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Outline    
Definitions  and  types  of  needs  

Needs  analysis  purposes  

Module 2: Needs  analysis  frameworks  

Needs Analysis Needs  analysis  process  

Needs  analysis:  sources  of  data  

Needs  analysis:  data  collection  instruments  

Needs  analysis:  examples  

FACTORS AFFECTING COURSE DESIGN

1. Definitions and types of needs

WHAT?
LANGUAGE HOW? Hutchinson  &  Water  (1987):  
Language
Description
Syllabus
COURSE
Methodology Learning
Theories •  target  needs  =  what  the  learners  need  to  do  in  
the  target  situation  
•  necessities  
Nature of
particular
•  lacks  
target and
learning
situation
•  wants  
•  learning  needs    =  what  the  learners  need  to  do  
in  order  to  learn  
WHO? WHY?
WHERE? WHEN?
Needs Analysis

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1. Definitions and types of needs 1. Definitions and types of needs

•  Match each type of taget needs with
its definition. Complete  the  following  analogy  with  “necessities,  
lacks,  wants,  learning  needs”    
a. The gap between the existing •  Course  =  Journey    
proficiency and the target lacks
1.  Necessities proficiency
•  The  starting  point  =  ____________  
2.  Lacks b. Learners’ own view of their •  Destination  =  _necessities
___________  
3.  Wants "necessities" and "lacks" and •  The  disputes  over  which  destination  to  take  =  ________  
wants
their own wishes, which may
conflict with perceptions of •  The  route  =  __________________  
Learning needs
course designers, sponsors,
teachers…
c. What the learner has to know in
order to function effectively in
target situation

1. Definitions and types of needs 2. Needs analysis: purposes

Why  do  we  need  to  conduct  needs  analysis?    
Dudley-­‐Evans  &  St.  John  (1998)   Richards  (2001)  
•  To  find  out  what  language  skills  a  learner  needs  in  order  
•  Objective  and  perceived  needs:  derived  by  outsiders   to  perform  a  particular  role,  such  as  sales  manager,  tour  
from  facts,  from  what  is  known  and  can  be  verified.     guide,  or  university  student  
•    Subjective  and  felt  needs:  derived  from  insiders  and   •  To  help  determine  if  an  existing  course  adequately  
addresses  the  needs  of  potential  students  
correspond  to  cognitive  and  affective  factors     •  To  determine  which  students  from  a  group  are  most  in  
•  Product-­‐oriented  needs:  derive  from  the  goal  or   need  of  training  in  particular  language  skills  
target  situation   •  To  identify  a  change  of  direction  that  people  in  a  
reference  group  feel  is  important  
•  Process-­‐oriented  needs:  derive  from  the  learning   •  To  identify  a  gap  between  what  students  are  able  to  do  
situation     and  what  they  needs  to  be  able  to  do  
•  To  collect  information  about  a  particular  problem  learners  
are  experiencing.    

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2. Needs analysis: purposes 3. Needs analysis framework

What  do  we  need  to  consider  when  conducting  needs  analysis?    
Graves  (200o,  p.  101)  .    
1.  What  information  does  it  gather?    
2.  Who  is  involved  and  why?    
3.  What  skills  are  necessary  to  carry  it  out?  Is  preparation  
needed?  In  other  words,  are  the  students  familiar  with  this  
type  of  activity  or  do  they  have  to  be  taught  how  to  do  it?  
4.  Is  the  activity  feasible  given  the  level  and  number  of  your  
students?  How  could  you  adapt  it?    
5.  Is  the  activity  focused  only  on  gathering  information  which  
you  will  analyze  or  does  it  also  ask  students  to  
•  identify  problems  and  solutions?    
•  identify  priorities?    
6.  How  will  the  teachers  and  learners  use  this  information?    
Excerpted  from  Graves  (2001)    

3. Needs analysis framework

Robinson (1991) 3. Needs analysis framework
•  TSA = TARGET SITUATION ANALYSIS
•  a needs analysis which focuses on students’needs at
the end of the language course Robinson (1991)
•  information sought for TSA is related to different •  PSA also involves “fundamental variables” which
stages in students’ life:
should be considered before or simultaneously with
•  the training course
TSA.
•  working time
•  PSA = PRESENT SITUATION ANALYSIS •  Thus, Needs Analysis may be seen as a combination
of TSA and PSA.
•  seeks to establish what the students are like at the start of
the language course, investigating their strength and
weaknesses“
 
