-15 days.
 Application of remaining half dose of urea. i.e., 1.25 kg per tree during June.
 Application of FYM (120 kg per tree) in basins during July.
 Management of stem borer as described before.
 Spray of Copper oxychloride (3 g/litre water) twice at an interval of 15 days if there
is infestation of anthracnose and other leaf spot diseases on new leaves.
 If there is serious incidence of leaf cutting weevil, two sprays of 2% carbarly (Sevin)
@ 2 g per litre water at an interval of 15 days may be done.
 Sowing of green Manuring crops or rainy season inter crops.
August – September
 Thinning out undesired shoots.

 Observation of incidence of stem-borer insect pest and anthracnose and other leaf
spot diseases and their management.
 If attack of Mango Leaf Webber is noticed spraying 0.04% Monocrotophos is
suggested
 Repeat the spray for control of scale insects, leaf, shoot borers and leaf

 Cuttings weevils as suggested in previous month.

 Ploughing of green Manuring crops.
 If required, repeat the spray for control of scale insects, leaf, shoot borers and leaf
cuttings weevils.
 Ploughing and cleaning and removal of weeds to be done.
October-November
 Cultural operations of ploughing, hoeing, weeding etc.

 Removal of dried and diseased twigs.
 Management of insect pests and diseases.
 Foliar spray of 2 per cent urea during October for healthy vegetative growth.
 Marking of tress for pruning.
 Spray 200 ppm naphthalene acetic acid in the 2 fortnight may be done to overcome
the mango malformation
 Mixing of 75 – 100 kg well decomposed farm yard manure in the basins of each
mango plant.
 To control die back disease, cut the affected twigs and burn.
 Spray 0.3% copper oxychloride, and the spraying may be repeated after 15 days.
CONCLUSION
It is thus concluded that rejuvenation can be taken up in all those orchards which are old
and unproductive so as to make the orchards economical, as planting a new orchard will take
long time to come into commercial bearing. Hence, rejuvenation of old, unproductive as well
as senile orchards is essential, as it helps in restoring the production potential in the shortest
possible duration than any other technique. It also helps in maintaining the manageable tree
height with open architecture along with sustaining the life of the farmer without affecting his
economy.
REFERENCES
Chauhan, V. K., Joshi, A. K., Chauhan, N., (2013). Rejuvenation of frost affected mango
orchard through pruning treatments. International Journal of Farm Science. 3(2): 32-40.
Davenport, T. L., (2006). Pruning strategies to maximize mango production from the time of
planting to restoration of old orchards. Hort Science. 41(3): 544-548.
Kalloo, G., Reddy, B. M. C., Singh, G., Lal, B., (2005). Rejuvenation of old and senile
orchards. Pub. CISH, Lucknow, 40 p.
Lal, B., Rajput, M. S., Rajan, S., Rathore, D. S., (2000). Effect of pruning on rejuvenation of
old mango trees. Indian Journal of Horticulture. 57: 240-42.

Mukunda, G. K., Swamy, S. R. K., Kumar, N. V. H., (2006). Effect of pruning on vegetative
growth, flowering and fruiting in regular bearing varieties of mango. Scientific
Horticulture. 10: 67-73.
Reddy, Y. T. N., Kurian, R. M., (2015). Rejuvenation of old unproductive ‗Alphonso‘ Mango
trees by pruning. Acta Horticulturae. 1066:123-128.
Wali, V. K., Bakshi, P., Sharma, A., Singh, A. P., Bakshi, M., Kour, N., (2013) Rejuvenation
of unproductive old mango orchards. SKUAST-J. 32 p.

Chapter 6
POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

FOR FRESH GUAVAS
Alexandra Mara Goulart Nunes Mamede1,

Henriqueta Talita Guimarães Barboza1, Antonio Gomes Soares1,,
Augusto César Vieira Neves Jr.2
and Marcos José de Oliveira Fonseca1
1
Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2
Universidade Estadual do Maranhão (UEMA), Maranhão, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is a tropical fruit very appreciated for its flavor and
pleasant aroma. Besides, this fruit is rich source of vitamins, minerals, fiber and dietary
antioxidants, especially acid ascorbic and lycopene. The respiration pattern of guavas is
contradictory, but is usually classified as climacteric fruit. Guavas harvested at all
maturity stages presented the ripening processes after harvest and present high
perishability under ambient conditions, with profound changes in skin color, firmness and
sweetness until complete the ripening process. Guavas should be harvest when the fruits
are still green and firm for commercialization due its high perishability, but is
fundamental not harvest immature fruit, because it has low quality. The harvest maturity
of guava could be determined based on peel colour, days from fruit set, firmness and total
soluble solids/acidity ratio. Several authors indicate the peel color as a good index for
harvest. Due the high perishability of guavas the shelf life at room temperature is only a
few days, so storage under refrigeration can be extend the shelf-life of guavas, because it
reduces the metabolism such as respiratory rate and ethylene production. The use of
modified atmosphere also extend the life of guava, and edible coating can do this
modification. However, in research performed in Embrapa which aimed was evaluate the
possible changes promoted by different edible coatings on the quality attributes of guavas

Corresponding author: Antonio Gomes Soares. Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. E-mail:
antonio.gomes@embrapa.br.

92 A. M. Goulart Nunes Mamede, H. T. Guimarães Barboza, A. Gomes Soares et al.
‗Pedro Sato,‘ stored at 10°C, the use the use of refrigeration was more efficient to extend
the shelf-life of guava than the use of edible coatings.
INTRODUCTION
Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is a tropical fruit very appreciated for its flavor and pleasant
aroma. Moreover, this fruit is a rich source of vitamins, minerals, fiber and dietary
antioxidants, especially acid ascorbic and lycopene (Singh 2011). Guava probably originated
in Central America, but nowadays is planted in many tropical and subtropical countries
around the world (Yusof 2003).
This fruit belongs to the Myrtaceae family, genus Psidium that contains 150 species, but
only Psidium guajava is exploited commercially. The color of the skin is pale green when the
fruit is immature and bright yellow when ripe. The pulp is fleshy, of varying thickness, and
the color may be white, yellow, red or pink depending on the variety. The seeds are
numerous, yellowish, bony and reniform (Jaiswal and Jaiswal 2005; Yusof 2003).
Guava is commercially cultivated in many tropical and sub-tropical countries around the
world (Singh 2011) and the main producers are India, Mexico, Brazil, Cuba, Venezuela,
Australia, South Africa, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka, the Philippines,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Dominican Republic, US (Hawaii, Florida and California) and Haiti
(Mitra et al. 2012). The fruits can be consumed fresh or as preserves. They can be processed
for consumption in various ways, such as puree or pulp, nectar, juice, jelly, jam and ice cream
(Neto and Soares 1994).
Although Brazil is one of the largest guava producers in the world, with a production of
349,615 tons in 2013, it only exports 0.05% of its total crop production (Reetz et al. 2015).
The biggest barrier to commercialize guava is its short shelf life (Teixeira and Durigan 2010).
Consequently fresh guavas have to be exported by air, which significantly increases their
marketing costs (Luiz Gonzaga Neto 2007). Therefore, research to extend the shelf life of
fresh guavas is very important.
Guava is still little known in the world agricultural scenario. Although, the United States
of America and Europe are considered the largest consumer markets for fruit and vegetables
in the world, guava, which is considered an exotic fruit, is commercialized on a small scale
and at high prices in those countries. The consumer preference in US and Europe is for fresh
guava with white pulp (Neto 2007). In Brazil, the consumer preference is for fresh guava with
red or pink pulp. Brazil is the largest producer of red guavas in the world (Moura Neto et al.
2008). The most popular cultivars of guava in Brazil are ‗Paluma,‘ ‗Rica,‘ ‗Pedro Sato,‘
‗Kumagai,‘ ‗Ogawa,‘ ‗Sassaoka,‘ ‗Yamamoto‘ and ‗S culo XXI (Singh 2011).
Among the varieties produced in Brazil, ‗Paluma‘ and ‗Rica‘ are the most used by
industry. ‗Sassaoka‘ and ‗Pedro Sato‘ are used for fresh consumption (Moura Neto et al.
2008; Singh 2011). Commercial guavas have been planted mainly in the Southeast and
Northeast of Brazil, and the largest producers are the states of São Paulo and Pernambuco
(Francisco et al. 2010).
The respiration pattern of guavas is still contradictory, and even the definition of whether
guava is a climacteric fruit or not has not yet been fully resolved (Brown and Wills 1983).
Some authors consider guava as having non-climacteric fruit characteristics (Azzolini et al.
2005; Chitarra and Chitarra 2005). While other authors (Azzolini et al. 2005; Brown and

Postharvest Physiology and Technology for Fresh Guavas 93
Wills 1983; Mendonça et al. 2007; Mercado-Silva, Benito-Bautista, and de los Angeles
Garc a-Velasco 1998) classify guava as a climacteric fruit as it increases its respiration rate
and has a high postharvest ethylene production (climacteric peak), which results in its high
perishability under ambient conditions.
Abreu et al. (2012) evaluated the ripening of guava ‗Pedro Sato‘ and observed increased
ethylene production, color changes and loss of firmness that represent typical characteristics
of climacteric fruit. However, this fruit also presented constant levels of total soluble solids
and total titratable acidity, characteristic of non-climacteric fruits.
Like all climacteric fruits, guavas ripen after being harvested. Guavas show profound
changes in some attributes such as skin color and firmness during the ripening process
(Azzolini et al. 2005). Guavas are generally classified as climacteric fruit as they exhibit
respiratory and ethylene peaks, which cause them to reach senescence rapidly (Singh 2011;
Teixeira and Durigan 2010). Thus, it is necessary to harvest the fruits while they are still
green and firm (Mcguire and Hallman 1995).
As a climacteric fruit, guava presents a clear transition from growth to senescence,
characterized by increased respiration and ethylene biosynthesis (Rhodes 1980; Srisvastava
and Narasimhan 1967). In addition to the high transpiration rates there is a loss of weight
(Pereira et al. 2005). Adsule & Kadam (1995) verified that, at room temperature, the shelf life
of fresh guavas is very short, only a few days. These factors added to inadequate management
in the post-harvest period result in a loss of quality. Such losses and those that occur during
transport hamper the possibilities of shipping fresh guavas to distant consumer markets.
The right harvest time is one of the main factors related to the postharvest losses of guava
fruit. Skin color and size are usually used to measure maturity and ripeness. Moreover the
fruits should be free of defects, decay, and insect damage (Cavalini et al. 2006; Paull and
Chen 2014).
Guava trees can produce fruit throughout the year depending on agronomic management,
such as the use of irrigation or not and the type of pruning used. The use of appropriate
techniques allows producers to reach the local and foreign markets with fresh fruit at different
times of the year. Added to this the soil and climatic conditions throughout Brazil are
appropriate to cultivate this fruit tree (Luiz Gonzaga Neto 2007; Watanabe et al. 2011).
After pruning, guava trees begin the process of sprouting and this is the beginning of the
plant phenological cycle (Figure 1). When pruning is staggered in the field, the producer will
have plants at different phenological stages, enabling fruit production throughout the year.
Commercialization of guava throughout the year makes the planning for the fresh fruit
marketing process more uniform, and consequently renders better financial results. However,
fruit quality must be maintained during commercialization (Luiz Gonzaga Neto, Cristo, and
Choudhury 1999). When there is a loss of fruit quality, there are losses in the commercial
value and for the most demanding markets there is no sale at all.
One of the biggest problems facing the commercialization of fresh guava is its high
perishability. This fruit has intense metabolic activity, and begins its senescence very soon
after ripening, inhibiting long term storage and excessive transportation. The expansion of the
consumer market for fresh guava is limited by the quality of the fruit and its short shelf life.
In order to increase the shelf life of guavas research studies are needed to minimize
postharvest damage, which is a limiting factor for export (Azzolini, Jacomino, and Spoto
2004).

Figure 1. Phenological development phases of ‗Pedro Sato‘ guava tree, from pruning to ripening of the
fruits (Hojo 2005).
High perishability, susceptibility to physical damage, chilling injury, diseases and

infections by microorganisms and insects are the major postharvest problems of guava fruit
(Pandey, Arora, and Dubey 1997; Yusof 2003).
The main depreciative elements of postharvest quality of guava are the rapid loss of skin
color, the fruit softening, the decay incidence, weight loss and brightness (Moura Neto et al.
2008). These elements are closely linked to the maturation stage in which the guavas were
harvested, and determines the quality of the fruit that will be offered to the consumers
(Azzolini, Jacomino, and Bron 2004).
Guava is highly sensitive to mechanical damage that may occur at: harvesting, packaging,
transportation from field to wholesale market and to the retail market(H. S. Silva et al. 2015).
Physical damage to guava fruit is one of the major causes of economic losses (Singh 2011).
During commercialization various mechanical damages such as impacts, abrasions, minor
cuts may occur and these can reach 97% of the commercialized guavas. Furthermore,
inappropriate stacking of packages also causes mechanical damage to fruit (Silva et al. 2015).
The transport of the fruit from the field to the packinghouse is probably the main step
when mechanical injuries occur. After harvest, the fruits with mechanical injuries present
higher weight loss (11.6%) and accelerated metabolism due to stress (Silva et al. 2015).

The main causes of mechanical damage to fruits are inadequate packaging, excess loads,
transportation without refrigeration and poorly maintained roads. (Silva et al. 2015).
The most important methods used to extend the life of fruits are: the use of refrigeration
and modified atmosphere, with reduced oxygen levels and increased carbon dioxide levels
during transport and storage.
CHANGES DURING MATURATION AND RIPENING

During the growth, development and maturation of guava there are changes in its
physical attributes (appearance, size, shape, coloration, and firmness) and chemical
composition such as increases in sugar, total soluble solids (TSS), ascorbic acid and total
titratable acidity (Singh 2011). These characteristics are highly relevant, and are even
influenced by the variety, maturation stage, region of cultivation, climatic conditions, and
cultivation practices. They may be used as a reference for the acceptability of the fruit in
national and international markets (Abreu et al. 2012).
Fruits harvested immaturely have low quality, high water loss rate and are very
susceptible to physiological disorders. On the other hand, when harvested very ripe
senescence is very fast (Gongatti Netto et al. 1996). Therefore, to have quality fruits it is
essential to assess the fruit maturation stage correctly (Azzolini, Jacomino, and Bron 2004).
Harvest maturity of guava is determined based on peel color, days from fruit set, firmness and
total soluble solids/acidity ratio (Mitra et al. 2012). Guavas are usually harvested when the
pulp is still firm and the skin color starts to change from dark green to light green (Manica et
al. 2000).
Several authors have studied the postharvest quality and chemical composition of guavas
at different stages of maturity (Azzolini, Jacomino, and Bron 2004; Brown and Wills 1983; El
Bulk, Babiker, and El Tinay 1997; Mercado-Silva, Benito-Bautista, and de los Angeles
Garc a-Velasco 1998; Soares et al. 2007).
Azzolini, Jacomino and Bron (2004) carried out a study with red guavas ‗Pedro Sato‘ to
identify the physical and chemical quality attributes. These attributes were used to evaluate
the maturation index of guavas at harvest time and during postharvest storage. The fruits were
harvested at three stages of maturity according to their skin color as shown in Figure 2. The
fruits were stored at room temperature with humidity control (25 + 1°C and 85 + 5% RH).
Color was a good harvest index with L*, a* and Hue values being the best parameters to
discriminate the different stages of maturity. This evaluation is considered a nondestructive
analysis and can be monitored during fruit ripening and storage (Azzolini, Jacomino, and
Bron 2004; Mercado-Silva, Benito-Bautista, and de los Angeles Garc a-Velasco 1998).
Mercado-Silva et al. 1998 gave L*, a* and hue angle values of 65 ± 3, - 15 ± 2 and 110 ± 2,
respectively, for ‗Media China‘ and ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas.
According to Azzolini, Jacomino and Bron (2004), at room temperature, all the fruits
reached full ripening independently of the maturity stage at which they were harvested. This
result means that all the fruits showed the ability to continue their ontogeny after harvest,
which is characteristic of climacteric fruits. However, the fruits presented different
postharvest shelf life of two, four and six days due to the harvest maturity stages of 3, 2 and 1,
respectively.

