SLOT 17

SIMPLYING COMPLEX SENTENCES _____________________

WHY IT'S USEFUL Simplifying complex sentences means identifying the essential
information in long, complicated sentences. Learning to do this will enable you to
read more quickly and improve your comprehension. Identifying the essential parts
in a sentence is also necessary for writing summaries and the main ideas and
supporting details in a text.

ELEMENTS OF A CLAUSE ____________________________

The five most basic parts of a clause are: subject (S), verbs (V), objects (O),
complements (C) and adjuncts (A).

Parts Descriptions
Subject the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the
sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is
about. The simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun and
can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
Verb a word or phrase that describes an action, condition, or
experience.
Object a noun or noun phrase that is affected by the action of a verb or
that follows a preposition
Complement a part of a clause that usually follows the verb in English and adds
more information about the subject or object
Adjunct an adverb or phrase that gives extra information in a sentence.

Table 01. Elements of a clause

Examples:
S V O C A

He was laughing. the house.

The man built
Joe loved her children happy. very much.
We are
She makes us angry. yesterday.
They make her sad

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REMEMBER:

1. All clauses must have at least a S and a V.

2. Intransitive verbs (laugh, cry, die,…) do not take objects.
3. Transitive verbs (fix, buy, take,…) take objects.
4. There are two types of complements: object complements and subject
complements. For example: sad in “She is sad” is Csubject and sad in “I
make her sad” is Cobject.
5. Transitive / Linking verbs (be, feel, get,…) take complements.
6. Adjunct is supplementary, and therefore not essential.

TASK 1: Determine the structures of the following sentences:

Example: 0. Ireland / kept / European culture / alive / during the Dark Ages.
S V O C A

1. White teenage girls define beauty in terms of physical perfection.

2. Black teenage girls define it in terms of the attitude.
3. In many single-parent families, choices don't happen.
4. Anne Tyler wrote the book in our living room.
5. We played snooker after dinner.
6. The performance lasted four hours.
7. He appointed Ruth secretary.
8. Gerald gave Helen roses.
9. That sounds a good idea.
10. The children played in the garden all afternoon.
11. I observed John in the garden.
12. Fast cars and motorcycles are dangerous.
13. John made Mary a good husband.
14. He made her career a success.
15. In America most students are now on vacation.
16. Everyone considered Pat an imposter.
17. He hurried.
18. I imagined her beautiful.
19. He's getting angry.
20. He got through the window.
21. I was walking my dog.

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 22. My dog was walking.
23. They narrowed the road.
24. The road became narrower.
25. The door opened.
26. The key opened the door.
27. He got her a splendid present.
28. The flowers have died.
29. The frost has killed the flowers.
30. He'll get a surprise.

TYPOLOGY OF CLAUSES ____________________________

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. There are two types of
clauses: independent clauses (also: main clauses) and dependent clauses (also:
subordinate clauses). A subordinate clause can function as an adjective, an adverb,
or a noun. They are, respectively, called adjective clauses, adverb clauses and noun
clauses. The diagram below depicts how clauses in English is classified.

NOUN I didn't know what she

DEPEDENT CLAUSES said.
ADJECTIVE The boy who loves you is

CLAUSES CLAUSES George.

CLAUSES ADVERB When he came, we were

CLAUSES cooking.
INDEPENDENT Because it rained, I didn't

CLAUSES go to school.

*
Figure 01. Types of clauses in English

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Types of clauses Examples Proof
Adjective My friend who has Proof that it is an adjective:

clauses autism is brilliant at My autistic friend is brilliant at

(Also: Relative quizzes.
clauses) quizzes.
Noun clauses I cannot remember what Proof that it is a noun:

happened last night. I cannot remember a thing.

Adverb He put on weight when he Proof that it is an adverb:

clauses
stopped running.
He put on weight quickly.

Table 02. Types of dependent clauses in English language

1. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

An adjective clause, or relative clause, is a type of dependent clause that works

to describe a noun in a sentence. It functions as an adjective even though it is
made up of a group of words instead of just one word. In the case of an adjective
clause, all the words work together to modify the noun or pronoun.