•  Sources of information for PSA
•  the students themselves
•  the language teaching establishment
•  the user-institution (e.g. the students’ place of work)

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2. Needs analysis framework

3. Needs analysis framework
Dudley-­‐Evans  &  St.  John  (1998)  
• Target  situation  analysis  (TSA)  
•  objective  &  perceived  needs   Course
TSA –
•  product-­‐oriented  needs   “Necessities” Design PSA –
“Lacks”
 
• Learning  situation  analysis  (LSA)  
•  subjective  &  felt  needs  
•  process-­‐oriented  needs  
• Present  situation  analysis  (PSA)   LSA –
“Wants”
•  strengths  and  weaknesses  in  language,  skills,  learning  
experiences      

3. Needs analysis framework

3. Needs analysis framework
1.  Target Situation Analysis
Group  the  following  statements  under  the  headings  TSA,  LSA  or  
•  Learners, genres, tasks, activities using English, PSA?    
genre knowledge & skills (necessities)
1.  I  need  to  see  vocabulary  written  down.  
2.  Present Situation Analysis 2.  I  have  occasional  meetings  with  British  colleagues.  
•  Previous learning experiences, language 3.  I  find  it  difficult  to  write  persuasively.  
proficiency, cultural information; Means analysis
– resources, time, physical environment, etc. 4.  I  pick  things  up  by  listening.  
(lacks) 5.  Student  X  needs  to  read  more  widely.  
3.  Learning Situation Analysis 6.  I  like  problem  solving.  
•  reasons for attending course and expectations, 7.  I  get  my  tenses  mixed  up.  
attitude to English, preferred ways of learning, 8.  I  hate  group  work.  
styles, strategies (wants) 9.  I  have  to  write  reports.  
10.  My  problem  is  finding  the  right  word.  
.    

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3. Needs analysis framework 3. Needs analysis framework

Graves  (2001)  proposes  a  needs  analysis  framework  with  two  categories,   Hutchinson  and  Waters  (1987)  
information  about  the  future  and  the  present.  Are  the  following  pieces  of  
information  refer  to  the  present  or  the  future?     Target  situation  analysis   Learning  situation  analysis  
1.  Why  is  the  language  needed?   1.  Why  are  the  Ls  taking  the  
1.  Learners’  interests   (e.g.,  for  study,  work)   course?  (e.g.,their  attitudes)  
2.  Learners’  attitudes     2. How  will  the  language  be  used?   2.  How  do  the  Ls  learn  (what  
(speaking  on  the  phone)   methodology  will  appeal  to  
3.  Leaners’  goals  and  expectations   3.  What  will  the  content  areas  be?  
them?)  
3.  What  resources  are  available?  
4.  The  target  contexts:  situation,  roles,  topics,  and  content     (e.g.,  medicine)   (materials,  trained  ESP  
5.  Learners’  level  of  language  proficiency     4. Who  will  the  Ls  use  the  language   teachers?  
with?  (native/non-­‐native   4.  Who  are  the  Ls?  (age,  
6.  Language  modalities  they  will  use  (read  or  listen  or  speak…?)   speakers,  customers/colleagues)   nationality,  subject  knowledge)  
7.  Learners’  level  of  intercultural  competence     5.  Where  will  the  language  be  used?   5.  Where  will  the  ESP  course  take  
(meetings  abroad)   place?  (classroom  features)  
8.  Learners’  learning  preferences     6. When  will  the  language  be  used?   6.  When  will  the  ESP  course  take  
place?  (every  day/once  a  week)  
9.  Who  the  learner  are   (concurrently  with  ESP  course/
afterwards;  frequently)  
10. Types  of  communicative  skills  they  will  need  and  tasks  they  will  use  

