Understanding Fractions

3 5 9
21 7 11
8 13
14 11 6 26
9 14 3
Understanding 5
2
7
1 4
1
Fractions
4 10
12
1
5
6
7 6 6 6
3 9 1 8
2
3 6 2
9 12 3
7
10
Programme for Education Tablets in Schools Foundation (PETS)
PETS INSET and Professional Development short course:
Teaching Fractions: Grades 3-5
Adapted from the SAIDE Maths for Primary School Teachers Unit 4 (Fractions)
by Mary Debrick
Afrikaans translation by Riekie Harm
(in collaboration with the teachers of Barrydale High School, B F Oosthiuzen Primary
School, Weltevrede, Lemoenshoek and Vleiplaas farms schools, and the staff of
Net vir Pret.)
This course and the tests can be accessed on the PETS inter-active website:
www.trainingteachers.org.za
which also provides access to additional open-source teaching and learning material
specifically developed for South African schools.
PETS is a non-profit Public Benefit Organisation (PBO 930038834) in partnership with

PRAESA (Nal'ibali), CoZaCares, SAIDE, SchoolNet SA, E-classroom, PEP.
Producted by The PETS Foundation
Printed by Printshop
PETS Inset Programme

Contents
Unit 1: Fractions and wholes ........................................... 1

Numerators and denominators................................................................... 1
Continuous wholes ....................................................................................... 2
Language patterns to describe fractions of continuous wholes.............. 3
What about discontinuous wholes?............................................................ 6
Language patterns for finding fractions of discontinuous wholes.......... 6
Unit fractions ................................................................................................ 9
Full house....................................................................................................... 10
Fractions as a form of division.................................................................... 11
Unit 2: Non-unit fractions................................................ 17

Examples using continuous wholes............................................................ 18
Examples using discontinuous wholes....................................................... 20
Unit 3: More complex fractions....................................... 25

Non-unit fractions of discontinuous wholes............................................. 31
Unit 4: Improper fractions and mixed fractions ............ 36

Converting improper fractions into mixed numbers............................... 36
Converting mixed numbers into improper fractions............................... 42
Like fractions................................................................................................. 47

Unit 5: Equivalent fractions............................................. 49
Equivalence of fractions using a continuous whole.................................. 49
Fractions in "lowest terms"........................................................................... 54
Unit 6: Comparing fractions............................................ 57

Using the fraction wall to compare fractions............................................ 58
The symbols >, < and = ................................................................................ 65
How much bigger in one number than another? ..................................... 67
Comparing fractions using equivalent fractions ...................................... 68
Using decimals to comparing fractions ..................................................... 70
Unit 7: Addition and subtraction of fractions................ 71

Unit 1 Fractions and wholes
Fractions can be used to represent numbers which are not whole

numbers. As such, they are slightly more difficult to understand than
whole numbers.
We will look in detail at sound methods for teaching of fractions to young

learners. You should be able to follow these ideas and ensure that all of the
information given is part of your own knowledge. It is vital that you really
understand fractions yourself.
Once learners have developed an understanding of fractions as parts

of wholes, they can move on to rational numbers, ratios, decimals and
percentages.
Fractions look like this:

12 numerator
17
denominator
Numerators and denominators

We call the numeral above the line the numerator and the numeral below
the line the denominator.
12
So this 17 is a fraction numeral. Now we need to find out what number
this represents.
You need to ensure that learners are given adequate exposure to a great
variety of examples of fractions in concrete demonstrations, so that
they are able to form their own abstract concept of what the fraction
represents.

2 Unit 1
We can find fractions of a single object, like a pie or a piece of paper, or

else of a group of things, like a box of chocolates or a collection of pencils.
We call a single object which is divided a continuous whole and a group
of similar things which is divided a discontinuous whole. So the pie or
piece of paper is continuous whole and the box of chocolates and the
collection of pencils are discontinuous wholes.
Learners do not need to be able to distinguish between continuous wholes

and discontinuous wholes. What they need to be able to do is understand
the concept of dividing a whole into a number of parts of equal size, and
how to find those parts. You, however, need to give the same amount
of time to continuous and discontinuous wholes. This will ensure that
learners understand how to divide both types and find fractions of
continuous and discontinuous wholes. So you need to give both types of
whole the same amount of time in the classroom.
To assist learners to establish any concept, we must be very careful that we

use good, accurate language. We use language to develop our concepts, so
by talking about what learners see, we help them transfer what they see in
concrete demonstrations into abstract thought.
Continuous wholes
A continuous whole is a single item which is cut/folded/broken/divided
into parts of equal size in one way or another to find its fraction parts. It
is very important is that the pieces are of equal size (they are exactly the
same size).
Examples we can use for a continuous whole are:

An orange, a piece of paper, a slab of chocolate, a circular disc, a loaf of
bread. Can you list five more examples of continous wholes?