NP AC
Neil Armstrong was the man who set foot on the moon.

The following chart represent the basic form of an adjective clause:

WHO(M)
WHICH
adverbspronouns

+(S)+V+…
Relative

THAT

N(,) + <blank>
WHERE
Relative

WHEN +S+V+…
WHY

Examples:
§ Neil Armstrong was the first man who set foot on the moon.

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 § The woman that you met yesterday was Jane.
§ The mail which was received this morning was for Sam.
§ I hardly know anything about Jerry, whom I haven’t met for years.
§ Could you tell me the name of the man whose dog bit you?
§ This is the house where I live.
§ She forgot the moment when I first saw her.
§ Can you tell me the reason why you are late?

TASK 2: Each of the following sentences contains more than one clause.
Underline the connectors. Highlight the adjective clauses. Then indicate if the
sentences are correct or incorrect.

Statements Correct Incorrect

1. It is important to fill out the form in the way that you
have been instructed.
2. The car which I having been driving for five years for
sale at a really good price.
3. I just finished reading the novel whom the professor
suggested for my book report.
4. The plane that he was scheduled to take to Hawaii was
delayed.
5. The movie which we watched on cable last night it was
really frightening.
6. I made an appointment with the doctor whom you
recommended.
7. The enthusiasm with which he greeted me made me
feel welcome.
8. The story that you told me about Bob.
9. The men with whom were having the discussion did not
seem very friendly.
10.I'm not really sure about taking part in the plans that we
made last night.

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2. NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses can act
as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, or objects of a
preposition.

The basic form of a noun clause is:

WH(EVER)
THAT
+(S)+V+…

IF
WHETHER

Examples:

§ My greatest asset is that I am a hard worker.

§ It’s important to think about why we make certain decisions.
§ Whichever restaurant you pick is fine with me.
§ That she passed the test surprised me.
§ I doubt whether it'll work.

TASK 3: Each of the following sentences contains more than one clause.
Underline the connectors. Highlight the noun clauses. Then indicate if the
sentences are correct or incorrect.

Statements Correct Incorrect

1. When the season starts is determined by the weather.
2. The manual how the device should be built.
3. The schedule indicated if the teams would be playing in
the final game.
4. He refused to enter a plea could not he determined by
the lawyer.
5. Talked about where we should go for lunch.
6. Why the condition of the patient deteriorated so rapidly
it was not explained.
7. Whether or not the new office would be built was to be
determined at the meeting.
8. That the professor has not yet decided when the paper
is due.

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 9. The contract will be awarded is the question to be
answered at the meeting.
10.He always talked with whomever he pleased and did
whatever he wanted.

3. ADVERB CLAUSE

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that acts as an adverb. Adverbial

clauses are very useful in sentences, and there are many types that express
different things: place, time, reason, condition, degree/comparison, concession,
and manner, among others. They function as adjuncts in a sentence.

The basic form of an adverb clause is:

,
Subordinating conjunction + S + V +… main clause.

Here is a chart to help you understand the different types of adverb clauses.

Types of Common subordinating

adverb Examples
conjunctions
clauses
Place where, wherever, My brother can go anywhere he
anywhere wants.
after, until, before, by

Time the time, since,
when, while, as long
as, as soon as
Reason since, because, as
Condition if, unless, as long as,
provided that, lest
Degree / as… as, more than,
Comparison less than, than
You can’t have ice-cream until you
have your dinner.
My dad won’t eat carrots because he
doesn’t like them.
If the boy has a burger, he won’t
want to eat carrots.
Ants love candy as much as humans
do.

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Concession although, even While I used to love candy, I don’t
though, even if,
/ Contrast like it anymore.
while,
Manner as, as if, as though The rabbits are eating those carrots
as they have never been fed.
We need to buy some tomatoes in
Purpose in order that, so that order that we can make some soup
for the children.
Result so… that, such… The soup was so hot that it burned
that my tongue.

Table 03. Types of adverb clauses in English language

TASK 4: Each of the following sentences contains more than one clause.
Underline the connectors. Highlight the adverb clauses. Then indicate if the
sentences are correct or incorrect.