3. Needs analysis framework 3. Needs analysis framework

A Target Situation Analysis (TSA) Framework
A Target Situation Analysis (TSA) Framework
1- Why is English needed? 4- Who will the learner use English with?
•  For study ? For work? For training?
•  native speakers or non-native?
Hutchinson & Waters (1987) •  level of knowledge of receiver: e.g. expert or layman, student?
•  For a combination of these?
•  For other purposes e.g. status, exam, promotion…?
•  relationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate?
2- How will English be used? 5-Where will English be used?
•  medium: Listening? Speaking? Writing? Reading? Grammar? Pronunciation?
•  physical setting: e.g. office, hotel, workshop, library, lecture hall?
•  test: final tests for high schools, secondary schools, IELTS, TOEFL, TOEIC, CEFR,….
•  human context: e.g. alone, meeting, demonstration or telephone?
•  types of text or discourse: e.g. academic text, lectures, articles,…
•  linguistic context: e.g. in own country or abroad?
6-When will English be used?
3- What will the content areas be? •  concurrently with the course or subsequently?
•  subjects: e.g. environment, nature, language, communication, economics… •  frequently, seldom, in small or large amount?
•  Level: e.g. primary, secondary schools, … Hutchinson & Waters (1987)

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A Learning Needs Analysis (LNA) Framework 3. Needs analysis framework

1- Why are the learners taking the course?
•  compulsory or optional?
•  apparent needs or not?
•  Are status, money, promotion involved?
•  What do learners think they will achieve?
•  Their attitudes toward the English course?
2- How do the learners learn?
•  What is their learning background?
•  What is their concept of teaching & learning?
•  What methodology will appeal to them?
•  What sort of techniques are likely to bore/interest them?
3- What resources are available?
•  number and professional competence of teachers?
•  attitude of teachers towards English?
•  teachers' knowledge of and attitude towards the subject content?
•  materials aids?
•  opportunities for out-of-class activities
A Learning Needs Analysis (LNA) Framework
4- Who are the learners?
•  age/sex/nationality Hutchinson & Waters (1987)
Hutchinson & Waters (1987)
•  what do they know already about English?
•  what subject knowledge do they have?
•  what are their interest?
•  what is their socio-cultural background?
•  What teaching styles they are used to?
•  their attitude towards English ?
5- Where will the English course take place?
•  are the surrounding pleasant, dull, noisy, too hot?
6- When will the English course take place?
•  time of day?
•  everyday/once a week?
•  full-time/part-time?
•  concurrent with needs or pre-needs?

3. Needs analysis framework

•  Match each terms with its definition.
Dudley-­‐Evans  &  St.  John  (1998,  p.  125)  
personal   A.   ______:  the  tasks  and  activities  learners  are/will  be  
information   using  English  for  –  target  situation  analysis  and  
about  learners   1.  the  learners’  lacks   objective  needs  
professional   English  language   2.  professional  information   B. ______:  factors  which  may  affect  the  way  they  learn  
information   information   about  the  learners   such  as  previous  learning  experiences,  cultural  
about  learners   about  learners   information,  reasons  for  attending  the  course  and  
Environmental   3.  English  language   expectations  of  it,  attitude  to  English  –  wants,  means  ,  
situation   information  about  the  
how  to   subjective  needs  
learners    
communicate   learners’  lack  
4.  personal  information   C. ______:  what  their  current  skills  and  language  use  are  
in  the  target   –  present  situation  analysis  –  which  allows  us  to  assess  
situation   learners’  needs   about  the  learners:    
(D)  
language   from  course  
learning  needs  
23   D. ______:  the  gap  between  (C)  and  (A)    
What  needs  analysis  establishes  

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•  Match each term with its definition. 4. Needs analysis process

Task:  Rearrange  the  step  below  into  a  meaningful  process.    
1.  Gathering  the  information;  
5.  language  learning  
2.  Evaluating  the  effectiveness  of  the  action  
information   G.  ______:  What  is  wanted  from  the  course  
6.  environmental   E.  ______:  effective  ways  of  learning  the  skills  and   3.  Interpreting  information  (needs  analysis)  
situation   language  in  (D)  –  learning      needs   4.  Deciding  what  information  to  gather  and  why;  
7.  learners’  needs  from   F.  ______:  knowledge  of  how  language    and  skills  are   5.  Acting  on  the  information  
the  course   used  in  the  target  situation  –  linguistic  analysis,  discourse  
analysis,  genre  analysis   6.  Deciding  the  best  way  to  gather  it:  when,  how  and  from  
8.  Professional  
communication   H.  ______:  information  about  the  environment  in  which   whom;  
information  about  the  TS   the  course  will  be  run  –  means  analysis  

4. Needs analysis process 4. Needs analysis process

Grave  (2000,  p.  100):   Grave  (2000,  p.  100):  
1.  Deciding  what  information  to  gather  and  why;  
2.  Deciding  the  best  way  to  gather  it:  when,  how  and  from  
whom;  
3.  Gathering  the  information;  
4.  Interpreting  information  (needs  analysis)  
5.  Acting  on  the  information  
6.  Evaluating  the  effectiveness  of  the  action  
7.  (back  to  1)  Deciding  on  further  or  new  information  to  gather.  