Azzolini, Jacomino, and Bron 2004.
Figure 2. Maturity stages of guava fruits ‗Pedro Sato‘ according to skin color. Stage 1: dark green;
Stage 2: light green; Stage 3: yellow-green.
Postharvest studies, during storage, showed greater changes in color and texture for the
mature guava than for the less mature fruit (Taylor 1993). After harvest, the skin color and the
pulp firmness may be considered as acceptable maturity indexes for evaluating the ripeness of
guavas (Lien and Ting 2014; Mercado-Silva, Benito-Bautista, and de los Angeles Garc a-
Velasco 1998). The relation of total soluble solids (TSS) and total titratable acidity (TTA)
may also be used as a good maturation index (Azzolini, Jacomino, and Bron 2004; Mitra et al.
2012).
During maturation, the skin color of guava changes from green to yellow, along with a
decrease of chlorophyll levels and an increase of carotenoid levels. Some authors have
correlated the loss of green color and increase of yellow color with the decrease of the hue
angle value (Azzolini et al. 2005; Mercado-Silva, Benito-Bautista, and de los Angeles Garc a-
Velasco 1998; Soares et al. 2007; Teixeira and Durigan 2010).
Guava firmness also shows a progressive decline during ripening; this decrease is
independent of the maturity stage at harvest time (Azzolini, Jacomino, and Bron 2004; Lien
and Ting 2014; Mercado-Silva, Benito-Bautista, and de los Angeles Garc a-Velasco 1998;
Teixeira and Durigan 2010). The loss of tissue firmness during ripening of guava is
accompanied by a decrease in the level of total pectin. A hydrolytic activity promoted by
enzymes such as polygalacturonase and pectinmethylesterase, which increases the
solubilization of the pectin components in the cell wall. Besides pectins, hemicelluloses,
cellulose and starch content are also modified during ripening (Chitarra and Chitarra 2005;
Mitra et al. 2012).
In ripe guava, total sugars represent about 50-90% of the total soluble solids content, and
the predominant sugar is fructose, followed by glucose and sucrose (Azzolini, Jacomino, and

Bron 2004; Singh 2011). Thus, the soluble solids content may be used as indicative of the
amount of sugars in the fruit and this can be used as an indicator of fruit quality after
physiological maturity. However according to Azzolini, Jacomino and Bron (2004) and
Mercado-Silva et al. (1998) after harvest at physiological maturity, there is no significant
change in the total soluble solids content of guava. Therefore, this parameter is not considered
a good indicator for the maturity stage of guavas.
On the other hand, the relation of total soluble solids and total titratable acidity increases
during the ripening process of guavas (Mitra et al. 2012). This ratio gives an indication of the
fruit flavor, because it indicates the amount of sugars and acids present. During ripening,
there is an increase in sugar content and a decrease of organic acids content. In guavas, ratio
values above 25 are undesirable as then the fruits have an undesirable flavor (Chitarra and
Chitarra 2005).
STORAGE UNDER REFRIGERATION

As mentioned before, guava is a climacteric fruit, and usually the CO2 and ethylene peak
occurs about 5-6 days after harvest. Therefore, its shelf life at room temperature is only a few
days, i.e., it is highly perishable (Adsule and Kadam 1995).
Low-temperature storage is the most practical way to slow the physiological processes
like respiration and ethylene production, and may extend the shelf life of guavas (Adsule and
Kadam 1995; Singh 2011).
Guavas harvested at ―breaker‖ stage ripened after just 24 to 48 h at ambient conditions,
and thus the fruit becomes inappropriate for consumption after a short period of time. Under
optimum conditions (10°C), the storage potential ranges from 14 to 21 days (Teixeira and
Durigan 2010). Therefore, storing fruit at an optimum temperature range is the most
important key to keep fruit quality and minimize postharvest losses (Singh 2011).
The maturity stage which guavas are harvested also determines the shelf life on market
places (Silva et al. 2015). This characteristic added to storage temperature influences in the
shelf life of the fruit.
Mature green and partially ripe guava can be stored for 2 to 3 weeks at 8 to 10°C (46 to
50°F), while fully ripe fruit can be held about 1 week at 5 to 8°C (41 to 46°F) (Kader 1999).
When guavas are stored at 20°C (68°F) the shelf life is about 7 days (Paull and Chen 2014).
For Vazquez-Ochoa and Colinas-Leon (1990) guava can be stored for several weeks at
temperatures of between 3.5 and 7°C but are damaged at 0°C. Therefore, storage of guava
fruit below the critical storage temperature may cause chilling injury (Singh 2011).
‗Kampuchea‘ guava remain in good condition for up to 3.6 weeks at 10°C (Silip and Hajar
2007). The authors also recommended the use of precooling to remove the field heat.
EDIBLE COATING
A modified atmosphere is one of the methods to extend the life of fruits and vegetables.
The use of edible coating technology produces a film that covers the entire peel of the fruit,
modifying the concentration of gases between the plastic film and the fruit (Oshiro, Dresch,

and Scalon 2012). All coatings promote the selective exchange of gases between the storage
atmosphere and fruit (Mcguire and Hallman 1995).
Edible coatings by definition are thin layers of material made from biodegradable
ingredients when compared to plastic packaging materials and can be consumed together with
the food, acting as a selective barrier to transfer of gases. They can retard moisture migration
that reduce weight loss and the loss of volatile compounds, reduce the respiration rate,
promote color, delay changes in firmness properties and inhibit microbial growth. Edible
coatings may be excellent barriers to fats and oils and may have a high selective gas
permeability ratio CO2/O2 (Azevedo et al. 2014; Del-Valle et al. 2005; McGuire and Hallman
1995; Perdones et al. 2012).
Coating formulations have been developed to enhance many fruit characteristics
(McGuire and Hallman 1995). Edible coatings are an option to protect food products and
extend their shelf life (Shin et al. 2012). Some reports have shown that edible coatings
increase the shelf life of many perishable tropical fruits such as lychee and mango (Baldwin
et al. 1999; Zhang and Quantick 1997).
Modified atmosphere with the use of an edible coating on mature-green guavas in
cellulose or carnauba emulsions reduces weight loss and keeps firmness in guavas. In
addition, it delays the color development and blocks an increase in the level of total soluble
solids. The rate of fruit softening on guavas coated with 2% and 4% hydroxypropylcellulose
has been reduced by 35% and 45%, respectively, when compared to uncoated fruits. In
addition, 5% carnauba slowed softening by 30% (McGuire and Hallman 1995).
Mexican guavas coated with four different solutions: potato starch, sodium alginate,
carrageenan and pectin showed an increase in shelf life of the fruits by at least three days,
when compared to the uncoated fruits, at 25°C and 50-70% R.H. The potato starch and pectin
coatings achieved the highest efficiency in maintaining the quality of the fruit. The sensorial
characteristics of the fruit were kept for up to 15 days (Gallo et al. 2003).
The application of edible coatings (gelatin and chitosan) on ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas were not
efficient in slowing down the maturation, extending the shelf life and keeping the quality of
the guavas, stored at 5°C and 10°C, when compared with the control (with no coating)
(Oshiro, Dresch, and Scalon 2012).
Emulsions based on cashew gum and carboxy methylcellulose were shown to be effective
in extending the shelf-life of ‗Kumagai‘ red guavas. The use of coating resulted in a reduction
of mass loss, keeping firmness and a delay in skin color changes (Forato et al. 2015).
USE OF EDIBLE COATING TO EXTEND SHELF LIFE

OF „PEDRO SATO‟ GUAVA
The research carried out at Embrapa aimed to evaluate the possible changes promoted by
different edible coatings on the quality attributes of 'Pedro Sato' guavas, after cold storage.
The experiments were performed using the ‗Pedro Sato‘ guava variety. The fruits were
cultivated in Xerém, Duque de Caxias-RJ. Guavas were harvested at the light green maturity
stage and transported to Embrapa Food Technology in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
The fruits were washed and sanitized using chlorinated water. After, they were classified
by size and maturity. Then, submitted to three different edible coatings and compared with

the control. All the treatments, except the control, were immersed for one minute in an edible
coating solution. The composition of the edible coatings solutions were:
 I - Control treatment with only water;

 II - 3.5% Cassava Starch, 0.0135% potassium permanganate, 0.0135% calcium
propionate and 1% glycerol;
 III – 0.15% sodium alginate, 15 mg.L-1 sodium sorbate, 1% glycerol and 30mL 0.4%
calcium chlorine solution;
 IV – 1% Carboxymethylcellulose, 0.5% citric acid, 0.05% stearic acid and 0.5%
ascorbic acid.
After edible coating treatments, the fruits were dried in a drying tunnel and stored at 10°C
for 4, 11, 18 and 25 days. Then they were kept at room temperature (28 ± 3°C, until 50% of
fruits achieved a yellow skin color, simulating trade market conditions. All fruits were
evaluated according to quality characteristics such as: glucose, fructose, sucrose, total soluble
solids (TTS), pH, total titratable acidity (TTA), ascorbic acid, total carotenoids, lycopene, β–
carotene and firmness.
The shelf life of ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas was demonstrated to be up to 27 days after
harvesting, where fruits were kept under cold storage for 25 days and another 2 days at room
temperature.
The use of edible films had a remarkable influence on the firmness of guavas. Over time,
the firmness decreased from day zero (65.7N), when the fruits were in the light green stage, to
the twenty-fifth day (13.7 N) and then remained constant until the end of the storage.
Figure 3. Coating of guavas: I: water; II: Cassava Starch; III: Alginate; IV: Carboxymethylcellulose.

In relation to sugar contents, sucrose was not detected in any of the pulp fruit samples.
The fructose levels were higher than glucose, which was expected, because fructose is the
major sugar present in ripe guavas (Taylor 1993). However, the use of edible films and the
storage did not affect the sugar content and the total soluble solids (TSS).
The sugar content (fructose and glucose) and the TSS did not change during the storage
period. A similar behavior was found by (Abreu et al. 2012; Azzolini et al. 2005) for ‗Pedro
Sato‘ guavas. According to these authors this is a non-climacteric fruit behavior. Although the
fruits had ripened after being harvested, these guavas present climacteric and non-climacteric
behavior.
An opposite behavior was observed by Soares et al. (2011) in an experiment to test an
edible coating of cassava starch and chitosan to evaluate its efficiency in keeping ‗Pedro Sato‘
guava stored at 22°C. In this work, the samples without a coating presented a decrease in the
TSS values, while for the guava with a coating the TSS content remained constant for 8 days
in storage. There was no significant effect of the edible coating treatments on the ascorbic
acid content in ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas. The ascorbic acid content was significantly influenced
only by the storage time, with higher ascorbic acid contents in fruits stored for longer periods
(22 and 27 days) (Table 1). The use of edible coatings did not have any influence on the acid
ascorbic content in ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas. These results indicate that long storage time using
refrigeration maintains the nutritional quality of guavas.
Acid ascorbic content usually increases during ripening of guava fruit and then decreases
during senescence (Taylor 1993). According to (Singh 2011), the increases in ascorbic acid
during ripening might be associated with the increased activity of L-galactona-1,4-lactone
dehydrogenase, a key enzyme in the ascorbic acid synthesis. The activity of dehydroascorbate
reductase, which acts to reduce dehydroascorbate into ascorbate, also increases during the
initial stages of guava ripening to compensate for increased oxidation of ascorbate by
ascorbate peroxidase. Oxidation of acids and the consequent reduction of ascorbic acid
content occur during the ripening process, indicating the senescence of the fruit (Tucker
1993).
The results of ascorbic acid found in the Embrapa Food Technology experiment were
lower than the ones found by Wilson et al. (1982). According to these authors, the ascorbic
acid content may range between 350 mg and 450 mg per 100 g of guava pulp. Azzolini,
Jacomino and Bron (2004) also observed higher ascorbic acid content of ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas
from Vista Alegre, Brazil, at advanced ripening stages. However, they found lower ascorbic
acid contents than those found in the experiment carried out at Embrapa Food Technology.
This confirms the influence of edaphoclimatic parameters on the production of vitamin C in
fruits.
Ribeiro et al. (2005), studied the variety ‗Paluma,‘ and observed an increase of ascorbic
acid contents 6 days after harvest, with further decrease to 12 days after harvest. Oliveira et
al. (2011), analyzing ‗Paluma,‘ found that the fruits present 71.4 ± 11.4 mg.100 g-1 of
ascorbic acid in guava pulp. However, the differences in the results may be attributed to the
varieties studied or to the region where they were cultivated.
The total titratable acidity (TTA) in the guavas of the Embrapa Food Technology study
did not change during the storage period. Abreu et al. (2012) also observed the same behavior
in TTA with the ripening guavas cv. Pedro Sato. An opposite behavior was found by Azzolini
et al. (2004) with ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas harvested at the light green stage. The TTA increased
during storage.

In fact, in climacteric fruits, the TTA usually decreases during ripening. The organic
acids and sugars are used as substrate during cellular respiration (Chitarra and Chitarra 2005).
Therefore the guava respiration pattern has not yet been well defined. As can be seen, the
‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas may have characteristics of climacteric and non-climacteric fruits.
Teixeira and Durigan (2010) verified that the climacteric peak in ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas was
after 16 days of storage at 12.5°C. They also observed that the fruits are able to ripen during
cold storage. The Embrapa Food Technology study observed that fruits without coating
showed higher TTA values, compared to guavas with starch coating. Guavas with the other
coatings had intermediate TTA values (Table 2).
Soares et al. (2011) also found higher values for TTA in the control group of ‗Pedro Sato‘
guava pulp, when compared with those coated with starch coating and chitosan, after 12 days
of storage at 22°C. The higher TTA values in the control treatment might be due to a high
metabolic activity in this sample, which may increase the acidity of the fruits. The respiratory
metabolism may be measured by the amount of organic acids produced and accumulated in
the citric acid cycle, also called Krebs cycle (Chitarra and Chitarra 2005).
In the Embrapa Food Technology study, a lower pH value was observed in the fruits
stored without coating after 7 and 15 days, indicating that the ripening of guava was faster in
the control treatment (Table 3).
In this study the pH values were lower for guavas without coatings and for those coated
with carboxymethylcellulose. Therefore, it is possible to infer that the metabolic activity of
these fruits was increasing during this experiment (Table 4). For guavas coated with alginate,
the pH values had no significant variation. For the fruits coated with cassava starch, the
significant difference was only between the first period and the final day (27 days) of storage.
Table 1. Ascorbic acid content in „Pedro Sato‟ guavas for different storage times
Storage days Ascorbic acid (mg.100g-1)

0 48.35c
7 65.46b
15 40.71c
22 81.84a
27 84.86a
*
Averages followed by the same lowercase letter on the line, do not differ by the Tukey test at 5%
probability.
Table 2. Total titratable acidity of „Pedro Sato‟ guava pulp, with and without coatings
Treatment Total Titratable Acidity (g.100g-1)

Control 0.525a
Cassava starch 0.476b
Alginate 0.480ab
Carboxy methylcellulose 0.500ab
*
probability.

Table 3. pH values of „Pedro Sato‟ guava pulp, with and without coatings
Treatment pH
7 days 15 days 22 days 27 days
Control 4.17Bb 4.24Bab 4.32Aa 4.24Aab
Aa Aab Aab
Cassava starch 4.39 4.31 4.32 4.24Ab
Aa Aa Aa
Alginate 4.37 4.34 4.36 4.29Aa
Ab Aa Aa
Carboxy methylcellulose 4.19 4.34 4.32 4.29Aab
*
probability.
Table 4. Total carotenoid contents with and without coatings
Treatment Total carotenoid contents (µg.100g-1)

Control 3830.55Cb 7293.70ABab 10292.88Aa 8491.69Aa
Aa Aa Aa
Cassava starch 8009.43 9545.23 8071.11 6793.48ABa
Aa Aab Aab
Alginate 11078.40 8527.91 8312.69 5203.54Bb
Ba Ba Aa
Carboxy methylcellulose 6676.52 6121.81 9034.99 8007.92Aa
*
probability.
The change in skin color in guavas from deep-green to yellow is due to the decreased
chlorophyll content and the increase of total carotenoid content. This change may be
considered as a criteria of fruit maturity at harvesting time (Mitra et al. 2012).
The carotenoids contribute to the flesh color of guava fruit and relative amounts
determine the intensity of the skin and pulp color (Singh 2011). In the Embrapa Food
Technology study, the pink color found in ‗Pedro Sato‘ guavas has been attributed to the
presence of lycopene (Table 4).
After 22 days, in this study, no significant difference was observed for the carotenoid
contents among treatments. After 27 days, the stored guavas presented high carotenoid
content for uncoated fruits and those coated with carboxymethylcellulose, while for fruits
coated with alginate the carotenoid content was low (Table 4).
The Embrapa Food Technology study indicates there was no significant variation of total
carotenoid contents in guavas coated with cassava starch and CMC coatings during the
storage time (Table 4). In uncoated guavas, a significant increase of total carotenoid contents
was observed from the first period compared to the 22 and 27 days with high values. For
guavas coated with alginate, significant differences were observed between fruits stored for
short periods, 7 and 15 days, compared to storage for 27 days.
After 7 days of storage, a high lycopene content was observed for guavas uncoated and
coated with CMC (Table 5). After 15 days of storage the fruits without coatings presented no
significant lycopene contents compared with fruits coated with cassava starch. After 22 days
of storage, the guavas coated with cassava starch showed high lycopene contents and
significantly different from the other treatments. After 27 days of storage, there were no
significant differences for lycopene contents when fruits uncoated and coated with alginate
were compared. The lycopene content decreased dramatically after 7 days of storage for fruits
coated with CMC (Table 5).