Statements Correct Incorrect

1. It is impossible to enter that program if you lack
experience as a teacher.
2. The commandant left strict orders about the passes,
several soldiers left the post anyway.
3. No one is admitted to the academy unless he or she the
education requirements.
4. While most students turned the assignment in on time,
a few asked for an extension.
5. I will take you wherever need to go to complete the
registration procedures.
6. I will wait here in the airport with you whether the plane
leaves on time or not.
7. Providing the envelope is postmarked by this Friday,
your application still acceptable.
8. As the nurse already explained all visitors must leave
the hospital room now.

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 9. This exam will be more difficult than usual in that it
covers two chapters instead of one.
10.Though snow had been falling all day long, everyone
got to the church on time for the wedding.

TASK 5: Determine the best answer for each of the following questions:

1. Which describes a clause?

A. A clause is the same as a phrase.
B. A clause is a group of words that functions as one part of speech and that
includes a subject and a verb.
C. A clause is half a sentence.

2. Which describes an independent clause?

A. An independent clause expresses a complete thought.
B. An independent clause always starts a sentence.
C. An independent clause is half a sentence.

3. Select the example with an independent clause in bold.

A. Even though he likes jam, he hates marmalade.
B. Even though he likes jam, he hates marmalade.

4. Which describes a dependent clause?

A. A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) is one that cannot stand alone as
a complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought.
B. A dependent clause can be a simple sentence.

5. Select the example with a dependent clause in bold.

A. The wax is melting because it's too hot.
B. The wax is melting because it's too hot.

6. Select the example with an independent clause in bold.

A. Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily.
B. Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily.

7. Select the example with a dependent clause in bold.

A. Your sauce has ruined my hamburger, which is not funny.
B. Your sauce has ruined my hamburger, which is not funny.

8. Select the example with a noun clause in bold.

A. Whoever designed this maze is a genius.
B. The quality of this maze is quite astounding.

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9. Select the example with an adjective clause in bold.
A. Snowflakes the size of postage stamps fell gracefully from the clouds.
B. Snowflakes the size of which I've never seen before filled the air.

10. Select the example with an adverbial clause in bold.

A. My alarm always wakes me just as I'm about to succeed in my dream.
B. My alarm clock, which was a present from my daughter, always wakes me
at the wrong time.

11. Select the example with a noun clause in bold.

A. I was watching you like a hawk scans for rodents.
B. I saw what you did yesterday.

12. Select the example with a restrictive clause in bold.

A. The boy who stole your bike has been caught.
B. The police are questioning Trevor Jones, who handed himself in yesterday.

13. Select the example with a non-restrictive clause in bold.

A. The dog has eaten my birthday cake, which my wife left on the table to cool.
B. I'm afraid I've eaten all the cakes that you baked yesterday.

14. "Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily."
In this sentence, the clause in bold is functioning as what part of speech?
A. Adjective
B. Noun
C. Adverb

15. Select the example with a dependent clause in bold.

A. He stitched mail sacks until his fingers bled.
B. He stitched mail sacks until his fingers bled.

16. Select the example with a restrictive clause in bold.

A. I know the person who turned the ovens off.
B. Simon Jones, who turned the ovens off, is in trouble.

17. "The boy who stole your bike has been caught."
In this sentence, the clause in bold is functioning as what part of speech?
A. Adjective
B. Noun
C. Adverb

18. Select the example with a restrictive clause in bold.

A. The car that your wife sold me last week has broken down.
B. His car, which is 25 years old, runs like dream.

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TYPOLOGY OF SENTENCES___________________________
There are four types of sentences in English, including: simple sentence,
compound sentence, complex sentence and compound-complex sentence.
Learning about them helps English learners avoid typical grammar mistakes and
build more confidence when using a wide range of grammar in writing.

1. SIMPLE SENTENCES

A simple sentence structure contains one independent clause and no

dependent clauses.