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4. Needs analysis process 4. Needs analysis process

When  should  one  do  needs  assessment?     What  are  some  factors  that  can  influence  the  needs  analysis  process?    
1.  The  purpose  of  the  course  
-­‐ Pre-­‐course  
•  takes  place  prior  to  the  start  of  the  course   2.  Your  beliefs    
•  gives  information  about  content,  goals,  objects,  activities,  materials     •  about  language  learning  
•  pinpoint  learners’  strengths  and  weaknesses  
•  about  language  teaching  
•  places  students  in  the  right  course  at  the  right  level      
-­‐ Initial   3.  Information  you  already  have  about  the  students  
•  takes  place  during  the  initial  stage  of  the  course:  the  first  few  lessons   4.  Only  gather  information  that  you  can  use    
or  the  first  week  or  weeks  
-­‐ On-­‐going     à  You  should  make  sure  that  you  can  draw  some  implications  /  
•  takes  place  throughout  the  course   conclusions  from  the  results  of  the  needs  analysis  for  YOUR  OWN  
•  based  on  shared  experience  à  changes  the  course  in  progress     COURSE.    

5: Needs analysis: sources of data

Food for thought...
•  Brainstorm  on  methods  of  gathering  data,  for   •  Literature:  published  (e.g.,  research  articles)  and  
example  questionnaires,  and  then  try  to  group   unpublished  (e.g.,  in-­‐house  reports)  
them.     •  Learners:  current  and  former  
•  Brainstorm  on  sources  of  data,  such  as  employers,   •  Teachers  and  applied  linguists  
and  also  try  to  group  them.     •  Domain  experts  /subject  specialists  
•  What  categories  can  you  think  of?     •  Employers  
•  Can  you  make  links  between  items  in  the  two  lists?   •  Documents  
Which  methods  are  more  suitable  for  which   •  Triangulated  sources  
sources?    
32  

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6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments 6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments
•  Interviews  (structured,  semi-­‐structured,  unstructured)  
•  Questionnaires   Source   Method  
•  Language  audits:  used  to  plot  the  role  of  a  foreign  language  in   Documents   ESP  research  analysis,  questions  in  structured  
an  enterprise  
interviews  
•  determine  the  language  needed  for  a  job  
Colleagues   discussion,  record  keepings  
•  determine  the  present  ability  of  the  learner    
•  Lesson  observations   Learners,  ex-­‐students   questionnaires,  structured  interviews,  
assessments    
•  Diaries  and  logs  
People  working   observation  
•  Discourse  analysis  (spoken  and  written)  using  genre  analysis,  
computer-­‐based  analysis,  etc.   Clients,  employers   structured  interviews,  discussion    
•  Tests   33   34  

Excerpted  from  Dudley  &  St.  John  (1998,  p.  270)    

•  Triangulated  methods  

6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments 6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments

Interviews:     Checklists  and  questionnaires:    

•  Consist  of:  structured,  semi-­‐structured  and  unstructured  interviews.   Ø Checklists  are  narrower  in  scope  and  more  commonly  used    for  a  
•  Structured  interviews  consist  of  questions  which  have  been  carefully  
qualitative  feel.  They  can  determine  facts  or  attitudes.  
thought  out  and  selected  in  advance.    
Ø Of  the  attitude  scales  the  easiest  to  construct  is  an  adjective  
•  Structured  interviews  should  be  recorded  so  that  the    interviewer  can  
really  listen  rather  than  take  lots  of  notes.     checklist.  

•  The  art  is  to  gain  the  maximum  relevant  information  in  the  minimum  time.     Ø The  Likert  scale  consists  of  statements  that  respondents  agree  or  
•  Key  skills  for  interviewers  are  active  listening,  summarising  and  asking   disagree  with.    
open  questions.   35 36
Ø Rating  scales  are  easier  to  use  and  useful  for  broad  distinctions.  