Table 5. Lycopene contents for guavas with and without coatings
Treatment Lycopene content (µg.100g-1)

Control 3415.75Aa 3025.25ABa 2477.75Ba 1816.25ABa
Cassava Starch 1633.75Cb 3902.25Aa 3756.75Aa 2350.75Aab
BCa Ba Ba
Alginate 2201.75 2227.75 2736.75 2785.75Aa
ABa Bab Bab
Carboxy methylcellulose 3145.25 2277.75 2477.75 876.25Bb
*
Averages followed by the same lowercase letter on the line, do not differ by Tukey test at 5%
probability.
Table 6. β–carotene contents for guavas with and without coatings
Treatment β–carotene content (µg.100g-1)

Control 282.25Cb 1563.25ABa 2465.00Aa 362.50Bb
Bb Aab Aa
Cassava Starch 991.75 1928.75 2055.25 987.75Ab
Alginate 1579.75Aa 1188.75Ba 1065.00Ba 997.50Aa
Ba Ca Ba
Carboxy methylcellulose 802.25 699.75 661.25 263.00Ba
*
probability.
There was a significant high content of β–carotene for guavas coated with alginate after 7
days of storage. After 15 and 22 days, the β-carotene content was still significantly high both
for guavas uncoated and coated with cassava starch. After 27 days of storage, guavas coated
with alginate and cassava starch showed the highest levels of β-carotene. Treatments with
CMC and alginate showed no significant differences of β–carotene contents during the
storage (Table 6).
Carotenoids are generally associated with human health and the color of pulp and peel,
fruits, especially lycopene and β-carotene. Silva et al. (2012) studied the association of the
Prochloraz fungicide and different concentrations of cassava starch coating. They found
changes in 'Pedro Sato' guava peels, from green to yellow color, when the cassava starch
coating concentration was increased from around 30 to 40 g L-1. This color change occurred
more slowly than in the other treatments used and was measured by the instrumental
parameter ΔE. This parameter measures the intensity of the color saturation level and is
defined by the difference between the color measured after a period of time and the initial
coloration.
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Chapter 7
FEASIBILITY OF THERMOSONICATION TO IMPROVE

MASS TRANSFER DURING OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION
OF SEEDLESS GUAVA (PSIDIUM GUAJAVA L.)
Ali Ganjloo1,2,*, Russly Abdul Rahman2, Mandana Bimakr1,2,

Jamilah Bakar2 and Azizah Osman3
1
Department of Food Science and Technology,
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran
2
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor D. E., Malaysia
3
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor D. E., Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of using ultrasound combined
with conventional thermal pretreatment to overcome the limitations of conventional
thermal treatment prior to osmotic dehydration. Seedless guava cubes (20 × 20 × 20 mm)
were dehydrated in sucrose solution (30% w/w) at 33°C for 180 min. Mass transfer
during osmotic dehydration of seedless guava depended on the pretreatment
(conventional blanching/thermosonication). The effect of thermosonication on mass
transfer terms was more pronounced for the water loss comparatively to the solid gain.
Applying thermosonication pretreatment before osmotic dehydration of seedless guava
led to limit WL/SG ratio in comparison with conventional blanching treatment.
Measuring the conductivity of the medium showed significant (p < 0.05) higher values
for both methods of pretreatment than untreated samples. The results proved that
combining of ultrasound with conventional thermal treatment offering a feasible
methodology for satisfactorily enhancing the mass transfer rates during osmotic
dehydration of seedless guava.
*
Corresponding author: Ali Ganjloo. Email: aganjloo@yahoo.com;aganjloo@znu.ac.ir.

110 Ali Ganjloo, Russly Abdul Rahman, Mandana Bimakr et al.
Keywords: seedless guava, osmotic dehydration, conventional blanching, thermosonication,

mass transfer
INTRODUCTION
Guava, Psidium guajava L., is one of the most important crops belonging to the
Myrtaceae family, believed to originate from Central America and the southern part of
Mexico [1]. Guavas are the only edible fruits of this family. The shape of guavas is in the
range of oblong to pear but because of out-crossing, some elongate to round variants also
exist. Guavas emit a strong, sweet, pungent fragrance with flavor ranges from strawberry to
lemon [2]. The commercial varieties usually have light-green skin when ripe, though there are
varieties with yellow skins and are smooth with very faint grooves radiating from the stalk
end. Guavas are generally sweet which the flesh may be white, light-yellow, pink or salmon;
with textures ranging from crunchy to pulpy [2].
Guava consists of 90.91% water and 10% solids. Their density, specific heat and thermal
conductivity are 1050 kg/m3, 3.97 kJ/kg°C and 0.56 W/m°C, respectively [3]. Guavas are
sodium free and low in fat (0.2 g/100 gedible portion) and calories (42 cal/100 gedible portion) [4, 5].
Guavas are known to posses high amounts of minerals and vitamins (C, A and B) and good
sources of soluble fiber and nicotinic acid [6]. Guava contains four times more vitamin C than
an orange [7]. Calcium is typically not found in high amounts in many fruits though it is
available in guava fruit. They are very good for the immune system and are beneficial in
reducing low-density lipoprotein and protecting the heart. Several studies revealed that higher
consumption of fruits and vegetables which are rich in vitamin C, carotenoids and dietary
fiber lead to lower risk of cancer among people. In addition, guava has been shown to contain
flavonoids, triterpenoids, and other biologically active secondary compounds [8]. Guavas like
other tropical fruits continue to ripen after harvest and should not be refrigerated unless
overripe. One of the major drawbacks of fresh guava is that it perishes quickly [6]; hence, it is
necessary to apply an appropriate postharvest technology to prolong its shelf life.
Among the different techniques that can be applied to fresh guava to obtain a product
with longer shelf life, dehydration or drying is probably the most popular procedure for food
preservation known to man. Osmotic dehydration, due to its potential to keep sensorial and
nutritional properties similar to the fresh fruits, and enrich products with some compounds
like functional foods seems to be a promising alternative method of food preservation [9].
A large amount of information is available in the literature describing the influence of
variables such as temperature, solution concentration, immersion time, size and geometry of
sample, sample to solution ratio on mass exchange during osmotic dehydration process [10-
13]. It has demonstrated that the mass transfer largely controlled by the plasmalemma [14];
and cell membrane permeability strongly affects the dehydration rate [15]. Greater membrane
permeability will lead to more rapid osmotic dehydration. Therefore, the damage of cell
membranes can be advantageous for acceleration of mass transfer [16, 17].
Generally, blanching pretreatment before further process such as dehydration, freezing or
canning is a necessary step in order to inactivate enzymes responsible for quality changes that
occur during distribution and storage. In addition, blanching is widely used pretreatment
because of changes in tissue structure, shorter drying time and increased drying rate [18-22].

Feasibility of Thermosonication to Improve Mass Transfer … 111
Unfortunately, conventional blanching like other thermal treatments can have negative effects
on sensorial (excessive loss of texture and unwanted changes of color) and nutritional quality
attributes (loss of vitamins) [23, 24].
This is the driving force for the growing interest in alternative methods able to reduce the
intensity and/or time of the heat input of conventional technologies. In the food industry, the
use of power ultrasound waves individually or combined with heat has been a subject of
research and development for many years and is seen to be useful in sterilisation, extraction
and freezing, providing reduced processing times and increased efficiency [25, 26]. To date,
no report has been made on the feasibility of thermosonication pretreatment to improve mass
transfer during osmotic dehydration of seedless guava. Therefore, this study was aimed to
evaluate the applicability of thermosonication as an alternative method to conventional hot
water blanching prior osmotic dehydration.
METHODS
Sample Preparation
Fresh seedless guava (Psidium guajava L.) fruits were obtained from a local market
(Serdang, Malaysia) on daily basis prior to each set of experiments. Fruits were chosen at
commercial maturity according to their similarity of color, size, absence of surface defects
and ripening grade (around 8°Brix). Fruits were washed, peeled and cut into 20 ± 2 mm cubes
manually using very sharp stainless steel knife, and gently blotted with tissue paper to remove
the excess of surface humidity prior to each experiment. Care was exercised to select only
cubes that have the same size to minimize the effect of sample size on the experimental data.
The dimensions of fruit cubes were measured by Mitutoyo digital caliper (±0.02 mm)
(Mitutoyo, Waterbury, CT, US).
Hot Water and Thermosonication Pretreatments
Seedless guavas (P. guajava L.) were blanched in a circulating water bath (Memmert,
WNE14. Memmert GmbH Co. KG, Germany) maintained at 90 ± 0.5°C for 74s [24]. After
preset time, the samples were removed from the water bath and placed immediately in cooled
water (2-5°C) in order to stop thermal inactivation instantaneously for 5 min. The temperature
of the water bath and cooled water was verified with a digital thermometer (Ellab CTD-85,
Ellab, Denmark) and a thermocouple (1.2 mm needle diameter constantan type T). An
unblanched sample was taken as control.
In second approach, the samples were processed with an ultrasonic processor (Sonics &
Materials Inc., Model VC505, Danbury, CT, US), set at 500W, 20 kHz and fitted with a 13
mm diameter titanium probe at desired temperature (90 ± 0.5°C). Thermosonication was
carried out at 25, 50 and 75% (31 μm: 1.56 W/cm2; 62 μm: 3.1 W/cm2; and 93 μm: 7.37
W/cm2, respectively) amplitude of ultrasonic wave for 73 to 42s [27]. Water bath temperature
of 88°C was used to avoid overheating during thermosonication. The horn was immersed in
the liquid near sample (1-2 cm distance) in the experiment.

Seedless guava cubes immersed in sucrose syrup (fruit/syrup ratio 1:2) with 8°Brix in
order to limit the mass transfer during pretreatments. Non-blanched cubes of seedless guava
with the same dimensions were used as control. Each experiment was run in triplicate.
Osmotic Dehydration Procedure
Following hot water and thermosonication blanching pretreatments, seedless guava cubes
were immersed in a beaker containing sucrose solution and then placed in a circulating water
bath (Memmert, WNE14. Memmert GmbH Co. KG, Germany). In order to study the effect of
pretreatments on mass transfer during osmotic dehydration process, the process parameters
such as sucrose concentration, temperature and immersion time which influence mass transfer
were held constant at 30%w/w, 33°C and 180 min, respectively as optimum conditions based
on previous study [28]. The ratio of seedless guava cube to syrup was set at 1:10. Samples
were taken out from the beaker after 15, 30, 45, 60, 120 and 180 min of osmotic dehydration
process and then gently rinsed under tap water to eliminate the possible layer of sugar formed
at the fruit surface, and slightly blotted with absorbent paper. The samples were weighed and
analyzed in terms of water loss (WL) and solid gain(SG). These parameters were calculated
according to the following equations [29]:
() (1)
(2)
where M0 is the initial mass of fresh sample (g), M is the mass of sample after time (t) of
osmotic dehydration (g), m is the dry mass of sample (g) after time (t) of osmotic
dehydration, m0 is the initial dry mass of sample (g). The osmotic dehydration procedure is
similar for untreated samples (control). Each experiment was replicated thrice.
Determination of Membrane Damage or Conductivity (Syrup + Fruits)
Conductivity of the solution after the desired osmotic dehydration interval measured
using a conductometer (model 30/10FT, Yellow Spring Instrument Co., Inc., US) according
to dell Valle et al. [30]. Two seedless guava cubes were placed in 100 ml distilled water at
room temperature for 4 h, prior to measurement of the conductivity.
Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were carried out using Minitab V. 14 statistical package (Minitab Inc.,
PA, US). Significant differences (p < 0.05) among treatments were tested through analysis of
variance (ANOVA) followed by pairwise multiple comparisons evaluated by Tukey‘s
significant difference test [31].

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of Hot Water Pretreatment on Mass Transfer
during Osmotic Dehydration
Effect of hot water blanching pretreatment at 90°C on mass transfer in terms of SGand
WL during osmotic dehydration was investigated. The impacts of pretreatment on mass
transfer are important especially in the beginning of osmotic dehydration (during the first
hour). Osmotic dehydration coupled with hot water blanching led to significant (p < 0.05)
rapid enhancement of mass transfer. Results were compared with those obtained for osmotic
dehydration of untreated seedless guavas (30% w/w sucrose concentration, 33°C and 180 min
of process duration) as a reference.
Figure 1. Effect of Hot Water Pretreatment at (●) Optimized Condition and (◊) 90ºC on SG.
The solid gain of seedless guava during osmotic treatment is shown in Figure 1. The
pretreated seedless guavas had higher SG than untreated samples. After 60 min of
dehydration, SG of the untreated seedless guava was 0.04 ± 0.03 g/g, whereas it reached 0.09
± 0.001 g/g when osmotic dehydration combined with hot water blanching at 90°C. Figure 2
shows the amount of WL from seedless guava during osmotic treatment. For example, the
WL reaches 0.48 ± 0.008g/g after 60 min of osmotic dehydration for seedless guava
previously subjected to hot water blanching (90°C), while it is just 0.12 ± 0.01 g/g after the
same duration of osmotic dehydration for the untreated seedless guava. These results can be
explained by the capacity of heating to damage efficiently cellular membranes (cell

decompartmentation) which affect the cell membrane permeability, leading to enhance mass
transfer during osmotic dehydration [20, 22]. The present findings seem to be consistent with
other studies which found increased in mass transfer rates during osmotic dehydration of
thermally pretreated fruits and vegetables [32, 33]. On the other hand, it was found that the
rates of WL and SG reduced with time of process indicating that the system getting closer to
pseudo equilibrium condition due to the fact that the osmotic driving force for mass transfer
decreased with progression of time (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 2. Effect of Hot Water Pretreatment at (●) Optimized Condition and (◊) 90ºC on WL.
Table 1. Values of SG, WL and WL/SG after 180 min of Osmotic Dehydration
of Pretreated and Untreated Seedless Guava
Temperature of Pretreatment (ºC) SG WL WL/SG

Untreated 0.04 ± 0.010 0.19 ± 0.020 4.02
90 0.10 ± 0.007 0.55 ± 0.005 5.27
a a
TS1 0.10 ± 0.005 0.55 ± 0.003 5.16
TS2 0.11a ± 0.003 0.57b ± 0.011 5.20
TS3 0.11a ± 0.005 0.59c ± 0.002 5.27
TS1; Thermosonication at 25% of amplitude, TS2; Thermosonication at 50% of amplitude and TS2;
Thermosonication at 75% of amplitude.
The column superscripts with same letter did not show significant difference (p > 0.05).

The experimental values of solid and water content after 180 min of osmotic dehydration
are given in Table 1 for the untreated and hot water pretreated samples. It is apparent that
application of hot water pretreatment leads to higher values of mass transfer in terms of SG
and WL. The effect of hot water blanching pretreatment on the mass transfer selectivity (WL/
SG ratio) was evaluated and presented in Table 1. Applying hot water pretreatment before
osmotic dehydration of seedless guava had a noticeable influence on WL/SG ratio. For the
untreated seedless guava, the WL/SG ratio amounted to 4.02 ± 0.01 after 180 min of osmotic
dehydration (Table 1). After the hot water pretreatment, the ratio of WL/SG was increased to
about 5.27 ± 0.362 shows that all the cells were probably destroyed. This behavior of the
pretreated sample is due to the fact that increase in the amount of SG was more pronounced
than WL. Thus, it could be concluded that increased WL had a lower impact on the WL/SG
ratio than increased SG. This result is in agreement with those reported by [33, 34]. It was
pointed out that several factors such as process conditions (type of osmotic agent,
concentration and viscosity of solution, contact time, temperature), physicochemical
properties of raw material (initial moisture content, density) and pretreatment (blanching/
freezing) applied before osmotic dehydration can influence the value of this ratio [35, 36].
Effect of Thermosonication Pretreatment on Mass Transfer

during Osmotic Dehydration
The amplitude range of 25-75% of ultrasonic waves at 90°C was used to study the
feasibility of thermosonication treatment for improving mass transfer during osmotic
dehydration. The experimental data obtained for SG and WL of themosonically pretreated
seedless guava during osmotic dehydration subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) to
distinguish the significant levels among the studied range of ultrasonic wave‘s amplitude. The
ANOVA results revealed that only 50 and 75% ultrasonic wave‘s amplitude had significant
effect on WL, whereas the studied range of ultrasonic wave‘s amplitude didn‘t have
significant effect on SG.
Figure 3 shows the experimental data of WL obtained for pretreated seedless guava cubes
using thermosonication at the different level of amplitude (25-75%) at 90°C. The most
significant changes of WL were observed in the case of osmotic dehydration of
thermosonically treated seedless guava at 75% amplitude, whereas there is no significant
statistical difference between hot water blanching (90°C) and thermosonication at 25% of
amplitude. After 60 min of dehydration in sucrose solution, WL from seedless guava
amounted to 0.47 g/g for hot water (90°C) and 0.50 g/g for thermosonically blanched samples
at 75% of ultrasonic wave‘s amplitude.
Figure 4 shows the influence of thermosonication pretreatment on SG of seedless guava
during osmotic dehydration. SG by seedless guava during osmotic dehydration was not
depended on the kind of pretreatment. After the first 60 min dehydration in sucrose solution,
the penetration of osmoactive substance was obtained at about 0.094 g/g and 0.099 g/g for hot
water and thermosonically pretreated seedless guava, respectively. After 180 min of the
process, these values became 0.10 g/g in hot water blanching and 0.11 g/g for
thermosonication at 75% of ultrasonic wave‘s amplitude (Table 1).