Examples:

§ She was laughing. (SV)

§ I like trains. (SVO)
§ My dog was walking. (SV)
§ The girl ran into her bedroom. (SVO)

2. COMPOUND SENTENCES

In the English language, a compound sentence is composed of at least two

independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are
joined by a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, a
colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences when the second sentence
explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction is being
used to connect the sentences, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon.
A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. Conjunctions are
words such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so (FANBOYS). Examples:

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 Cases Examples
Coordinating
I started on time, but I arrived late.
conjunctions
I woke up late so I ran to the bus stop.
(FANBOYS)

;
I will accept your offer or decline it these are the two
Punctuations

Semicolons
Dashes* options.
He doesn’t know the answer – in fact, he is waiting for
mine.
Colons*
:
The law was passed from April 1, all cars would have to

be tested.
Conjunctive adverb
The war was lost; consequently, the whole country was
preceded by a
occupied.
semicolon

Table 04. How compound sentences are formed in English language

NOTE:

The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses without the addition of
an appropriate conjunction is called a comma splice and is generally considered
an error (when used in the English language). Example:

The sun was shining , everyone appeared happy.

TASK 6: Fill the blank space in the sentences given below, to form a
compound sentence, using only coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS).

1. I requested him many time, …… he did not relent.

2. He is working hard, …… he is making a progress.
3. John is not going to the party, …… he wants to go.
4. Julie wants to eat out, …… she is low on budget.
5. You are in to the game, …… you are out of it.
6. He was scared, …… he acted bravely.
7. Barbie was angry, …… nobody spoke to her.

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 8. He had many options, …… he chose to stay with you.
9. She is writing a letter, …… she is going to regret it later.
10. He was sad, …… he lost his purse.
11. They were talking, …… no teacher was present.
12. He tried really hard, …… failed to achieve.
13. You are driving fast, …… we will be late for the meeting.
14. He is going through a tough time, …… he is calm and composed.
15. You did him a favor, …… he is returning it by helping you.

3. COMPLEX SENTENCES

A complex sentence has one or more dependent clauses (also called

subordinate clauses). Since a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a
sentence, complex sentences must also have at least one independent clause. In
short, a sentence with one or more dependent clauses and at least one
independent clause is a complex sentence.

There are 3 types of complex sentences – each contains a different kind of clause,
namely: adverb clauses, noun clauses and adjective clauses.

Complex sentence
Examples
containing
Adjective clauses
Marie Curie is the woman that discovered radium.
(Also: Relative clauses)

The focus of our work is how we can satisfy

Noun clauses
customers most effectively.

Adverb clauses If you pay your bills on time, you can have a good credit
score.

Table 05. Three types of complex sentences in English language

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4. COMPOUND – COMPLEX SENTENCES

A sentence with two or more independent clauses plus one or more

dependent clauses is called compound-complex or complex-compound.

Example:

§ When we won the state championship , the team captain jumped for joy,
and the fans cheered.

TASK 7: Determine if each sentence is simple, compound or complex.

Sentences Simple Compound Complex

1. The children wore their dirty boots.
2. It was time for bed, yet it was still light
outside.
3. The front door was locked, so she
entered through the back.
4. They took a lot of pictures when they
visited Montana.
5. After the show began, he sat very
quietly.
6. The girl was wearing a red dress.
7. He was playing on his computer.
8. Georges would like to play, for he is the
best player on the team.
9. Before the bell rings, the student lined up
at the door.
10. We turned off the lights.
11. We turned off the lights, and we went to
sleep.
12. We turned off the lights after our mom
told us to go to sleep.

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TASK 8: Underline the independent clauses in the following sentences:
1. James ran over the wet cement, because he wasn't looking properly.
2. After school, I am going to football training.
3. I want to go to bed early, because I am going on holiday tomorrow.
4. If you do your work, you can have a bag of sweets.
5. The boy ran home, carrying his heavy school bag.

TASK 9: Underline the dependent clauses in the following sentences:

1. While I wash the dishes, you set the table.
2. What Kasim enjoys is reading a book on a beautiful day under his favorite tree.
3. Martha truly believes that she will be president of the United States.
4. Cara uses a computer to perform calculations that she cannot do on her own.
5. He may not be home when you call.
6. Li can't go to the park this afternoon because she is going to the art fair.
7. Whoever swims in the deep end is required to pass the swim test.
8. If it rains, Sam has an extra umbrella.