 
 

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6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments 6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments
Questionnaires  &  Interviews:  Create  a  table  to  show  the  relationship  among  an  
item  on  a  questionnaire  and  the  research  questions  and  the  variables  (what  you   Observation:    
need  to  measure,  investigate  or  control).     •  Observation  can  cover  a  range  of  activities  from  watching  a  particular  
task  being  performed  to  shadowing  individuals  at  work.  
•  EAP  examples  of  observation  for  needs  analysis  include  sitting  in  on  
subject  lectures  or  practical  sessions.  
•  Observations  have  led  to  an  understanding  of  how  and    when  English  
and  the  L1  are  intertwined,  of  the  code-­‐switching  which  often  goes  on.    
•  In  EOP  situations,  any  relevant  work  processes  may  be  observed.    
•  Most  observation  or  shadowing  is  for  Target  Situation  Analysis(TSA)  
purposes  but  it  could  be  for  the  Present  Situation  Analysis  (PSA)  of  a  
37
particular  individual.   38

6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments 6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments
Observation:     Analysis  of  authentic  texts:    
•  Most  observation  for  evaluation  is  of  classroom  activity  ,  but  it  could   •  The  texts  can  be  written  documents  or  audio  and  video  recordings  of  
also  include  seeing  how  well  a  learner  was  coping  with  using  the   events  such  as  lectures,  meetings,  telephone  interactions,  classroom  
language  in  their  work  or  studies.     activities.  

•  Classroom  observation  requires  careful  groundwork  and  handling.     •  The  analysis  may  be  for  TSA  purposes,  to  determine  the  key  linguistic  
features  of  a  communicative  event  or  genre  that  is  new  to  us.  
•  After  the  session,  observer  and  teacher  should  share  their  
perceptions  of  what  was  happening.     •  Authentic  texts  are  invaluable  for  learning  about  real  and  carrier  
content.  
•  The  early  comments  must  focus  on  positive  features.  Beginning  with  
negative  comments  sets  up  the  wrong  perspective.  
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6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments 6. Needs analysis: data collection instruments
Assessment:     Discussion  
•  Assessment  includes  formal  and  informal  judgements  of  students’   •  Discussions  can  pave  the  way  in  both  needs  analysis  and  
performance  and  progress  through  classwork,  assignments  and  tests.     evaluation  to  other  methods  such  as  interviewing  and  observing  
or  be  an  end  in  themselves.    
•  Testing  or  assignments  may  form  part  of  a  pre-­‐course  PSA  or  
evaluate  progress.  Issues  of  assessment  and  testing  are  covered  in   Record  keeping  
chapter  11.   •  What  is  needed  in  record  keeping  is  systematicity:  records  must  
be  made  immediately.  
 
 

41 42

7. Needs analysis: Data collectors 9. Needs analysis: examples

Both  outsiders  or  insiders  could  be  involved.     Concept Question

Ø Outsiders:  do  not  know  the  situation  and  the  environment  à  may   1- Why is English What is your main reason for
miss  or  misinterpret  data.  
needed? taking the IELTS test?
Ø Insiders:  have  a  feel  for  the  situation,  but  can  be  too  close  and   For study ? For work? A. To gain scholarships
involve,  lack  expertise.   For training? B. To get promotion
For a combination of C. To get a job
Ø à  A  known,  respected  outsider  +  insiders  is  one  alternative   these? D. To join youth exchange
(Alderson  and  Scott,  1992:36/7)   For other purposes e.g. programs
Ø Outsiders  can  be  others  in  the  same  institution  who  are  not  involved   status, exam, E. Others. Please specify
with  the  course.     promotion…? ………………………………………

Ø Complete  outsiders  are  most  likely  to  be  used  both  for  needs  
analysis  and  evaluation  on  large-­‐scale  projects  with  external  funding.  43     Learners’ needs for IELTS Writing Course (Band 6.0)

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9. Needs analysis: examples 9. Needs analysis: examples

Concept Questions What is wrong with each of these questions?