Figure 3. Effect of Thermosonication Pretreatment at (○) 0, (■) 25, (◊) 50 and (▲) 75% of Amplitude
on WL.
Figure 4. Effect of Thermosonication Pretreatment at (○) 0, (■) 25, (◊) 50 and (▲) 75% of Amplitude
on SG.

Applying thermosonication pretreatment before osmotic dehydration of seedless guava

led to limit WL/SG ratio. These results can be associated with extensive damage of cellular
tissue caused by thermosonication blanching. It has been demonstrated that cell damage
causes a substantial decrease of the resistance to mass transfer during osmotic dehydration.
The lower resistance to mass transfer is reflected by the faster decrease of moisture content
and increase in solid content of the pretreated samples [37]. Therefore, slightly higher
efficiency of thermosonication seems to be detected when applied before the osmotic
dehydration process.
Influence of Hot Water and Thermosonication Blanching on Leaching

of Cell Constituents into the Osmotic Medium
Leaching of cell constituents into the osmotic solution was determined by measuring
conductivity of the medium which will give more information on the cellular integrity. The
damage to cell membranes was indicated by the high amount of conductivity value [38]. The
conductivity of osmotic medium increased with the osmotic dehydration time. A similar trend
in variation of conductivity of the solutions to WL is expected since the cell constituents are
released during WL. Based on the results obtaied, it is clear that osmotic dehydration itself
caused damage to tissues. Figure 4 shows the conductivity values of the control condition
(30%w/w sucrose solution, 33°C temperature and up to 180 min immersion time) which are
lower than those reported for apple slices [39] and mangos [40]. This difference may be due
to the different sample to solution weight ratios, since the conductivity value changes being as
a function of viscosity, composition and concentration of ions in solution [41].
Relative conductivity values of the osmotic solution contained thermally pretreated
samples were higher than conductivity values of the solution containing untreated samples
(Figure 5). The higher relative conductivity values of thermally pretreated samples at 90°C
indicate that significant damage was inflicted upon cell membranes of blanched seedless
guava. It was reported that with increasing thermal treatment time the potassium leaching
from potato pieces was increased [42].
Figure 4. Relative Conductivity Values of Control Condition (30% w/w sucrose solution, 33°C
temperature and up to 180 min immersion time).

Figure 5. Effect of Thermosonication Treatment on Relative Conductivity during Osmotic Dehydration.
Although the effect of the thermosonication pretreatment on WL was not significant (p >
0.05) at 25% of ultrasonic wave‘s amplitude, it is different (p < 0.05) to the cell constituents
leaching where thermosonically treated samples had higher conductivity than either untreated
and treated samples with hot water blanching pretreatment. Therefore, thermal and
thermosonication pretreatments clearly damaged (weakened) the cell wall network and tissue
structure due to the heat and heat plus mechanical effects.
CONCLUSION
Osmotic dehydration of seedless guava in 30% (w/w) sucrose solution at 33°C for 180
min depends on the pretreatment. Hot water blanching pretreatment at 90°C proved to
significant (p < 0.05) rapid enhancement of mass transfer in terms of SG and WL whereas the
studied range of ultrasonic wave‘s amplitude didn‘t have significant effect on SG. Hot water
treatment before osmotic dehydration of seedless guava had a noticeable influence on WL/SG
ratio. The loss of selectivity indicates the deep changes in the fruit structure induced by
thermal effects during hot water blanching. Measuring the conductivity of the medium
showed significant (p < 0.05) higher values for both methods of pretreatment than untreated
samples which indicate that significant damage was inflicted upon cell membranes.
Therefore, thermosonication is an emerging and feasible technology which could reduce
processing times even more.

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Chapter 8
POTENTIAL OF GUAVA SEED AS A

SOURCE OF FEED SUPPLEMENT
Ying Ping Chang1,* and Kwan Kit Woo2

1
Faculty of Science, Department of Chemical Science,
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia
2
Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science,
Department of Chemical Engineering,
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Guava is an exotic fruit. The whole fruit of guava is rich in bioactive compounds and
dietary fiber. Processing of guava fruit produces peels, seeds and decanter, which contain
valuable material for further use. Finding ways to use guava seeds provides an
economical solution for solid waste management and reduces environmental pollution
problem at the same time. Transformation to a feed supplement is one of the possible
uses of guava seeds. The animal- and fish-farming industry is ever expanding with
exponential growth of the world population and exhausting natural resources. The cost of
conventional feed represents a large portion of the cost of livestock farming. This makes
pretreated guava seeds a financially practical solution for the industry. The composition
and properties of guava seeds govern its use in the food or nonfood sector. This review
focuses on evaluating the composition of guava seed meal. We discuss pretreatments,
which may improve the feeding value. We also outline and compare current use of by-
products from the agro-based industry in feed. Last, we identify and highlight areas
needing further research.
Keywords: agricultural by-products, feed, guava, livestock, seed
*
Corresponding author: Faculty of Science, Department of Chemical Science, UniversitiTunku Abdul Rahman,
Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, 31900 Kampar, Perak, Malaysia, Email: changyp@utar.edu.my.

124 Ying Ping Chang and Kwan Kit Woo
INTRODUCTION
Fresh-cut guava fruit, processed guava juice, or preserves are popular. It has high
antioxidant capacity and is rich in dietary fiber [1]. The world production of guava was 3.49
million metric tons in 2009–2010 [2]. Guava seeds take up about 30% of the whole fruit and
it is a liability for the guava-processing industry. Finding ways to use this by-product
transform this liability to a usable material besides reducing the problem of limited landfill.
FAO launched a global campaign [3], which stressed the importance to include food loss cuts
in planning for safe and nutritious food production. This review concerns mainly the values of
guava seed and the possibility of using it to feed different livestock. We also discuss current
use of other feed alternatives and the technological challenges.
Since the 1970‘s, developed countries such as the US [4] and the UK [5] had rationalized
transforming crop residue and animal waste to useful raw materials [6]. Global demand for
food has increased because of the increase in world population two decades ago. Agriculture
and processing emit greenhouse gases that impose negative impacts on the environment.
Climate changes become prevalent, which cause the loss of human lives and other forms of
nature. Certain developing and underdeveloped countries face increasing food prices and
worsening food insecurity, because they have much higher demands than supplies of food.
Nevertheless, about 32% of all food produced in the world contributes to 1.3 billion tons of
food each year that was lost or wasted [3]. Among the segments of food supply chains, the
food processing industry produces large volumes of solid and liquid waste or by-products,
mainly from the preparation and processing steps. The urgency of finding a long-term
solution for sustainable food supply has outweighed the previously recognized cost and
technological constraints [7]. This target is achievable by public-private partnership by
providing stimulating incentives in research and development. During the last decade, there
has been an increase in research activities as well as private sector involvement to cope with
this problem.
CURRENT RESEARCH TREND ON APPLICATIONS OF

THE AGRO-INDUSTRIAL FRUIT AND VEGETABLE BY-PRODUCTS
The main factor that contributes to food loss is technical constraints in storage of
perishable food produce. Fruits and vegetables, plus roots and tubers have contributed to 40-
50% of food losses per year, which is the highest waste rate of any food [3]. Meanwhile, fruit
and cereal processing has increased during the last 25 years [8], probably because of
increased demand: Consumers are aware of the importance of fruits and cereal fiber
consumption in lowering the risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality. The mass
processing of fruits and vegetables produce large volumes of waste and by-products (20–60%
weight basis) of the fruits and vegetables processed. Since the peel, seeds, and non-usable
flesh are rich in fiber, nutrients and phytochemicals, they could be a cheap and reusable
source of fine chemicals and biomaterials. Figure 1 summarizes potential values of plant
based by-products.
Biofuel production from lignocellulosic material in most plant-based by-products can be
a practical transformation[9]. Exotic fruit by-products can also be as a source of food

Potential of Guava Seed as a Source of Feed Supplement 125
additives like natural antioxidants (avoiding browning and lipid oxidation), antimicrobials,
flavoring, colorants and texturizing agents [10]. Biomass can also undergo composting to
increase the fertilizing values [11]. In addition, these by-products have some specific physical
and chemical properties that make it a good bioadsorbent for removing dye [12] and heavy
metal [13], and natural weed killer [14]. Biofuel production and functional compound
extraction from plant-based biomass results in secondary by-products. It is expected that
feeding the fruit and vegetable processing by-products to livestock would be a more
straightforward approach. The transformation is through the digestive tract of the livestock,
and the feces or digested residue can be made into bio-fertilizer with a well-defined collection
system. Using different plant-based waste as animal feed is not new.
Plant-based
biomass
Macronutrients
Lignocellulosic 1. Feed for livestock,
Phytochemicals
material 1. Bioactive compounds to be 2. Dietary fiber,
1. Feed for ruminants, 3. Functional food/feed
used as nutraceuticals and
2. Substrate for bio-fuel, ingredients: Prebiotic,
natural preservatives
3. Absorbent for heavy metal or 4. Substrate for microbial
2. Functional ingredients such as
industrial dye, fermentation to produce
pectin and surfactant
4. Activated carbon enzymes and fine chemicals
3. Natural herbicides
for bio-fuel,
5. Fertilizer
Figure 1. Values of plant-based by-products [10-22].
It is a common informal practice to supplement cattle livestock at a lower scale for

developing countries [15]. Some crop waste has been part offish feed [16] and swine‘s diet
[17]. Wadhwa and Bakshi [18] recently evaluated the use of fruit and vegetable wastes for
feeding livestock.
However, most lignocellulose-rich food by-products are not an ideal animal feed because
of the low protein content and limited in vivo digestibility. The unpalatable nature of some
crop residues may cause high refusal rate of intake by the animal [19]. Plant-based materials
often contain anti-nutritional factors that can reduce the adsorption of major nutrients in the
animal diet [20]. Moreover, some high-moisture content and nutrient rich by-products
experience rapid spoilage that need immediate drying, which can incur higher production
cost. Table 1 lists various constraint reasons which possibly limit the use of feed from waste
[21] with proposed solutions [22] and relevant stakeholders. The problems of using food by-
products as feed may be overcome by using suitable technology. In Asia, Dr. Olivier and his
colleagues are among the activists who promote ways to recycle household waste and fruit
and vegetable waste for fuel, feed and fertilizer [23], as shown in Figure 2.

Table 1. Contraints to use plant-based waste for animal feed or feed formula adapted
and modified from [21, 22]
Constraints Intrinsic Factors Extrinsic Factors Possible Solutions Stakeholder

Variability in Variety Soil, climate, rain, Undertake FAO, relevant
nutrient levels and processing and harvestingcomprehensive ministries of
quality method inventories of developing
available residues. countries,
Define characteristics farmer,
(develop methods of fruit/vegetable
defining) processors,
characteristics researchers
Low digestibility/ Anti-nutritional Develop treatment FAO,
unpalatable factors methods for plant by- fruit/vegetable
products which processors,
combine appropriate researchers,
technology and feed industry
economics
Undertake basic
research to improve
the feeding value of
by-products per se
e.g., study of cell wall
chemistry, plant
breeding
Contaminants Heavy metal Presence of pathogenic Use satisfactory Researchers,
from soil. micro-organisms if waste experimental Fruit/vegetable
Aflatoxin due to is not processed properly techniques, including processors
improper storage appropriate statistical
that encourage designs
fungi growth
High cost Physical The livestock farming is Develop village-level FAO, relevant
incurred: characteristics far from the plant-based application ministries in
a. Transportation e.g., bulkiness, biomass site, and the commensurate with developing
b. Storing and wetness and/or bulky and heavy (wet) overall strategy of countries,
handling powdery texture nature of some of the by- integrated farming researchers,
c. Preservation to products are expensive to systems farmers,
stabilize be transported, handled fruit/vegetable
perishable and stored. processors
characteristics
Need more Plant-origin Identify methods of Researchers,
supplementation biomass usually supplementing low- feed industry
lacks certain quality plant by-
essential amino products with
acids and emphasis on local
minerals. resources and
economics
Lack of Lack of investment in Promote faster FAO, relevant
knowledge on the research and development effective interchange ministries in
specific treatments effort from feed industry of information, within developing
required to and lack of transfer of and between countries,
process specific knowledge from research countries. researchers
by-products institution/higher
education institutes to the
industry

Residue Red worms Fertilizer
Rapid bioconversion
through insect
Black soldier fly
Fish feed
larvae
Household Mesophilic Compost /vermi- Fertilizer

Bio-waste Biodegradation compost
Organic Energy
Separation
material:
shredded gastification
Bio-char Fertilizer
Inorganic
material:
pulverized
Lactic acid fermentation

Silage for
Animal feed
Fruit &
Vegetable waste
Compost/
Fertilizer
vermi-compost
Technology required
Figure 2. Potential ways to recycle bio-waste. Adapted from [23].
USABLE VALUES OF GUAVA BY-PRODUCTS

Malaysia produces around 100 tons of pink guava juice each year. This creates 10% of
decanter waste (scrubs and seeds) [24]. Transformation of these wastes to raw materials
probably makes attractive revenue. The main feature that governs the use of biomass is
dependent on the compositions (Figure 1). Guava seed contains mainly 53.6 – 67.7% dietary
fiber (about half of this are cellulose and lignin), 12% starch, 10.5–16% fat (145 types of
aromatic oil), 7.9 – 9.6% protein and 0.9 –1.2% ash [24-27]. Minerals that are significantly
present in guava seed meal include zinc, iron, potassium, phosphorus and manganese [27, 28].
Protein fractions in guava seed are comprised of glutelins and globulins and resemble
legume-like proteins [29]. Unsaturated fatty acids are predominant in oil fraction in guava
seed. Linoleic acid (C18:2) content is about 76.4% while oleic acid (C18:1) is over a range of
7.6–9.4 [26, 28, 30]. A significant number of oil-based bioactive compounds such as
tocopherols (~ 665 ppm) and phytosterols (~329 mg/100g, mainly campesterol and
stigmasterol) are present in guava seeds [30].
Guava seed also contains phenolic compounds ranging from 1.10 to 834.83 mg /100 g in
the water extract [31] and about 91.05 mg/100 g in the acetone extract [32]. Michael et al.
[33] mentioned that 10 types of phenolic and flavonoid compounds are found in guava seeds.

Guava by-products also contain other bioactive compounds such as lycopene [34],
phenylethanol glycoside [35], resveraterol, coumarin [36] and glycine-rich peptides [37].
These bioactive compounds have health-promoting effects like antioxidative [34, 38, 39],
cytotoxic [35, 32], antimicrobial [32, 36], anti-inflamatory and analgesic effects [40]. These
valuable products can be a useful raw material for developing nutraceutical products. El-Din
and Yassen [27] have used guava seed meal to substitute 9% wheat flour in cookies formula.
It produced an acceptable product but with inferior dough stability.
Guava wastes also have the potential to be a substrate for fermentation. For example,
guava fruit residue and soy flour are inoculated with Rhizopusoligosporus to produce phenol-
rich extracts [41]. Guava seed flour has been used as an economic nitrogen source to produce
alcohol through fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae [42].
From the material science view, guava seed meal has an acidic character with a high
content of bulk functional group (C = O). Thus, it is able to act as an absorbent for
environmental pollutants. In fact, it exhibits superior adsorption capacity if compared with
eight acid dyes of the monoazo and anthraquinone class [43]. Additionally, it is possible for
guava seeds to form activated carbon through pyrolysis at 700oC. Rahman and Saad [44]
found that chemically treated guava seeds before pyrolysis have improved adsorption
efficiency on methylene blue. Figure 3 summarizes the usable values of guava and guava by-
products.
EXPANDING DEMAND AND MARKET FOR