TASK 10: Underline the dependent clauses in the following sentences and
decide what kinds of clauses:
1. The student who owns the wallet may claim it at the school office.
2. This weekend we will wash the car, which badly needs a good scrub.
3. The plant has small orange flowers that open every morning.
4. As soon as I finish my report, let's go to the movies.
5. Although she had never taken piano lessons, she could play very well.
6. Do you know the name of the boy whom we saw on the train?
7. We stopped for a picnic, which was very pleasant.
8. Please accept this gift that I made for you.
9. We practiced our roles in the play until we were sure of our lines.
10. I wonder where we should put the new plant we just bought.

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HOW TO SIMPLIFY COMPLEX SENTENCES_________________
It can be challenging to comprehend sentences that are very long or that contain
complex grammatical structures. There are a variety of strategies you can use to
simplify complex sentences; these may be used alone or in combination.

TECHNIQUE 1. TRY TO IDENTIFY THE KEY WORDS OF A SENTENCE

To do this:
§ Locate the subject, main verb, and object or complement of the clause(s) in
a sentence.
§ Ignore phrases. transitions, adjectives, and adverbs that seem unnecessary
for understanding the main idea.

Example:

Original sentence:
S V O
Since the 1980s, most corporations have followed a model of governance based
S
on shareholder theory, or stockholder theory, which states that a company's
V C
primary responsibility is to increase earnings for its shareholders – the people who

own shares of stock in a company.

Simplified sentence:

Since the 1980s, most corporations have followed a model of governance based
on shareholder theory (also known somewhat confusingly as stockholder
theory), which states that a company's primary responsibility is to increase
earnings for its shareholders, that is, the people who own shares of stock in a
company.

TECHNIQUE 2. BREAK UP A LONG SENTENCE INTO SMALLER PARTS

These smaller parts may correspond to the clauses of the longer sentence. This
makes it possible for you to read and understand each idea in a sentence
separately.

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Example:

Longer sentence:

Since the 1980s, most corporations have followed a model of governance based
on shareholder theory, or stockholder theory, which states that a company's
primary responsibility is to increase earnings for its shareholders – the people who
own shares of stock in a company.

Shorter Sentences:

1. Since the 1980s, most corporations have followed a model of governance

based on shareholder theory.
2. Shareholder theory is also called stockholder theory.
3. Shareholder theory states that a company's primary responsibility is to
increase earnings for its shareholders.
4. Shareholders are the people who own shares of stock in a company.

TECHNIQUE 3. LOOK FOR PUNCTUATION CLUES

Punctuation clues such as commas or dashes may indicate explanations,

examples, and definitions. They help you understand the longer sentence better.

Example:

Since the 1980s, most corporations have followed a model of governance based on

, ,
shareholder theory or stockholder theory which states that a company's primary

responsibility is to increase earnings for its shareholders – the people who own
shares of stock in a company.

TECHNIQUE 4. PAY ATTENTION TO WORDS AND PHRASES THAT SIGNAL

TYPES OF DETAILS.

Example:

Ultimately, values can be the most important deciding factor in a dilemma. For
example, a pacifist might be morally opposed to working for a company that
manufactures items used in war, and that worldview would likely take priority over
the person's other values, such as earning a steady paycheck.

17
TASK 11: Read each sentence. Put a slash (/) between clauses.

1. Clearly, those at the top – business owners and executives – make the most
important decisions that reflect a company's morals and values.
2. In addition, through their decisions, business leaders determine the moral
atmosphere of a company, which influences the ethical decision making of
employees throughout an organization.
3. The market collapse and financial crisis of 2007-2009 , for example, which was
brought about by ethics violations in some of the largest financial institutions in
the United States, is an example of how poor ethical business choices have
implications well beyond a business.
4. Finally, companies should provide feedback – positive or negative – to
employees regarding the way they behave.
5. On the flip side , holding employees – at all levels – accountable for misconduct
sends a clear message that unethical behavior will not be tolerated.
6. Later it was revealed that illegal actions, called "predatory" lending practices,
were widespread at Countrywide and many other mortgage lenders, contributing
to the collapse of the housing market.