6- When will the 1. What time of the day do you want to 1. Do you find your class useful and interesting?
English course learn?
take place? A. In the morning Yes [ ] No [ ]
B. In the afternoon
n time of day? C.  In the evening 2. Do you talk a lot in the class?
n everyday/ 2. How often do you wish to learn?
once a week? A. Every day a lot [ ] a little [ ] not much [ ]
n full-time/part- B. Two days a week
C. Once a week 3. Does your lecturer give enough opportunity for
time? D.  Others. Please specify ………………… every student to express his/her own views in class?
n concurrent 3. How long do you want each lesson to
with needs or last? (Maximum: 3 hours) Yes [ ] No [ ]
pre-needs? ……………………………………………………… 4. Do you prefer a friendly student-centered approach
to a rigid teacher-dominated approach?
Learners’ needs for IELTS Writing Course (Band 6.0)
Yes [ ] No [ ]

9. Needs analysis: examples 9. Needs analysis: examples

5. What qualifications does your lecturer have? 8. How much individual consultation with the
Diploma [ ] B.A/B.Ed [ ] lecturer would you like to have for each
M.A/M.Ed [ ] Ph.D [ ] assignment?

6. If a student's utterance is linguistically deviant and _________ hours

peer-correction does not occur, does the lecturer 9. What is your opinion of the course?
usually give a non-metalinguistic response?
_______________________________________________
Yes [ ] No [ ]
_______________________________________________
7- Which of the following causes you difficulty in the
10. Do you use a lot of English in your work?
course?
a lot [ ] a little [ ] not much [ ]
understanding lecture? [ ]
11. Do you need spoken or written English?
reading textbook? [ ]
Yes [ ] No [ ]
writing essay? [ ]

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9. Needs analysis: examples 10. Your own course

In  your  group  of  4  or  5,  work  on  your  needs  analysis  scheme.  Take  the  
•  We  have  begun  a  rating  scale  for  use  after  any  lesson.     following  points  into  consideration.    
•  Devise  a  suitable  scale  for  points  3,  4,  5,  and  6.     1.  What  information  does  it  gather?    
1.  Teacher’s  presentation  of  the  lesson.    []  poor  _    _    _    _    _    []  excellent   2.  Who  is  involved  and  why?    
2.  Usefulness  of  the  exercises.  []  low  _    _    _    _    _    []  high  
3.  What  skills  are  necessary  to  carry  it  out?  Is  preparation  needed?  In  
other  words,  are  the  students  familiar  with  this  type  of  activity  or  
3.  Interest  of  the  topic.   do  they  have  to  be  taught  how  to  do  it?  

4.  Amount  you  learnt     4.  Is  the  activity  feasible  given  the  level  and  number  of  your  
students?  How  could  you  adapt  it?    
5.  Pace  of  the  lesson   5.  Is  the  activity  focused  only  on  gathering  information  which  you  
will  analyze  or  does  it  also  ask  students  to  
6.  Overall  assessment  of  the  lesson.     •  identify  problems  and  solutions?    
•  Think  of  a  particular  lesson  (such  as  reading,  writing,  expressing  cause   •  identify  priorities?    
and  effect)  and  devise  an  additional  four  points  and  scales.     6.  How  will  the  teachers  and  learners  use  this  information?    
After  20  minutes,  the  group  will  present  briefly  their  needs  analysis  
scheme  to  the  whole  class.    

11. References
Creswell,  J.  W.  (2009).  Research  design:  qualitative,  quantitative,  
and  mixed  methods  approaches  (3rd  ed.).  Los  Angeles:  Sage  
Publications.    
Dudley-­‐Evans,  T.,  &  St.  John,  M.  J.  (1998).  Developments  in  
English  for  specific  purposes:  A  multi-­‐disciplinary  approach.  
Cambridge,  Cambridge  University  Press.    
Graves,  K.  (2000).  Designing  language  courses:  A  guide  for  
teachers.  Boston:  Heinle  &  Heinle.  
Hutchinson,  T.  &  Waters,  A.  (1987).  English  for  specific  purposes:  
A  learning-­‐centered  approach.  Cambridge,  Cambridge  
University  Press.  
Richards,  J.  C.  (2001).  Curriculum  development  in  language  
education.  Cambridge:  Cambridge  University  Press.  
Robinson,  P.  (1980).  ESP:  The  current  position.  Oxford,  
Pergamon.      

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