FEED AND EMERGING FEED ADDITIVES
Global population has grown substantially in the past decade, reaching 7 billion in 2012,
up from 2.5 billion in 1950 and 3.7 billion in 1970. The UN population projections predict the
world total could reach 9.15 billion in 2050 [45]. Population growth and changes in diet
choice lead to increased demand
for livestock products. Consequently, to farm livestock such as cattle, sheep, poultry, and fish
would raise the demand on animal feed and fish feed. A survey by Alltech [46-48] revealed a
global feed tonnage of 965 million metric tons in year 2014. This figure increased from 956
million metric tons in year 2013 and 959 million metric tons in year 2012.
The cost of feed was averaging about $410 each ton for pig finisher diets and within the
range of $340-$570 for chicken finisher diets. Among the different livestock, poultry
represents the majority of farmed animals with a 45 percent share of the feed market as shown
in Figure 4. Pig farming showed a significant percentage of growth in 2014, up to 256 million
metric tons. However, the cattle feed market remained constant between 2013 and 2014
probably because these animals have the most alternative feed materials other than the
conventional feed.
Feed enzyme inclusion into feed formulas has been practiced for a decade. Current
commercial feed enzymes include phytase, xylanase and other fiber degrading enzymes. It is
mainly driven by feed enzymes‘ great potential to reduce feed cost. Feed accounts for around
50-70% of total costs in animal and fish production [49]. The demand on conventional feed
ingredients such as maize, wheat, barley and soybean meal is higher than supply because of
increased demand from the food and biofuels industries. This raises the feed price. Inclusion

of feed enzymes in feed formula improves the digestibility of nutrients in the feed. So, feed
manufacturers can reformulate feed to contain lower levels of protein, carbohydrates and
minerals to reduce costs. Another effect of the inclusion of feed enzymes would be to reduce
animal waste because of the improved digestibility of feed. On the other hand, to add fiber-
degrading enzymes to by-products from the food industry can improve nutrient availability to
the animals [50]. This allows greater flexibility in inclusion of this high-fiber raw material in
the feed formula. Feed enzymes may indirectly promote gut health in livestock. This is
because of fiber-degrading enzymes hydrolyzing dietary non-starch polysaccharides and
producing potential prebiotics in situ. This biochemical reaction stimulates gastrointestinal
tract (GIT) microbial ecology that keeps and improves the host‘s health [51]. Studies on
selected legumes and cereals have detected carbohydrate degrading enzymes and phytase in
wheat and soybean [52-54]. Thus, this warrants further research on guava seed as a source of
fiber-degrading enzymes, especially those induced through germination or fermentation.
Figure 3. Guava and guava by-products: Values and applications.
Apart from feed enzymes, there are other feed additives in feed formula to increase feed
conversion efficiency, and to exert health-promoting effects on livestock. For a longtime, it
was a common practice to add sub-therapeutic doses of antibiotic into animal feed to improve
growth and production efficiency of animals. However, this practice has lead to food borne
pathogen resistance towards antibiotics besides accumulating drug residues in animal tissues.
Eventually, in-feed antibiotics was banned or voluntarily abandoned in many countries [55].
More than 65% of the immune cells of the body are present in the gut. Thus, a diet that
provides essential nutrients can also actively influence the immune system. Receptors present
on the immune cells in the gut are the primary targets for immune modulation by means of
diet [56].
Probiotics, prebiotics, bacteriocins, organic acids, bioactive phytochemicals and
antimicrobial peptides are the common natural feed additives to control and prevent
pathogenic bacterial colonization [55]. Among the natural feed additives studied, probiotics
and prebiotics interactions, which are able to modulate gut microbiota, have a great potential
to substitute for antibiotics. Probiotics are defined as ―live microorganisms, which exert
beneficial modes of action on intestinal microbial balance, immune-modulatory, inhibiting
procarcinogenic enzymes and interfering with the colonization of pathogens which infect the

mucosa‖ [57]. Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that favorably affect the host by
selectively stimulating the growth of beneficial bacteria in the colon [58]. In fact, researchers
have reported encouraging results of probiotics combined with prebiotics in feed for different
livestock such as weaned pigs [59], poultry [60], and farmed fish [61,62]. Jerusalem
artichokes, burdock, chicory, leeks, and onions are natural sources of fructooligosaccharides,
inulin, and galactooligosaccharides, which have prebiotic effects [63]. Saccharides including
xylo-oligosaccharide, mannan-oligosaccarides, pectic oligosaccarides and cello-
oligosaccharides, derived from agricultural or agro-industry wastes, also possess similar
prebiotic effects. Differentextraction methods to isolate prebiotics from corn cobs, rice husks,
and fruit waste are possible [64]. Thus, guava by-products including guava seeds may be a
source of prebiotics, bioactive phytochemicals and feed enzymes to be included in feed
formulation, and warrants further research.
500
Total tonnage of feed production (Million)
444439
450
411
400
2012
350 2013
2014
300
254 256
243
250
218
196196
200
150
100
45 40 41
50
20 21 22 11 12 11
0
Poultry Ruminant Pig Aqua Pet Equine
Types of species
Figure 4. Feed production grouped by livestock for year 2012 to 2014 [52-54].
CURRENT RESEARCH AND APPLICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL

SEED AS FEED OR FEED SUPPLEMENTS
Most of the plant-based conventional animal feeds are of seed-origin, either from cereals
such as sorghum, barley, corn; or legumes such as soybean. Various crop residues and plant-
based agro-industry wastes have been researched for feeding value for different livestock [65-
91]. The main role of feed for livestock would be providing the highest metabolizable energy
for their growth and development. So, the farmed animals achieve target productivity with the

lowest morbidity rate. For aquaculture, excessive vegetable protein substitution for fishmeal
impairs protein utilization efficiency and energy utilization for energy accretion [69,70].
However, plants contain natural chemicals that can modulate immunological response of
livestock [71]. For example, anise seed added at 10 g/kg in the feed could increase carcass
yield and raise antibody titer against avian influenza virus in a broiler [72]. Abundant
nonconventional seeds from agro-industries include oilseed by-products such as olive cake,
canola meal and palm kernel cake. This oilseed residue has a high content of nutrients that
meet the feed value since it is a nutrient reserve for seedling development. However, some
seed meal may be deficit in certain essential amino acids, which may affect the growth
performance of livestock if it is substituted beyond a certain percentage in the conventional
diet [67]. Oilseed meal inclusion to animal feed may also change fat composition of the
carcass. Cattle acclimates polyunsaturated fat from the oilseed meal. Thus, oilseed meal in the
cattle‘s diet changed the fat composition of meat [65,73] and milk [74] to be a ‗healthier‘
animal-based food. Some oilseed meal has high fiber content; its indigestibility poses
constraints for nutrient absorption and slower growth of livestock. Table 2 summarizes
research on selected oilseed meal to feed different livestock. Plant-based feed in broiler diet
may affect the moisture content of feces and odor emission, which imposes negative impact
to the environment [75]. However, plant-based protein improves water quality (with a 34%
decrease in phosphate concentration) in intensive shrimp culture systems and increases
shrimp production [76]. Thus, an approach to examine practicality to use plant-based by-
products should include immunological response, whole life cycle, the morbidity rate, meat
quality, and yield of the livestock in addition to the impact on farm management.
CAN GUAVA SEEDS MEET REQUIREMENTS

AS FEED OR FEED SUPPLEMENTS?
Table 3 summarized guava seed meal composition [92]. As with most plant-based and
oilseed meal ingredients, several reasons can limit the use of guava seeds in animals‘ diets.
These include: (a) Relatively low protein content, (b) Lack of certain amino acid; and (c) The
presence of anti-nutritional factors. Lira et al. [93] found that inclusion of up to 12% guava
waste in broiler chickens‘ feed promotes performance and carcass yield similar to that
obtained with the feed based on corn and soybean meal. However, livestock is not suitable to
feed solely on guava seed because of the presence of excessive phytic acid [94], which may
reduce the bioavailability of minerals and protein digestibility [95]. This limitation of feed
value for guava seeds may be overcome by pretreatments such as autoclaving and
germination as reported by Chang et al. [94]. In another study on laying hens, inclusion of
sun-dried or alkaline-treated guava by-products (including pulp, peel, seed and inedible fruit)
up to 5% improved the feed conversion rate. While sun-dried guava by-product inclusion can
be up to 15% in the feed to induce more eggs production without adverse effect on quality of
the eggs and shell [96]. Mekkawy et al. [97] mentioned that guava by-products can replace
16% of alfafa hay in a rabbit feeding trial, without affecting the growth performance.

Table 2. Seed meals utilization as feed/feed supplement
Type of Types of Physiological Effects References

seed meal livestock
Olive cake Poultry Feed supplemented with olive oil mill wastewater can improve broilers‘ [77]
and related redox status. Thus, reducing pathological conditions of farm animals.
by-products
Ruminant 1. Feeding as silage or incorporation into feed blocks affect rumen [65, 74]
fermentation.
2. Extracted olive cake provides cheap energy and fiber to the animal.
3. High-fat olive cake may improve the quality of the fat in meat and milk.
Swine 1. Inclusion of olive cake up to 100 g/kg in finishing pig diets improving [78, 79]
growth performances, the carcass quality and providing a healthier fatty
acid profile in fat tissues.
2. Inclusion of olive soapstocks up to 62.5 g/kg does not affect the
apparent digestibility of nutrients or body protein accretion but improves
the gain-to-feed ratio.
Aqua 1. Partial replacement (8%) of fish oil in the fish feed with olive pomace [80]
induced a satisfactory growth performance and a lower mortality in
gilthead sea bream.
2. Olive pomace enhanced the anti-platelet-activating factor of gilthead sea
bream, leads to reinforced cardio protective properties
Palm kernel Poultry 1. Broiler chicken can tolerate up to 20% PKC in their diets without [81-83]
cake (PKC) affecting growth performance and feed conversion efficiency (FCE)
2. Inclusion of PKC up to 25% in layers diet does not have any destructive
effects on egg production and quality
Ruminant 1. Diets containing almost 80% PKC for beef cattle showed no negative [63, 88]
effects, provided the supply of calcium and vitamins (in particular A and
E) are enough to meet requirements.
2. Supplementing traditional rations of beef cattle with 30–50% PKC
increased live weight gain (LWG)
3. High dietary levels of palm kernel cake in goats‘ diet (80% of dried
mass) reduce daily gain, slaughter
weight, and hot and cold carcass weights significantly.
Swine Inclusion of PKC in the diet fed to swine can be from 15 to 40% without [82, 85]
negative effects on performance.
Aqua Inclusion of 20% PKC in catfish diet without any negative effect on [68, 86]
growth performance.
Inclusion of feed enzyme can increase the percentage of PKC inclusion
(up to 30%) in tilapia diet
Canola seed Poultry 1. Inclusion of 20% of CM in diet without producing any adverse effects. [67, 75]
meal (CM)/ 2. CM is low in arginine, high inclusion rate in broiler‘s diet may affect
rapeseed growth performance.
meal 3. CM has high sulfur content. Thus, high dietary CM increases the total
sulfur content in the diet, which affects dietary electrolyte balance,
microbial metabolism in gastrointestinal tract. This affected and
contributed partly to differences in odor emission and wet litter.
Ruminant 1. Feeding CM or heat-treated CM produced greater daily milk yield [87, 88]
responses than soya bean meal.
2. CM successfully substitute soya bean meal (up to 25% in grain mixture)
for dairy cattle
Swine 1. Substitution of 13% rapeseed press cake to soybean protein in grower [89, 90]
pigs‘ diet produced no significant difference in protein and fat digestibility
and meat quality.
2. Cold-pressed canola cake (CPCC) has higher digestible energy (DE)
and net energy (NE) values as compared to expeller-pressed canola meal
(EPCM) for finishing pig.
Aqua 1. Inclusion up to 20% in salmonid diet. [91]
2. CM can comprise about 31% of the diet of channel catfish
(Ictaluruspunctatus) without affecting growth performance.
3. Inclusion up to 19% in the diet did not hinder the growth of pacu
(Piaractusmesopotamicus) juveniles.

Table 3. Composition of processed guava seed meal

(Psidium guajava L.) [92]
Parameters (% dry basis) (Mean  Standard deviation)

Crude Protein 7.90  0.34
Crude lipids 16.20 0.22
Crude Fiber 64.67  0.11
Total Ash 0.96 0.51
Carbohydrate (by subtraction) 10.27  0.07
Mineral (mg/100g dry weight)
Calcium 172.36
Magnesium 150.65
Copper 1.38
Iron 11.71
Manganese 1.38
Zinc 1.84
Sodium 750.86
Potassium 895.11
Phosphorus 316.22
Isolating protein fraction from guava seed [25] for feed use may of limited practical
importance because higher processing cost and generation of secondary by-products required
further cost of management. The isolation procedure may also leave aside some bioactive
compounds in the seeds. As discussed in the previous session, chemicals from plants (i.e.,
prebiotics, probiotics, herbal extracts) are an advantage to farm animals in disease prevention
and growth performance enhancement. We discuss the possibility of guava seed meal
inclusion into diets of different livestock based on their nutrient requirements in the following
session.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF LIVESTOCK

Poultry
Different animals require special nutritional composition in the feed. Poultry, swine and
freshwater fish might need high carbohydrate and protein levels in their diets, whereas, cattle
needs a high fiber diet. Hence, the suitability of by-product as feed depends on the capacity in
providing an animal‘s energy and protein needs. A complete and balanced diet is essential for
optimum growth, maintenance, production and reproduction in the farm animal industries.
Commercially available feedstuff for poultry is comprised of cereal grains, soybean meal,
animal by-product meals, fats, and vitamin and mineral premixes. Carbohydrates and fats are
the primary source of energy to support the metabolism of birds for production of meat and
eggs. Protein is essential to form an amino acid pool for the synthesis of muscle, blood
proteins, antibody and structural components and eggs. Eukaryotes are not able to synthesis
all the amino acids needed. Poultry synthesizes only 12 types of amino acids, the other 10
types of essential amino acids have to be from the diet. In general, supply for protein is from

meat and fish meals or cereal grains and legume by-products especially soybean meal.
Soybean meal is the most complete plant protein for poultry feed. As we compare the amino
acid composition of guava seeds meal with soybean meal (Table 4) [98], guava seed meal
showed a better profile of amino acid content than soy bean meal except for lysine. Therefore,
guava seeds meal is feasible as animal feeds. Laying egg hens and broilers require different
amounts of protein based on their body weight (Table 5) [99]. The daily feed needs to supply
approximately 16 – 25% of crude protein. If compared to crude protein in guava seed (Table
3), the supply is below the basic requirement. However, individual amino acids in guava
seeds are enough for keeping the poultry healthy [94]. On the other hand, guava seeds also
have some traces of mineral (Table 3). Minerals might not be as essential as amino acids,
although it is important for the wellbeing of the bird, thus minimizing the morbidity rate.
Table 4. Amino acids composition of guava seed meal
Amino acids Guava Soy meal FAO/WHO

(g/100g protein)[98] (g/100 g protein)[98] [92]
Leucine 6.11 3.66 – 3.92 4.9
Isoleucine 3.21 2.15 – 2.78 4.2
Methionine 4.09 0.60 – 0.69 2.2
Phenylalanine 2.83 2.35 – 3.00 2.8
Lysine 1.66 2.99 – 3.22 4.2
Threonine 3.92 1.89 – 2.03 4.0
Valine 4.88 2.24 – 2.67 4.2
Cystine 2.18 0.66 – 0.75
Histidine 1.87 1.21 – 1.32
Arginine 9.25 3.49 – 3.78
Table 5. Crude protein requirement for broiler and layer chickens at 21 days of age [99]
Crude protein in feed (g/100 g) Bodyweight (g)

Broiler chickens
16.7 414
18.8 618
20.9 706
23.0 786
25.1 836
Layer chickens
16.7 235
18.8 290
20.9 295
23.0 291
25.1 299
There are some natural ingredients called ―unidentified growth factors‖ and antimicrobial
agents, which are also claimed essential for healthy poultry. The use of antimicrobial agents
to improve growth and mortality of poultry led to public concern about the increase of

resistant bacteria and transmission through the food chain. Since 2006, EU has banned the
antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) incorporated into feed. Additives from plant extract are
introduced in the feeding strategy as an alternative solution. Extracts from edible plants are
regarded as safe compared with their synthetic counterparts[100]. Guava seeds extracted
peptides exhibited bacteriostatic effects to some Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
[37]. Hence, feeding guava seeds extract might reduce their dependence on antibiotics and
improve their resistance against diseases.
Swine
Diets for swine rely much on protein supplies. Nutritional requirements are slightly
different based on different stages of growth (Table 6) [101]. Protein and essential amino
acids are important to support the growth in swine. Guava seeds maybe used as swine feed
material, but the protein supply is lower than the feed requirement. Other essential amino
acids such as lysine, methionine and threonine are adequate for the growth of swine.
Mineral contents, as well, are more than enough for nutrition needs. Adding guava seed
meal as part of the feeding materials is an advantage from the nutritional supply and
economical aspect. Currently, swine farmers rely solely on imported feedstuffs, and
fluctuation of currencies further burden local farmers. Guava seeds meal can be easily
obtained, this locally available resource may reduce the farmers‘ problem.
Table 6. Nutrient composition (g/100 g) of conventional diet for swine [101]
Nutrient First Phase Second Phase Third Phase