TASK 12: Read each sentence again. In each sentence, determine the
subject(s), main verb(s) and object(s) or complement(s).

1. Clearly, those at the top – business owners and executives – make the most
important decisions that reflect a company's morals and values.
2. In addition, through their decisions, business leaders determine the moral
atmosphere of a company, which influences the ethical decision making of
employees throughout an organization.
3. The market collapse and financial crisis of 2007-2009 , for example, which was
brought about by ethics violations in some of the largest financial institutions in
the United States, is an example of how poor ethical business choices have
implications well beyond a business.
4. Finally, companies should provide feedback – positive or negative – to
employees regarding the way they behave.

18
5. On the flip side, holding employees – at all levels – accountable for misconduct
sends a clear message that unethical behavior will not be tolerated.
6. Later it was revealed that illegal actions, called "predatory" lending practices,
were widespread at Countrywide and many other mortgage lenders, contributing
to the collapse of the housing market.

TASK 13: Break down each complex sentence into smaller parts. Compare
your answers with a partner.

1. When whistleblowers, or those who inform on others, are dismissed, or worse,

when they are punished, it sends a message to employees that concerns about
ethical practices in a company do not matter.
2. A third model of corporate governance is known as corporate social
responsibility, or CSR, which says a company should seek not only to make a
profit but also to make a positive impact on the community and the environment.
3. Moreover, for employees to buy into a code of ethics, rules must be fair and
applied to everyone equally, including those at the top.

TASK 14: Work with a partner. Read the excerpts. Simplify the complex
sentences to answer the questions. Discuss your answers to the questions.

Excerpt 1:
Socially responsible companies commit not only to the well-being of employees
and other stakeholders but also to the broader society through such actions as
donating to charities or community organizations, developing environmentally
sustainable products, and reducing waste and energy consumption.

1. Whose well-being do socially responsible companies commit to?

2. How do the companies demonstrate their commitment?

Excerpt 2:
The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which is the regulatory
agency that oversees financial markets, filed a record 868 enforcement actions
against companies in 2016, which amounted to more than $4 billion in fines.

1. Who oversees financial markets?

2. What did the SEC do in 2016?

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3. Who paid more than $4 billion in fines?

TASK 15: Read and use strategies for simplifying the complex sentences from
"Potter's Box for Ethical Decision Making." Then choose the correct answers
to the questions.

One useful guide for reasoning through this process is a theory known as "Potter's
Box," named after ethicist Ralph Potter, who developed the theory in the 1960s
when he was pondering his own ethical position on nuclear weapons.

1. What or who is useful?

A. the process
B. the theory
C. the ethical position
D. the ethicist

If, for example, a pharmaceutical company were selling a drug that might have
negative side effects, the company would need to determine what actions to take,
if any.

2. What is required of the company?

A. sell a drug
B. have side effects
C. take any actions
D. determine actions

In this case, the facts may include the cost of taking the drug off the market, the
studies testing the safety of the drug, the potential good the drug would do if it
stayed on the market, how much corporate officials know about the potential
problem, and what steps have been taken along the way to deal with it.

3. How many facts may be included in the case?

A. three
B. four
C. five
D. six

4. What facts are NOT needed about the drug?

A. the studies into its safety
B. how much it would cost to take it off the market
C. how much corporate leaders know about it
D. the good it could do on the market

20
 For example, a pacifist might be morally opposed to working for a company that
manufactures items used in war, and that worldview would likely take priority over
the person's other values, such as earning a steady paycheck.

5. What is the pacifist's likely priority?

A. working for a company
B. earning a steady paycheck
C. his or her worldview
D. his or her other values

In our hypothetical pharmaceutical case, the leaders of the company would need
to determine what they value as they move forward in the decision-making
process, whether it is the reputation of the company, the health of customers, or
possibly the drive to make a profit.

6. What do the leaders need to figure out?

A. how to move forward
B. their reputation
C. their customer's health
D. what they value

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SLOT 18

USING WORD PARTS TO ANALYZE MEANING _______________

WHY IT'S USEFUL Identifying word parts and their meanings can help you to
learn the form and meaning of new words. This can help you to guess the meaning
of new words as you read, increasing your fluency and comprehension. It can also
help you to learn new words.