(20 – 45 kg) (45 – 70 kg) (70 – 105 kg)
Crude ash 5.2 5.1 5.1
Crude fibre 3.8 4 4.8
Crude protein 18.6 17.5 15.9
Calcium 0.65 0.68 0.55
Phosphorus 0.5 0.5 0.45
Lysine 1.02 0.91 0.81
Methionine 0.32 0.3 0.26
Threonine 0.7 0.64 0.58
Tryptophan 0.23 0.23 0.2
Ruminant
On the other hand, the nutritional requirement for ruminants is slightly different from
poultry and swine. Ruminants are less susceptible to a high fiber diet because of their unique
digestive system. High fiber by-products such as grains from the brewing industries are
suitable for ruminants but possess poor feeding value for swine and poultry. For protein
needs, the mircrobioata (bacteria and protozoa) in the gastrointestinal tract can breakdown
most dietary proteins to nitrogen and amino acids, and then further incorporate them into their
own body tissue. Such mechanisms make the amino acid composition not so critical in the

diet for most classes of beef cattle, compared to non-ruminant diets. Nutritional requirements
for beef and dairy cattle differ in protein and phosphorus needs [102, 103]. Guava seeds are
inadequate to provide protein needs, but enough to supply fiber, calcium and phosphorus for
the daily needs of both dairy and beef cattle. Thus, it can be part of the feed supply even
though it does not solely replace the normal feed supply. This will definitely reduce the
dependence on commercial feedstuff.
Fish
In general, the nutritional needs of fish are similar as those required by other animals.
However, the protein requirement is several folds higher. Take seabass as an example, the
protein requirement is as high as 40% to support growth [104] (Table 8). Protein content in
guava seed is far behind the requirement but most of the amino acids in guava seeds, except
lysine, can satisfy the needs. Guava seed might be sufficient as one ingredient in fish feed. A
mixture of other ingredients to make up the basic nutritional requirement for the feed is
necessary.
Guava seed meal is low in cost and available from the fruit-processing industry. The
nutritional composition in the seeds can meet the needs of most farming animals.
Nonetheless, a protein source in feedstuff must able to supply a sufficient amount of the
essential amino acids (Table 9) and good protein digestibility [104]. Plant source protein is
especially lacking in some essential amino acids, and is therefore inadequate in supplying the
complete nutritional needs of fish. However, the feed value might be improved by amino
acids supplements, feed enzyme incorporation or pre-treatment such as fermentation.
Table 7. Nutrient requirement (% in daily diet) for cattle [102, 103]
Nutrient Beef Cattle with body weight Dairy Cattle with body weight
136 kg 409 kg 200 kg 450 kg
Crude protein 9-19.9 7.6-8.8 12.3 9.4
Calcium 0.31 0.31 0.41 0.37
Phosphorus 0.2 0.2 0.28 0.19
Table 8. Summary nutrient requirement for seabass [104]
Nutrient Requirement
Protein (% d.m.) 40 – 45
Lipid (% d.m.) 13 - 16
n-3 HUFA (% d.m.) 1 – 1.7
Pyridoxine (mg/kgd.m) 5 - 10
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg d.m) 15 - 90
Ascobic acid (mg/kg) 700 - 13
Phosphorus (% d.m.) 0.65

Table 9. Comparison of 10 essential amino acids requirement among several fish species
expressed as a percentage of dietary protein [104]
Amino acid Milkfish Japanese Red Common Channel Chinook

eel drum carp catfish salmon
Arginine 5.2 4.5 3.7 4.3 4.3 6.0
Histidine 2.0 2.1 1.7 2.1 1.5 1.8
Isoleucine 4.0 4.0 2.9 2.5 2.6 2.2
Leucine 5.1 5.3 4.7 3.3 3.5 3.9
Lysine 4.0 5.3 4.4 5.7 5.1 5.0
Methionine + 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.1 2.3 4.0
cysteine
Phenylalanine 5.2 5.8 4.5 6.5 5.0 5.1
+ tyrosine
Threonine 4.5 4.0 2.8 3.9 2.0 2.2
Tryptophan 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5
Valine 3.6 4.0 3.1 3.6 3.0 3.2
TREATMENTS TO ADD VALUE TO GUAVA

SEED AS FEED OR FEED SUPPLEMENT
Transforming plant-based waste to animal feed is viable for countries with animal
farming as the major socio-economic activity. Nonetheless, the volume of waste produced by
agro-based industries might oversupply the needs as feed. Besides, the wastes might contain
ingredients that are not suitable for direct feeding. The feeding values of plant biomass can be
preserved and improved through chemical treatments, hydrothermal treatments or biological
treatments and combined treatments.
Chemical Treatment
The major components in most plant biomass are mostly cellulose and hemicellulose.
These cell-wall polysaccharides exist in combination with other biopolymers, such as pectin
and lignin in plants. They constitute 45-70% of the weight of a dried plant. The three
dimensional arrangement of these cell-wall components hinders enzyme degradation, and
eventually reduces the in vivo digestibility of crop residues to ruminants [5]. Chemical
treatments of this lignocellulosic complex would result in increased digestibility of some
plant biomass. For example, sodium hydroxide treatments on barley and cereal straw have
increased the in vitro digestible organic matter up to 40 to 50% in cattle. While ammonia
treatment on straw has advantages over sodium hydroxide in terms of ease for mixing
(because of its gaseous form) and improvement on the nitrogen content of the straw [22].
Boiled alkaline treatment on guava by-products have improved the feed conversion rate up to
5% on laying hen [96]. Acid and lime treatments are other ways to modify lignocellulosic
biomass [105].

Hydrothermal Treatment
The use of chemical treatment to treat lignocellulosic biomass in large scale is restricted
due to the environmental concerns and fossil energy requirements to synthesize the
chemicals. Steam explosion and liquid hot water pretreatments are alternative methods that
can turn lignocellulosic biomass to other useful resources [106]. The fundamental idea
involves disruption of cell wall chemical barriers like hemicelluloses and lignin to improve its
bio-utilization.
Biological Treatments
For the past decades, biological conversion has become one of the major focuses of
scientists and researchers especially in dealing with environment and pharmaceutical issues.
Bioconversion involving microorganisms are applied mainly owing to its efficiency and cost
saving. Most studies on bioconversion involves value-added products transformed from
wastes. Food processing residues receive increased interest because of their compositions,
which may provide higher chances to become useful products [107]. Specific microorganisms
react with the biomass and turn it into industrial chemicals, food additives, health care
products and biofuel.
Guava seeds, as wastes in fruit juice processing industry, may act as the substrate for
bioconversion. The recovery of antioxidants, phenolic compounds and anticarcinogenic
compounds from guava seeds are possible. Table 10 shows some phenolic compounds
recovered from agro-industries waste through solid state fermentation (SSF) [108]. In the area
of animal feed generation, guava seed is a promising carbon source for fermentation because
of the high lignocellulose content. Feed values of the lignocellulosic biomass may be
increased in terms of (a) protein content (b) fiber-degrading enzymes (c) prebiotic content and
(d) digestibility.
Conversion of starchy root crops to microbial protein for use as animal feeds are possible
through fermentation. Aspergillus fumigates I-21, which is a thermo-tolerant and amylase-
producing fungi, raised the crude protein by 22.1% in heat-treated cassava after 20 h [109].
The yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae CEE 12, cultivated with water extracts of vegetable and
fruit waste yield protein content over the range of 40 to 45% [110]. Solid state fermentation
through two mixed strains of Aspergillusniger on apple pomace and cotton seed managed to
raise the activity of pectinase, proteinase and cellulase significantly [111].
Sometimes, bioconversion of lignocellulosic wastes to digestible feed material requires
pretreatments. This process is essential to remove the lignin and hydrolyze the hemicellulose
and cellulose to produce fermentable sugar. Acid treatment using concentrated or diluted
sulfuric acid is useful in breaking the hemicellulose, followed by alkaline treatment in
removing lignin to yield pure cellulose. Besides, liquid hot water or irradiation may also
disrupt the lignocellulosic network. The succeeding bioconversion would be more efficient to
improve the feed value with enriched single cell protein. Two kinds of yeast, Candida
tropicalis and Candida utilis cultivated on hydrolyzed agricultural residues (wheat bran, oats
bran and rice husk) had raised the protein content of 0.48 to 0.55 g/g. This microbial protein
from C. tropicalis has high lysine content of 65.2 to 82.5 mg/g [112].

On the other hand, solid state fermentation by Aspergillus niger S14 and Aspergillus
niger NCIM 616 on a mixture of dried vegetable waste powder and oil cake mixture showed a
significant increase in crude protein and amino acid throughout a 9-day fermentation [113].
Table 10. Bioactive compounds produced by SSF [108]
Microorganism Solid support Product/Function

Gibberella fujikuroi Corn cob, sugarcane Gibberellic acid/Plant growth
Fusarium moniliforme Bagasse, cassava flour Hormone
Bacillus subtilis Impregnated loam based Antifungal/antifungal compounds
Bacillus thuringiensis Coconut waste Bacterial endotoxins/Insecticide
Penicillium Sugarcane bagasse Penicillin/Antibiotic
chrysogenum
S. rimosus Corn cob Oxytetracycline/antibiotic
S. viridifaciens Sweet potato waste Tetracycline
chlorotetracycline/antibiotic
Monascus purfureus Sugarcane bagasse Pigment
R. oligosporus Pineapple waste, cranberry Phenolic antioxidant compound
pomace, guava, soy flour
Streptomyces sp. Coffee pulp waste Polyphenols, tannins, chlorogenic
acids
B. subtilis Antibiotic Soybean wastweokara Surfactin/Antibiotic
Fruit and vegetable wastes are rich in dietary fiber or carbohydrates. These carbohydrates
can exist naturally in the form of oligosaccharides or fructanpolysaccharides, which are
known as prebiotics. Commercial prebiotics such as manan-oligosaccharide, fructo-
oligosaccharide and fructan polysaccharides are able to enhance the immune response of fish,
poultry and swine [59-61]. In addition, prebiotic supplements may also improve the growth
performance of certain livestock [114]. Chemical treatments, hydrothermal or biological
treatments on plant biomass may produce xylo-oligosaccharides, cello-oligosaccharides and
pectic oligosaccharides [64]. For example, chemically treated corncob was converted to a
source of xylo-oligosaccharides through fermentation using Aspergillus niger MTCC5154
[115].
Based on history of food science, it is a common traditional practice to preserve food and
improve the digestibility through fermentation. Sorghum protein fraction showed increased in
vitro protein digestibility because of fermentation [116]. Palm kernel cake with an inoculum
of Trichodermakoningii exhibited increased carbohydrate digestibility for fish [117]. Feeding
sheep with silage containing roughage with 40% substitution of potato waste, noodle waste
and soybean curd residue to the commercial concentrate, showed higher digestibility of dry
matter and higher total digestible nutrient content [118]. Fermented dried grains, rice bran,
palm kernel meal and corn bran by Trichorderma viride induced higher carbohydrate
digestibility and higher metabolizable energy for laying hens and subsequently reduced the
cost of egg production [119].
Apart from fermentation, guava seeds may be germinated to improve the feeding values.
This is due to germination involving seed reserve mobilization and utilization in the soaked
seeds [120]. Germination mobilizes the reserves in seeds through seed enzymes‘ action.
Enzymes present in cereals and legumes include: phytase [121, 122], proteases [123], lipase

[124] and carbohydrate degrading enzymes like cellulose and pectinase [54, 125]. In fact, one
of our preliminary studies (unpublished results) has shown the presence of carbohydrate-
degrading enzymes in guava seed extract (Figure 5). The breakdown of macromolecules to
substances such as oligosaccharide, peptides, and fatty acids is essential to support embryonic
growth during germination. Thus, prebiotics [126], which have wide applications as
nutraceuticals and feed additives may be produced and improve the feed value of the seed
itself.
Carboxymethyl Cellulose
agar: Detection of cellulase
Pectin agar: Detection of

pectinase
Figure 5. The effect of positive and negative control (Left); the effect of guava seed extract (Right).
TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The unwanted guava seeds may be used in various expects for transforming into higher
value products. However, most of the bioconversion methods are restricted to laboratory scale
studies. Information about full-scale industrial set-up, economic and technical feasibilities are
yet to be revealed. In most cases, fruit wastes need a pre-treatment procedure for upgrading
its value. Hence, high investment is needed for setting up the supply chain facilities for waste
recovery. Planning for the recovery plant needs to include the cost and mode of logistics as
well as warehouse facilities based on the distance from the waste generating plant. This is to
ensure sustainable quality and safety of the feed or feed supplements produced. Most of the
transformation procedure requires chemicals such as acids or solvents, which are hazardous to
the environment. Hence, environment impact must be evaluated when selecting any of the
transformation technologies. Marketability of the waste-transformed products depends on the
population of the end user. More studies by research institutions on feeding trials and product
development are needed. The data obtained can provide detailed information to convince the
farmers, the investors and the policy makers.
Local authorities and nongovernment organizations play an important role in establishing
guidelines for waste disposal and campaigning to raise the interest on green industries set-up
and maintenance among the entrepreneurs. Research institutions may provide technical

transfer while the relevant government institutions may offer financial incentive to encourage
the recovery of waste to form useful products.
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EDITORS’ CONTACT INFORMATION
Dr. Svetoslav Dimitrov Todorov,

Veterinary Department,
Federal University of Viҫosa
Campus UFV, 36570-900,
Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Email: slavi310570@abv.bg
Dr. Cristina Stewart Bogsan,

Department of Biochemical-Pharmaceutical Technology,
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of São Paulo, 05508-000,
São Paulo, São Paulo state, Brazil
Email: cris.bogsan@usp.br

INDEX
anaphylaxis, 13
A ancestors, 24
angioedema, 13
Abraham, 58
ANOVA, 112, 115
acetic acid, 88
anther, 27
acetone, 68, 127
anthocyanin, 10
acid, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 26, 27, 37, 43, 46, 61,
antibiotic, 129, 135, 139, 144, 145
62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 71, 76, 91, 92, 99, 100, 101,
antibody, 131, 133, 144
127, 128, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 143,
anti-cancer, 1, 4
144, 145, 146
anticancer drug, 71
acidic, 2, 25, 26, 28, 128
anti-diabetic, 5, 7, 61
acidity, 10, 12, 36, 43, 45, 46, 91, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99,
antifungal, 69, 139
100, 101
anti-inflammatory drugs, 5
activated carbon, 128, 144
antimicrobial, 16, 68, 69, 128, 129, 134, 143
adaptation, 25, 27
antioxidant, viii, ix, 1, 4, 5, 7, 16, 17, 34, 37, 59, 60,
additive(s), 57, 125, 128, 129, 135
61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75,
adhesion, 20
77, 106, 119, 124, 139, 141, 143, 146
adsorption, 125, 128, 144
antioxidant compounds, 64, 67, 68, 72
advancement, 43
antioxidant properties, 57, 68
adverse effects, 86, 132
antioxidative potential, 18
adverse weather, 81
antitumor, 68, 71
Africa, 60
apex, 31
agar, 6
apoptosis, 6, 14, 70, 75
age, 28, 37, 79, 80, 84, 85, 134
appetite, 69
aggregation, 7, 71
apples, 60, 63, 86
agricultural by-products, 123
appropriate technology, 126
Agricultural Research Service (ARS), 62, 78
aquaculture, 131, 142, 145, 147, 148
agriculture, 77, 105, 144
arginine, 132
alcohols, 4, 8
arrest, 14
alkaloids, 6
arteriosclerosis, 4
allergic reaction, 13
arthritis, 4, 7
allergy, 13
ascorbic acid, 4, 8, 10, 12, 19, 33, 37, 62, 68, 95, 99,
amino, 63, 126, 131, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139, 146
100
amino acid(s), 63, 126, 131, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139,
Asia, 19, 21, 22, 59, 60, 125
146
Asian countries, 60
ammonia, 137
assessment, 1, 3, 36
amplitude, 111, 114, 115, 118
astringent, 62
amylase, 65, 69, 70, 75, 138, 149
analgesic, 4, 5, 128, 143

154 Index
atmosphere, x, 9, 12, 16, 38, 39, 49, 85, 91, 95, 97, breakdown, 9, 11, 35, 135, 140
98, 106 breast cancer, 6, 14
ATP, 56 breathing, 38
attachment, 23, 24 breeding, 29, 32, 126, 142, 147
Au nanoparticles, 78 budding, 86
authorities, 140 burn, 88
avian influenza, 131 by-products, 59, 62, 63, 72, 76, 123, 124, 125, 126,
128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 141,
142, 143, 145, 146, 148
B
Bacillus subtilis, 139 C

bacteria, 7, 14, 20, 130, 135, 143
bacterial pathogens, 6 cabbage, 83
bacteriocins, 129 Cairo, 143
bacteriostatic, 7, 135 calcium, 4, 10, 65, 99, 106, 119, 132, 136
Bangladesh, 16, 60, 92, 149 cancer, 4, 5, 15, 34, 60, 64, 65, 69, 70, 73, 75, 110,
barriers, 98, 138 124
base, 16, 23, 31, 41, 82, 84, 85 cancer cells, 6, 64, 69
basic research, 126 Capping agent, 71
beef, 132, 136, 147 carbohydrate(s), 3, 7, 9, 10, 15, 28, 64, 129, 133,
beneficial effect, 67, 70 139, 140
benefits, 1, 37, 39, 59, 60, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 76, carbon, 9, 42, 84, 95, 138, 143, 144
84 carbon dioxide, 9, 42, 95, 143
beta-carotene, 3, 4 carcinoma, 71, 74
beverages, 62 cardiovascular disease, 65, 76, 124
bile, 62 cardiovascular risk, 69
bioactive compounds, 57, 60, 66, 67, 73, 139 carotene, 3, 10, 37, 61, 99, 103
bioavailability, 71, 76, 131 carotenoids, 3, 4, 9, 10, 19, 33, 36, 37, 49, 59, 61, 65,
bioconversion, 138, 140 68, 69, 72, 77, 99, 102, 108, 110
biofuel, 138 cash, 35
biological systems, 71 caspases, 71
biologically active compounds, 59 castor oil, 6
biomass, 125, 126, 127, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, catalysis, 71, 78
145, 147, 148 cataract, 4
biomaterials, 124 catfish, 132, 137, 146
biomedical applications, 72 cattle, 125, 128, 131, 132, 133, 136, 137, 146, 147
biopolymers, 137 cecum, 75
biosensors, 71 CEE, 138
biosynthesis, 9, 93 cell cycle, 14
biotic factor, 35 cell death, 6, 71
birds, 133 cell line(s), 14, 20, 73
blindness, 62 cell membranes, 110, 117, 118
blood, 5, 6, 17, 61, 67, 69, 70, 75, 133, 145 cellulose, 10, 12, 37, 66, 96, 98, 127, 137, 138, 140
blood pressure, 61 cellulose derivatives, 12
body fluid, 61 cervical cancer, 71
body weight, 6, 7, 70, 134, 136 challenges, 74, 124
bonds, 65 cheese, 145
bone marrow, 62 chemical(s), 1, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18, 35, 38, 39, 53,
Bougainville Island, 25 71, 78, 95, 105, 106, 124, 125, 131, 133, 137,
bowel, 4 138, 140, 147
branching, 2 chemical characteristics, 106
Brazil, 11, 21, 22, 31, 33, 34, 37, 40, 60, 91, 92, 93, chemical properties, 125
98, 100, 143 chemical reactions, 35

Index 155
chemotherapy, 6 consensus, 147

chicken, 128, 132 constipation, 4, 37, 62, 67
childhood, 34 constituents, 8, 59, 60, 117, 118
China, 2, 21, 22, 27, 34, 60, 79, 92, 95 consumer markets, 92, 93
chitosan, 12, 98, 100, 101, 104, 106, 108 consumers, 35, 39, 94
chlorine, 99 consumption, 13, 15, 34, 35, 36, 68, 80, 92, 97, 110,
chloroform, 84 124
chlorophyll, 9, 36, 65, 96, 102 contact dermatitis, 13
cholesterol, 5, 67 contact time, 115
chronic diseases, 68 contamination, 38, 39, 65
circulation, 35 control condition, 117
classes, 136 control group, 7, 101
classification, 23, 32, 35, 51 conventional blanching, 109, 110, 111
cleaning, 65, 88 conversion rate, 131, 137
climate(s), 2, 21, 22, 79, 120, 126 cooling process, 39
CMC, 102, 103 copper, 82, 86, 87, 88
CO2, 12, 97, 98 cosmetic, 1, 7
coal tar, 85 cost, 38, 39, 40, 80, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 133,
coatings, 13, 15, 38, 53, 91, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 136, 138, 139, 140, 142
119 cost saving, 138
cocoa, 63, 76 Costa Rica, 11, 18
cocoa butter, 63 cotton, 87, 138
coffee, 76 covering, 36
colitis, 149 cracks, 42
Colombia, 105 crop(s), 2, 12, 16, 23, 30, 33, 34, 35, 59, 60, 79, 80,
colon, 5, 20, 37, 67, 75, 76, 130 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 92, 110, 124, 125, 130, 137,
colon cancer, 5, 20, 67, 76 138, 141, 142
colonization, 129 crop production, 92
color, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 12, 28, 30, 32, 36, 37, 39, 43, 44, crop residue, 124, 125, 130, 137, 142
48, 49, 50, 51, 61, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, crown, 28, 86
102, 103, 111, 119 crust, 83
colorectal cancer, 6 crystallization, 63
commercial, 2, 12, 13, 28, 29, 34, 37, 40, 80, 88, 93, Cuba, 5, 19, 92
110, 111, 120, 128, 136, 139, 145 cultivars, 2, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 36, 74, 76, 77,
commodity, 33, 34, 39 80, 92, 119
communities, 141 cultivation, 11, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 35, 37, 60, 79, 95
complexity, 39 cultivation conditions, 37
complications, 59, 64, 69, 70 culture, 28, 131, 146
composites, 42 cures, 62
composition, 3, 18, 21, 22, 37, 64, 75, 76, 95, 99, cysteine, 137
117, 119, 123, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143, cytotoxicity, 6, 72
145, 146, 147
composting, 125
compounds, 4, 6, 8, 11, 17, 34, 37, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, D
66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 75, 77, 98, 110, 123, 127,
damages, 34, 38, 39, 43, 51, 53, 94
133, 138, 139, 143
damping, 11
compressibility, 8
database, 141
compression, 24, 38, 52
decay, 9, 17, 35, 38, 39, 93, 94
condensation, 52, 84
defects, 35, 42, 43, 81, 93, 111
conductivity, 109, 110, 112, 117, 118
deficiency, 28, 69
conference, 141
deficit, 131
Congress, 120
degradation, 9, 36, 39, 47, 119, 137, 141, 148
connective tissue, 4

156 Index
dehydration, 8, 18, 39, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115,

117, 118, 119, 120, 121
E
delayed gastric emptying, 6
E. coli, 6
Delta, 16
East Asia, 31
Denmark, 111
ecology, 129
dental caries, 7, 16
economic activity, 137
dental plaque, 7
economic losses, 40, 94
Department of Agriculture, 78
economics, 126
depolymerization, 15
edema, 7, 13
derivatives, 12, 37, 68
edible coatings, x, 13, 53, 91, 98, 100, 119
dermatology, 65
effluents, 141
detachment, 18
egg, 2, 132, 134, 139
developed countries, 124
Egypt, 147
developing countries, 125, 126, 142
electric field, 119, 120
developing nations, 77
electrolyte, 132
deviation, 133
electrons, 68
diabetes, 6, 17, 20, 34, 59, 60, 64, 67, 69, 70, 75, 76,
emission, 131, 132
78
employment, 83
diabetic nephropathy, 75
emulsions, 98
diabetic patients, 5
enamel, 7
diarrhea, 69
endosperm, 149
diet, 34, 59, 61, 68, 70, 125, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133,
endotoxins, 139
135, 136, 146
enemies, 81
dietary fiber, 4, 9, 11, 16, 37, 67, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76,
energy, 71, 130, 132, 133, 138, 139, 146
77, 110, 123, 124, 127, 139, 141
entrepreneurs, 140
dietary fibre, 66, 67, 75
environment, 33, 40, 67, 68, 71, 106, 107, 124, 131,
dietary supplementation, 148
138, 140, 147, 149
diffusion, 6, 70, 120, 121
environmental conditions, 18, 39, 106
digestibility, 125, 126, 129, 131, 132, 136, 137, 138,
enzyme(s), 8, 14, 17, 35, 59, 65, 66, 69, 70, 72, 96,
139, 146, 148
100, 110, 128, 129, 132, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141,
digestive enzymes, 65
144, 145, 147, 149
diseases, 4, 6, 11, 17, 30, 34, 38, 80, 81, 85, 87, 88,
epidemiology, 74
94, 135
equilibrium, 114
disorder, 11
equipment, 40
distilled water, 112
erythrocytes, 68
distribution, 25, 26, 28, 39, 71, 110
ESI, 54, 77
diuretic, 62
ethanol, 16, 65, 68, 70
diversity, 17, 22
ethyl acetate, 6
DNA, 5, 59
ethylene, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 17, 35, 91, 93, 97
DNA damage, 5
Europe, 60, 92
Dominican Republic, 92
evaporation, 84
dosage, 84
evapotranspiration, 28
dough, 74, 128
evolution, 49, 80
drug delivery, 71
excretion, 5
drug targets, 19
exercise, 5, 17
drugs, 6, 61, 69, 71
exploitation, 28
Dry Mango Peel, 65
exporters, 22, 37
dry matter, 139
exports, 34, 92
drying, 8, 11, 65, 73, 74, 75, 77, 99, 110, 119, 120,
exposure, 9, 13
125
extraction, 14, 65, 68, 74, 76, 111, 125
dyes, 8, 128, 144
extracts, 5, 6, 7, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 59, 61, 64, 65, 68,
dyslipidemia, 68
69, 71, 73, 74, 128, 133, 138, 143
extrusion, 40

Index 157
friction, 35
F frost, 88
fructose, 3, 10, 36, 96, 99, 100
farmers, 82, 126, 135, 140
fruits, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19,
fasting, 70
21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
fat, 5, 62, 63, 67, 75, 110, 127, 131, 132, 146
39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 59, 60, 61,
fatty acids, 12, 14, 67, 70, 127, 140
62, 63, 65, 69, 73, 75, 79, 86, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
feces, 125, 131
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 110, 111,
feed, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132,
114, 119, 120, 124, 143
133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142, 144, 145,
functional food(a), 17, 59, 60, 64, 72, 73, 110
146, 147, 148
fungal infection, 51
feed additives, 129, 140, 144
fungi, 11, 28, 126, 138, 148
feedstuffs, 135, 142, 146
fungus, 38, 69
fermentation, 77, 128, 129, 132, 136, 138, 139, 144,
148
fertility, 28, 84 G
fertilizers, 142
fiber(s), 26, 36, 40, 42, 67, 70, 72, 77, 91, 92, 110, gastrointestinal tract, 71, 129, 132, 135
124, 128, 131, 132, 133, 135, 138 genes, 5
fiber content, 36, 72, 131 genetic diversity, 29
field handling, 33 genus, 2, 21, 23, 26, 27, 60, 92
films, 12, 99, 100 geometry, 110
filtration, 70 Germany, 111, 112
financial, 93, 141 germination, 129, 131, 139, 144, 148, 149
fish, 123, 128, 130, 132, 133, 136, 137, 139, 142, gestation, 80
147 ginger, 83
fish oil, 132 global markets, 34
fisheries, 142 global trade, 33
flavonoids, 7, 8, 37, 61, 6, 67, 68, 69, 110 glucose, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 19, 36, 61, 67, 69, 70, 75, 77,
flavonol, 14, 37, 74 96, 99, 100
flavor, 4, 8, 9, 29, 34, 36, 59, 60, 91, 92, 97, 110 glucoside, 10
flavour, 22, 25, 30, 31, 63 glutathione, 70
flexibility, 129 glycerol, 99
flight, 18 glycine, 128, 143
flour, 17, 128, 139, 143, 144 glycoside, 8, 68, 128, 143
flowers, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 60 gold nanoparticles, 59, 71
fluid, 6 google, 104, 107
food, 1, 13, 33, 34, 39, 40, 59, 60, 62, 65, 67, 72, 75, grass(es), 81, 84
76, 98, 110, 111, 120, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, gravity, 52
130, 131, 135, 138, 139, 141, 142, 144, 147, 148 greenhouse gas(es), 124
food additive(s), 125, 138, 141 growth, 3, 6, 7, 20, 28, 36, 38, 69, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87,
food chain, 135 88, 89, 93, 95, 98, 123, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131,
food industry, 39, 65, 111, 129 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 140, 145, 146
food processing industry, 67, 124 growth factor, 134
food production, 124, 144 growth promoters (AGP), 135, 145
food products, 1, 59, 60, 62, 72, 73, 76, 98 Guatemala, 141
force, 18, 86, 111, 114 guava, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
formation, 4, 7, 39, 68 18, 19, 34, 85, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100,
formula, 126, 128, 129 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
France, 57 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 127, 128,
free radicals, 4, 67, 68, 69 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,
freedom, 43, 44 140, 142, 143, 144, 147
freezing, 110, 111, 115, 119, 120 guidelines, 140, 142
freshwater, 133 Guinea, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26

158 Index
immersion, 110, 112, 117

H immune modulation, 129
immune response, 139, 144, 145
Haiti, 92
immune system, 3, 4, 37, 110, 129
hardness, 8
immunodeficiency, 4
harvesting, 9, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 51, 94, 99, 102, 126
immunomodulatory, 68
Hawaii, 92
in vitro, 5, 7, 15, 59, 78, 137, 139, 148
healing, 85
in vivo, 5, 125, 137
health, 1, 8, 34, 37, 59, 60, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72,
incidence, 4, 9, 11, 34, 52, 80, 81, 87, 94
75, 76, 128, 129, 138, 142, 144
income, 80, 83
health benefits, 59, 61, 63, 66, 74
independence, 79
health care, 138
India, 2, 8, 16, 21, 22, 27, 32, 33, 34, 39, 59, 60, 77,
health effects, 8
79, 81, 92, 141
heart disease, 34
individuals, 61, 75
heart rate, 61
Indonesia, 8, 21, 22, 60, 92
heavy metals, 142
induction, 17, 37, 74, 149
height, 2, 81, 82, 85, 88
industrial chemicals, 138
hemicellulose, 10, 37, 47, 66, 137, 138
industrial wastes, 141, 148
hemoglobin, 70
industries, 40, 128, 131, 133, 135, 137, 138, 140, 147
hepatocytes, 61
industry, 8, 31, 62, 63, 72, 74, 75, 80, 92, 123, 124,
high density lipoprotein, 70
126, 130, 136, 138, 143, 148
higher education, 126
infection, 6, 18, 35, 38, 82, 86, 144
history, 139
inflammation, 7, 65, 149
homeostasis, 70
inflammatory disease, 4
hormone, 6
ingestion, 4, 5
horticultural crops, 38, 79
ingredients, 98, 128, 130, 131, 134, 136, 137, 142
host, 129, 130
inhibition, 6, 7, 69, 70, 71
housing, 147
initiation, 83
hue, 28, 95, 96
injuries, 11, 33, 35, 38, 42, 43, 51, 53, 94
human, 5, 6, 17, 37, 61, 66, 71, 72, 74, 103, 124,
injury, 9, 12, 17, 18, 28, 35, 38, 39, 42, 94, 97
144, 147
inoculum, 139
human health, 6, 17, 37, 103
inositol, 144
humidity, 12, 28, 35, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50,
insecticide, 84
51, 95, 111
insects, 38, 42, 84, 87, 88, 94
Hungary, 120
insecurity, 124
hybrid, 145, 146
insoluble dietary fibre, 66
hydrocarbons, 4
institutions, 81, 140
hydrogen, 68
insulin, 5, 7, 68, 69, 70
hydrolysis, 47, 65, 120
insulin resistance, 5
hydrophobicity, 20
insulin sensitivity, 7, 70
hydroxide, 137
insulin signaling, 7
hydroxyl, 68
integrity, 3, 117
hypercholesterolemia, 67
interface, 74
hyperglycaemia, 5, 69
intestine, 67, 70
hyperglycemia, 61, 67, 68, 69, 76, 77
investment, 126, 140
hyperlipidemia, 67
investors, 140
hypersensitivity, 13
ionizing radiation, 12
hypertension, 76
ions, 117
Iran, 109
I iron, 4, 10, 127
irradiation, 121, 138, 147
ideal, 2, 16, 28, 35, 125 irrigation, 79, 82, 83, 86, 93
identification, 23, 78, 87 Islam, 16

Index 159
islands, 25 lymphocytes, 61
isolation, 133 lysine, 134, 135, 136, 138
isomers, 3
Israel, 75
issues, 79, 138 M
Italy, 142
macromolecules, 4, 140
macrophages, 61
J macular degeneration, 4
magnesium, 4
Japan, 141 magnetic properties, 71
Java, 23, 24, 27 majority, 128
jejunum, 5 Malaysia, 1, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 92, 109, 111,
juveniles, 132 123, 127, 146
management, 14, 17, 35, 38, 39, 49, 69, 76, 77, 79,
80, 82, 84, 87, 93, 123, 131, 133, 141
K manganese, 127
Mangifera indica L, 22, 27, 33, 34, 60, 73, 74, 75,
kaempferol, 37, 61, 68
76, 77, 78
kernel, 5, 6, 14, 20, 22, 59, 62, 63, 66, 73, 75, 77, 78,
mangiferin, 4, 5, 7, 15, 17, 37, 61, 76
131, 132, 139, 145, 146, 148
mango, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18,
kerosene, 87
19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 51,
ketones, 11
53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,
kidney, 28, 70, 72
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79,
kinetics, 119, 120, 121
80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 89, 104, 106, 107
Krebs cycle, 101
mango beverage, 62
mango orchards, 81, 82, 83, 84, 89
L Mango Peel, 59, 63, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74
Mango Peel Pectin, 67
lactic acid, 10 mango producing countries, 60
lakes, 24 manufacturing, 63
large intestine, 67 manure, 85, 88
latency, 69 marketing, 30, 35, 39, 92, 93
leaching, 117, 118 marsh, 21, 25
legume, 127, 134 mass, 18, 77, 98, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
lens, 65 117, 118, 119, 121, 124, 132
lesions, 9 mass loss, 98
life cycle, 131 mass spectrometry, 18
light, 2, 26, 28, 30, 82, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 110 mass transfer, 109, 119
lignin, 66, 127, 137, 138, 148 materials, 12, 40, 98, 120, 125, 128, 135, 147, 148
lipid metabolism, 5, 19 matter, 79
lipid oxidation, 125 measurement, 112
lipid peroxidation, 68, 70 meat, 24, 131, 132, 133, 145, 146, 147
lipids, 4, 5, 9, 11, 17, 65, 133 mechanical properties, 40
liquid chromatography, 17, 18 medical, 5, 71
liver, 62, 70 medicine, 6, 61, 65
livestock, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, mellitus, 6, 69, 74, 76, 78
132, 133, 139, 142, 146 melting temperature, 63
logistics, 140 membrane permeability, 110, 114
low temperatures, 12, 35, 39 membranes, 113
low-density lipoprotein, 110 meta-analysis, 146
lung cancer, 15 metabisulfite, 120
lutein, 68 metabolic disorder(s), 6, 69
lycopene, 91, 92, 99, 102, 103, 128 metabolic pathways, 28