PARTS OF SPEECH AND WORD CLASSIFICATION ____________

In traditional grammar, a part of speech (abbreviated as POS or PoS) is a
category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items) that have similar
grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech
generally display similar syntactic behavior—they play similar roles within the
grammatical structure of sentences—and sometimes similar morphology in that
they undergo inflection for similar properties.

Eight or nine parts of speech of English language are commonly listed:

§ noun
§ verb
§ adjective
§ adverb
§ pronoun
§ preposition
§ conjunction
§ interjection
§ determiner

Some modern classifications define further classes in addition to these.

English words are divided into 2 groups: functional words (or grammatical words)
and lexical words (or content words). Only lexical words can change their
forms, parts of speech and/or also meanings.

Lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The others are
functional words.

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TASK 1: Complete the chart with the correct word forms in the corresponding
columns. Use a dictionary if necessary. NOTE: There could be more than one
word in a column.

Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs

inform
government
decisive
beautifully

TASK 2: Use the word in brackets to form a new word that fits into the blank.

1. ............................... have been warning us about the effects of global warming

for many years. (SCIENCE)
2. The boy hit his head so hard that he lost ................................ (CONSCIOUS)
high ...............................
3. According to the weather report there is a of
thunderstorms this afternoon. (PROBABLE)
4. Antibiotics are only ............................... if you take them for a few days.
(EFFECT)
5. Stonehenge is famous for its ............................... architecture. (ASTONISH)

6. You don't have to be afraid of the examination. It's completely

............................... (PAIN).
7. The first settlers came from ............................... islands in the Pacific.
(DISTANCE)
8. The orchestra has given a wonderful ............................... during the previous
season. (PERFORM)
9. The judge came to the ............................... that the witness was lying.
(CONCLUDE)
10. The ............................... of our flight was delayeddue to foggy weather in
London. (ARRIVE)
11. For your own ............................... , please step back from the cages. (SAFE)
12. My sister has been suffering from a bad cough ............................... . (LATE)

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ROOTS, PREFIXES, SUFFIXES & AFFIXES __________________
In many languages, including English, what appear to be single forms actually turn
out to contain a large number of “word-like” elements. For example:

un happi ness
“not” “happy” “the quality of”

→ unhappiness (n.): the quality of being sad / not happy

This is an interesting difference between English and Vietnamese. While English is an

inflectional language, Vietnamese is a non-inflectional one. In the readings for your
courses you will encounter many unfamiliar words, but it is almost certain that you will
not have time to look all of them up. One strategy that can help you to understand new
words more quickly is to learn the different parts that make up English words.

The three basic parts of words are roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Roots are the
basic forms or parts of a word; prefixes and suffixes modify or change the
root. Both prefixes and suffixes are called affixes.

un happi ness
prefix root suffix

TASK 3: Circle the affixes in the following words. Some words may have more
than one affix.

rainy prerecord careful mislead

thoughtful sadness thoughtless overcharge

careless neighborhood realism transmission

liberalism arrangement likelihood weaken

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attendant musician government strengthen
accountant dislike mini-computer teacher

miniskirt smallest overeat expel

politician misuse transfer thoughtlessness

writer explosion dishonor bookish

sunny unusual nearest selfless

Prefixes are a small group of letters added to the beginning of the word. Adding
a prefix to the word changes its meaning. For example:
in- means “not” inactive = “not active”
anti – means ‘against” antivirus = “protected against virus”

TASK 4: The table below presents common prefixes in English language. Give
each row at least two examples.

Prefixes Meanings Examples

bene- good, well
co-, com-, together with
con-, col-, cor-
de-, dis- opposite
en-, em- cause to
e-, ex- out
in-, im- in
inter- between
mis- bad, wrong
pre- before
re- again
un-, in-, im-, ir- not
, il-

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Suffixes are a small group of letters added to the end of the word. Suffixes
usually change a word’s part of speech. For example:
beauty – noun beautify – verb beautiful – adjective

TASK 5: The table below presents common noun suffixes in English language.
Give each row at least two examples.