160 Index
metabolism, 5, 7, 16, 67, 77, 91, 94, 101, 132, 133, nitrogen, 19, 128, 135, 137, 144, 145, 148
145 NMR, 56
metabolites, 19, 69, 142, 145 nucleic acid, 4
metal ion(s), 71 nutraceutical(s), 59, 60, 61, 63, 73, 128, 140
metals, 71 nutrient(s), 4, 60, 61, 62, 64, 84, 124, 125, 126, 129,
meter, 82 131, 132, 133, 136, 139, 147
methanol, 7 nutrition, 1, 15, 18, 20, 34, 59, 82, 83, 106, 108, 135,
methodology, 65, 109, 120 141, 147
methylcellulose, 98, 101, 102, 103
methylene blue, 128, 144
Mexico, 2, 22, 60, 92, 106, 110 O
Miami, 120
obesity, 4, 5, 34
mice, 5, 6, 7, 13, 18, 61, 73, 75
oedema, 5
microbiota, 129, 144, 145
oil, 6, 67, 75, 87, 127, 139, 142, 146
micronutrients, 34, 61
oilseed, 131
microorganisms, 38, 94, 129, 138
oleic acid, 127
microstructure, 119
oligosaccharide, 130, 139, 140
middle lamella, 67
olive oil, 132, 146
migration, 98
operations, 35, 50, 82, 88
mildew, 80
opportunities, 141
Min, Ho Chi, 25
optimization, 84
mixing, 65, 137
organ, 26
modelling, 120
organic matter, 137
models, 7, 15, 33, 40
organic solvents, 71
modifications, 14, 37, 38
ornamental plants, 22
modified atmosphere, 12, 16, 38, 39, 91, 95, 97, 106
osmotic dehydration, 8, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
moisture, 8, 33, 65, 83, 98, 115, 117, 125, 131
115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121
moisture content, 115, 117, 125, 131
overproduction, 67
mold(s), 39, 40
oxidation, 46, 100
Moon, 16
oxidative damage, 4, 59, 68
morbidity, 131, 134
oxidative destruction, 10
mortality, 124, 132, 134
oxidative stress, 61, 76
mucosa, 130
oxygen, 19, 95
Myanmar, 8, 21, 22, 25, 26, 92
mycelium, 144
P
N
Pacific, 19
paints, 85
NaCl, 120
Pakistan, 8, 11, 16, 17, 22, 60, 78
nanoparticles, 71, 76, 77, 78
palladium, 76
nanotechnology, 64
palm oil, 142, 145
naphthalene, 88
Panama, 141
natural resources, 40, 123
pancreas, 5
negative effects, 111, 132
pantothenic acid, 10
neglect, 85
parallel, 4
nephropathy, 68
parasites, 81
Netherlands, 17, 32, 37
parents, 29
neurodegeneration, 4
pathogens, 11, 18, 39, 129
neutrophils, 61
pathophysiological, 68
new packaging, 33, 40, 42, 53
pathway, 7
niacin, 10
Pectin, 56, 64, 67
nicotinic acid, 110
peptide(s), 65, 128, 129, 135, 140, 143
Nigeria, 60

Index 161
periodontal disease, 16 probe, 111

peri-urban, 17 probiotic(s), 129, 133, 144
permeability, 98, 110 process duration, 113
permit, 84 processed products, 63
pests, 35, 80, 81, 84, 88 producers, 34, 37, 92, 93
pH, 2, 8, 43, 45, 46, 65, 99, 101, 102 production technology, 79
pharmaceutical, 1, 5, 8, 68, 73, 74, 138 productive capacity, 80
pharmacology, 65 project, 42, 48, 49, 53, 105
phenol, 11, 128 proliferation, 6, 64, 69, 70, 73, 74, 82
phenolic compounds, 4, 8, 9, 11, 37, 65, 68, 70, 71, propagation, 86
77, 78, 127, 138 prostaglandin, 5
Philippines, 2, 21, 22, 25, 26, 60, 92 proteases, 65, 74, 139
phosphate, 68, 87, 131, 144 protection, 4, 6, 39, 79, 82
phosphorus, 4, 10, 127, 136 proteinase, 138
photonics, 71 proteins, 4, 64, 65, 127, 133, 135, 145
physicochemical properties, 63, 115 prototypes, 40
physiology, 1, 3, 8, 13, 14, 15, 76, 91, 104, 106, 120 pruning, 28, 79, 82, 85, 86, 88, 89, 93, 94, 105
phytosterols, 63, 78, 127 pseudomonas aeruginosa, 6
pigs, 5, 130, 132, 144, 146, 147 Psidium guajava L, 91, 92, 105, 109, 110, 111, 119,
plant extract, 59, 71, 72, 135 120, 142, 143, 147
plants, 1, 3, 15, 16, 27, 28, 38, 69, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, public concern, 134
93, 131, 133, 135, 137 pulp, 2, 4, 11, 14, 18, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 35,
plaque, 7 36, 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 46, 49, 50, 51, 59, 60, 61,
point of origin, 82, 85 62, 64, 68, 71, 74, 77, 92, 95, 96, 100, 101, 102,
policy makers, 140 103, 131, 139, 143
pollutants, 128 purification, 65
pollution, 63, 73, 123 purity, 49
polyamines, 17 pyrolysis, 128
polymerization, 37
polymers, 10, 40
polymorphism, 31 Q
polypeptides, 65
quantification, 18, 77
polyphenols, 4, 6, 11, 59, 61, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,
quercetin, 7, 37, 61, 68
71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 139
polysaccharide(s), 37, 38, 67, 137, 139
polystyrene, 40 R
polythene, 84, 86
polyunsaturated fat, 131 race, 27
population, 123, 124, 128, 140 radiation, 12, 19, 28, 54
Portugal, 37 radiation treatment, 12, 19
Postharvest, 1, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 33, 35, 38, radicals, 4, 17, 67, 69
54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 91, 96, 104, 105, 106, 107, rainfall, 25, 28, 83
108, 120 rainforest, 25
potassium, 4, 56, 61, 99, 117, 127 Ramadan, 148
potato, 98, 117, 139 raw materials, 124, 127
potato starch, 98 reaction rate, 59, 72
poultry, 128, 130, 133, 134, 135, 139, 144, 145 reactions, 13, 38
preparation, 59, 64, 66, 67, 71, 124, 143 reactive oxygen, 4, 59, 69
preservation, 12, 37, 110 reactivity, 13
prevention, 65, 67, 133, 141 reagents, 71
principles, 121 receptors, 70
private sector, 124 recovery, 52, 67, 74, 120, 138, 140, 141
probability, 101, 102, 103 recovery plan, 140

162 Index
regulations, 40 selenium, 148

rejuvenation, 79, 80, 81, 85, 86, 88, 89 self-destruction, 70
reproduction, 133 senescence, 9, 11, 93, 95, 100
requirement(s), 12, 80, 87, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, sensitivity, 8
137, 138, 147 serine, 65, 74
research institutions, 140 serum, 5, 70, 77
researchers, 9, 126, 130, 138 sex, 7
reserves, 139 shade, 83
residue(s), 40, 68, 125, 126, 18, 129, 131, 138, 139, shape, 2, 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, 36, 39, 53, 71,
141 79, 95, 110
resistance, 30, 37, 38, 69, 117, 129, 135 sheep, 128, 139, 148
resorcinol(s), 69, 76 shelf life, 1, 2, 12, 13, 17, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 53,
resources, 126, 138 65, 91, 92, 93, 95, 97, 98, 99, 110
respiration, 8, 12, 17, 36, 43, 46, 91, 92, 93, 97, 98, shoot(s), 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88
101 short supply, 37
respiratory rate, 91 showing, 51
response, 19, 65, 69, 119, 120, 131 shrimp, 131, 145
restoration, 88 shrubs, 2, 81
restrictions, 40 side effects, 69
retail, 52, 94 signalling, 19
revenue, 127 signs, 12, 13
riboflavin, 4, 10 silica, 8
rice husk, 130, 138 silk, 8
ripening process, 35, 37, 39, 46, 91, 93, 97, 100 silver, 71, 76, 78
risk, 15, 38, 67, 110, 124 skin, 2, 7, 9, 10, 11, 17, 25, 42, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
rodents, 6, 17, 81 96, 98, 99, 102, 110
room temperature, 12, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, small intestine, 70
51, 76, 91, 93, 95, 97, 99, 112 smoothness, 24
root(s), 5, 21, 22, 80, 81, 84, 85, 124, 138 sodium, 4, 12, 61, 66, 98, 99, 110, 120, 137
root system, 21, 22, 80 sodium hydroxide, 137
rules, 53 soil type, 2
rural population, 35 solid gain, 109, 112, 113
solid state, 138, 139, 148
solid waste, 123
S Solomon I, 21, 22
solubility, 66
safety, 1, 3, 39, 74, 120, 140
soluble dietary fibre, 66, 67, 70
salmon, 110, 137, 145
solution, 8, 34, 99, 109, 110, 112, 115, 117, 118,
salmonella, 144
120, 123, 124, 135, 142, 144
saturation, 103
solvents, 68, 140, 143
scar tissue, 65
South Africa, 53, 92
science, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 104, 105, 106, 107,
South America, 2
108, 128, 139
Southeast Asia, 35, 147
secrete, 5
soy bean, 134
secretion, 6, 62, 68, 69, 70
Spain, 37, 60
security, 34
specialists, 53
seed, 2, 11, 14, 17, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 36,
species, 2, 4, 6, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31,
60, 63, 64, 73, 75, 78, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129,
59, 60, 69, 92, 137
130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140,
specific gravity, 36
142, 143, 144, 145, 147
specific heat, 110
seedless guava, 109, 111, 112
specific surface, 71
seedling development, 131
spongy tissue, 11
seedlings, 85
Spring, 112
selectivity, 115, 118

Index 163
sprouting, 93 target, 6, 124, 130

Sri Lanka, 21, 22, 92 techniques, 77, 81, 93, 110, 126
stability, 8, 65, 71, 120, 128 technologies, 38, 39, 111, 140, 147
stabilizers, 65, 71 technology, 8, 40, 82, 83, 97, 110, 118, 125
stakeholders, 125 temperature, 9, 12, 16, 17, 19, 28, 33, 35, 38, 39, 40,
stamens, 23, 24, 25, 27 43, 49, 65, 97, 106, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117, 121,
standardization, 35, 40 144, 148
starch, 37, 47, 63, 69, 70, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, terpenes, 11
127, 129 texture, 2, 9, 10, 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36, 39, 96,
starch polysaccharides, 129 111, 119, 126
state(s), 40, 92, 138, 148 Thailand, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 31, 60, 92
statistics, 121 therapy, 6
steel, 111 thermal properties, 39
sterile, 24 thermal treatment, 109, 111, 117
sterilisation, 111 thermosonication, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117, 118,
stigma, 27 119
stimulant, 62 threonine, 135
stimulation, 4, 70 tissue, 4, 39, 73, 96, 110, 111, 117, 118, 119, 120,
storage, 1, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 33, 34, 35, 135
36, 38, 39, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 75, titanium, 111
91, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, tocopherols, 18, 63, 68, 78, 127
107, 110, 119, 124, 126, 143 tones, 8, 30
stress, 7, 8, 16, 69, 83, 94, 149 tonic, 62
structure, 26, 37, 77, 82, 110, 118, 120 tooth, 7
style, 23 total cholesterol, 61, 70
subacute, 7 total costs, 128
substitution, 76, 131, 139, 145 total product, 59, 60
substrate(s), 101, 128, 138, 142 toxicity, 71, 76
subtraction, 133 trade, 2, 38, 99
sucrose, 7, 8, 10, 12, 36, 96, 99, 100, 109, 112, 113, training, 52
115, 117, 118, 120 traits, 29, 145, 147
sugar industry, 121 transformation, 10, 124, 140
sugarcane, 139 transmission, 135
sulfur, 132 transpiration, 43, 51, 93
sulfuric acid, 138 transport, 30, 33, 35, 37, 39, 93, 94, 95, 120
Sun, 148 transportation, 35, 38, 39, 51, 52, 53, 93, 94, 95
supplementation, 61, 75, 126, 145, 147 treatment, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 62, 65, 71, 75, 85, 99,
supply chain, 34, 37, 38, 39, 124, 140 101, 107, 109, 113, 115, 118, 120, 126, 136, 137,
surface area, 81 138, 140, 147
susceptibility, 9, 11, 34, 38, 94 treatment methods, 126
Sustainable Development, 107 trial, 40, 82, 131
Sweden, 120 tricarboxylic acid, 46
symptoms, 9, 11, 17, 35, 38 triglycerides, 61, 70
synergistic effect, 70 tropical fruits, 34, 37, 59, 60, 98, 110, 143
synthesis, 9, 49, 59, 71, 76, 77, 78, 100, 133 type 1 diabetes, 5
synthetic methods, 71 type 2 diabetes, 5, 7, 74, 75, 76
tyrosine, 6, 19, 137
T
U
Taiwan, 119
tall trees, 86 ulcer, 6
tannins, 6, 8, 139 ultrasound, 74, 109, 111, 121
Tanzania, 18 uniform, 28, 49, 93

164 Index
United Nations, 141 water, 2, 3, 6, 10, 25, 28, 33, 35, 42, 43, 49, 51, 52,
United States (USA), 13, 30, 37, 76, 78, 92 53, 65, 66, 71, 73, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 95, 98, 99,
urea, 87, 88 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 118, 119, 121, 127,
urine, 70 131, 138, 149
urticaria, 13 water loss, 33, 35, 42, 43, 49, 51, 53, 95, 109, 112
USDA, 3, 4, 19, 62, 78 water quality, 131
web, 141
weight gain, 69, 132
V weight loss, 13, 38, 43, 45, 94, 98
weight ratio, 117
vacuum, 65, 119
West Africa, 146
variables, 43, 65, 110
Western countries, 34
varieties, 3, 4, 14, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 39, 59, 60, 63,
wetable, 87
73, 76, 79, 80, 81, 85, 89, 92, 100, 110, 149
wheezing, 13
vegetables, 34, 65, 92, 97, 110, 114, 120, 124
WHO, 134
vegetation, 28
wholesale, 52, 94
vehicles, 35
wild type, 21, 22
venereal disease, 6
wood, 80, 82
Venezuela, 92
wool, 8
ventilation, 35
workers, 68
versatility, 40
worldwide, 7, 13, 34, 69, 74
Vietnam, 25
wound healing, 15
viscosity, 70, 115, 117
vision, 3
vitamin A, 3, 4, 10, 37, 61 X
vitamin B1, 4
vitamin C, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 33, 61, 62, 100, 106, 110, xanthones, 68
119 xanthophyll, 10
vitamin E, 4 xylanase, 65
vitamins, 1, 3, 8, 10, 34, 59, 61, 72, 91, 92, 110, 111,
132
vulnerability, 10 Y
yarn, 24
W yeast, 138, 148
yield, 30, 65, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 131, 132, 138
Washington, 147
waste, 65, 74, 78, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131,
137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 148 Z
waste disposal, 140
zinc, 127
waste management, 142
waste treatment, 65
wastewater, 132, 141, 142, 146
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Rejuvenation of old mango orchard

Chapter · January 2016

Disket Dolkar Parshant Bakshi

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GUAVA AND MANGO

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GUAVA AND MANGO

SVETOSLAV DIMITROV TODOROV

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Chapter 8 Potential of Guava Seed as a Source of Feed Supplement 123

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Flávia Carolina Alonso Buriti

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Svestoslav Dimitrov Todorov and Cristina Stewart Bogsan

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MANGO AND GUAVA:

Shao Yin Ooi1, Mei Kying Ong1,

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Mango scientifically known as Magnifera indica L is a species in the family

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2.0. NUTRITIONAL PROFILE AND HEALTH BENEFITS

Table 1. Nutrient composition of mango and guava (USDA, 2015)

Nutrient* Unit Mango Guava

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amount is detectedin unripe mango. Increasing quantity of mevalonic acid which is a

2.2. Medicinal Values

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2.3. Industrial Applications

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3.0. POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGY

3.1. Physical, Chemical and Sensory Attributes

3.2. Postharvest Losses

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Table 2. Physical, chemical and sensory attributes of mango and guava

Attributes Mango Guava

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Attributes Mango Guava

terpenes and followed by esters, caryophyllene, α-terpineol, α-

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3.3. Storage and Packaging

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4.0. FOOD SAFETY CONCERNS

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