Suffixes Meanings Examples

-acy state or quality
-ance, -ence, state or quality
-ancy, -ency
-er, -ist, -ian one who
-ion, -sion, state of being, quality,
-tion act
-ity, -ty quality of
-ment condition of
-ness quality of

TASK 6: The table below presents common adjective suffixes in English

language. Give each row at least two examples.

Suffixes Meanings Examples

-able, -ible able to be, worth of
-ary, -ory of or relating to
-ful full of
-ic, -ical, -al, - relating to
ial
-ious, -ous having
-ive having the nature of
-y characterized by

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TASK 7: The table below presents common verb suffixes in English language.
Give each row at least two examples.

Suffixes Meanings Examples

-ate cause to
-en cause to
-ify cause to
-ize, -yze cause to

TASK 8: Use the clues to help you finish each sentence correctly.

§ proved to be false or unbelievable

§ a structure for transporting water
§ a reason to move or take action
§ to brighten or enlighten
§ a set of names or system of naming
§ one who is new at doing something
§ to please, calm, or make peace
§ someone who watches

1. If luminous means giving off light or brightness, then illuminate means .........
............................................................................................................................
2. If a spectacle is something to watch, then a spectator is ................................
............................................................................................................................
3. If credible means able to be believed, then discredit means ..........................
............................................................................................................................
4. If placid means peaceful and calm, then placate means .................................
............................................................................................................................
5. If nominate means to name, appoint, or identify, then a nomenclature is ......
............................................................................................................................
6. If an aquarium is a water environment, then an aqueduct is ..........................
............................................................................................................................
7. If mobile means capable of moving, then motivation means ...........................
............................................................................................................................

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TASK 9: Read the text below. Use the word given in capitals at the end of some
of the lines to form a word that fits in the gap in the same line. There is an
example at the beginning (0).

NEW WATERPROOF CLOTHING

There are few experiences as unpleasant as being 0… bitterly…. BITTER

cold and dripping wet on board a boat. The 1............................... that KNOW
you may be several hours away from warm, dry clothing is enough to
slow down even the 2............................... sailor. TOUGH
However, recent 3............................... developments in the types of SCIENCE

material used to make waterproof clothes have, hopefully, put an end

to the 4............................... of the sailor. New suits, trousers and SUFFER
jackets have been designed which allow people to stay warm and dry
at sea and can be worn 5............................... for days on end. COMFORT
The new clothing is by no means cheap, but that will not stop it from

selling well, and not just in the sailing market. 6............................... LIKE
previous types of waterproof clothing, which tended to leave the
wearer hot, sweaty and sticky even after a 7............................... shod RELATIVE
burst of 8............................... activity, these new clothes are ENERGY
manufactured with an 9............................... inner layer. This is made ADDITION
of a special material which allows the clothes to 'breathe' - in other
words, body heat can escape so that the body stays dry, but still
maintains its 10............................... in all weathers. WARM

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TASK 10: Read the excerpt. Highlight all the prefixes and underline all the
suffixes.

The final point of consideration in Potter's Box is personal principles. Applying

moral principles, or a mode of reasoning, will help the decision maker come to a
rational conclusion. Some examples of different modes of reasoning include end-
based reasoning, virtue-based reasoning, and duty-based reasoning. End-based
reasoning is the idea that doing what is good for the most number of people is the
most ethical decision. End-based reasoning is also known as teleological ethics.
Virtue-based reasoning states that moral decisions are made by pursuing certain
beneficial virtues, such as prudence, fairness, courage, and respect. Finally, duty-
based (or deontological) reasoning is the ethical argument that decisions must be
considered in the context of a person's duty. If a company executive believed a
decision was right because the duties of his position required it, he would, for
example, be rpaking an ethical decision using duty-based reasoning.

TASK 11: Use the prefixes and suffixes in these words to determine their part
of speech and meaning.

Words Part of Speech Meaning

1. predictability
2. cofacilitator

3. beneficial

4. unproductive
5. consciousness

6. implementation

7. misstate

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