Fractions and wholes 3
Language patterns to describe fractions of

continuous wholes
Example 1.1
1
Find 2 of this circle:
1 1
To find 2 of an object we need to understand what 2 means:
The 1 stands for 1 piece of the whole

The 2 stands for the number of equal parts the whole is divided into
1
So to find 2 of the circle.
• Begin with the whole circle.

• We divide it into 2 parts of equal size (the denominator is 2).
These are now all called ‘halves’.
• We shade one of these ‘halves’ (the numerator is 1).
1
• We have shaded 2 of the whole circle.

4 Unit 1
Example 1.2
1
Find 6 of this pizza.
1 1
To find 6 of the pizza we need to understand what 6 means:
1 The ‘1’ stands for 1 piece of the whole

6 The ‘6’ stands for the number of equal parts the whole is divided into
1
So to find 6 of the pizza.
• Begin with the whole pizza.

• We divide it into 6 parts of equal size (the denominator is 6) .
These are now all called ‘sixths.’
• We shade one of these ‘sixths’ (the numerator is 1).
1
• We have shaded 6 of the whole circle.

Example 1.3
1
Find 5 of this sheet of paper.
1
To find 5 of an object we need to understand what 15 means:
1 The ‘1’ stands for 1 piece of the whole

5 The ‘5’ stands for the number of equal parts the whole is divided into
1
So to find 5 of the sheet of paper.
• Begin with the whole sheet of paper.
• We divide it into 5 parts of equal size (the denominator is 5).
These are now all called ‘fifths.’
• We shade one of these ‘fifths’(the numerator is 1).
1
• We have shaded 5 of the sheet of paper.
Can you think up some other examples for finding fractions of

continuous wholes?

6 Unit 1
What about discontinuous wholes?

Remember, a discontinuous whole is a group of similar items that
together make up the whole. Examples we can use for discontinuous
wholes are 10 pencils, 8 apples, 36 biscuits.
Can you think of other continuous wholes you could use in the
classroom?
Language patterns for finding fractions of

discontinuous wholes
Here are some examples for finding a fraction of a discontinuous whole:
Example 1.4
1
Find 4 of 12 cookies.
12 cookies represent the whole.
1
What does 4 mean?
1 one part of the whole

4 the whole has been divided into 4 groups of equal size
• ecause the denominator (the numeral at the bottom of the

B
fraction) is 4, we need to divide the 12 cookies into 4 groups of
equal size.
• Each group must have exactly the same number of cookies.

• The groups will each have 3 cookies in them.
We have coloured in 1 of these groups because the numerator (the

numeral at the top of the fraction) is 1.
1
So 4 of 12 cookies is 3 cookies.
Example 1.5
1
Find 8 of 32 counters
1
The meaning of 8 :

32 counters represent the whole.
Because the denominator (the numeral at the bottom of the fraction) is

8, we need to divide the 32 counters into 8 groups of equal size. Each
group must have exactly the same number of counters. The groups will
each have 4 counters in them.

8 Unit 1

1
So 8 of 32 counters is 4 counters.
Example 1.6
1
Find 5 of 10 apples
1
The meaning of 5 :

10 Apples represent the whole

Because the denominator (the numeral at the bottom of the fraction)

is 5 we need to divide the 10 apples into 5 groups of equal size. Each
group must have exactly the same number of apples. The groups will
each have 2 apples in them.

1
So 5 of 10 apples is 2 apples.
Unit Fractions
When you introduce fractions to learners, you will begin by using unit
fractions. A unit fraction is a fraction where the numerator (the numeral
at the top) is 1 and the denominator (the numeral at the bottom) can
1
be any number. We say that a unit fraction has the form n , where the n
represents any number.
Very important: Because you need to divide the discontinuous whole

into an exact number of equal groups (groups of exactly the same size),
you will begin by using groups of a number such that the denominator
(the numeral at the bottom of the fraction) divides into the number of
objects in the whole exactly. So you would divide 25 pencils into 5 groups
1
or 40 oranges into 8 groups. In other words you to find 5 of 25 pencils
1
(the denominator, 5, divides exactly into 25). Or you to find 8 of 40
oranges (the denominator 8, divides exactly into 40).

10 Unit 1
See for yourself what happens if the denominator does not divide exactly
1
into the number of objects in the whole, for example 7 of 10 apples.
Activity 1.1
Illustrate and record your solutions to the following questions:
1
1. Find 4 of the rectangle given below:
Record your language pattern.
1
2. Find 9 of 27 beads, as given below:
Record your language pattern.
3. N
ow try these additional exercises (illustrate and give the language
pattern each time):
1
a. Find 3 of 30 biscuits.
1
b. Shade 10 of a 15 cm long strip of paper.
1
c. Illustrate and explain how to find 6 of a circular cake.
1
d. Find 4 of 20 beads.
Full House
You could turn some of your fraction finding into games or activities. In
this way, you could keep the learners busy for slightly longer periods of
time, while they are learning and discovering ideas in an interesting and
enjoyable way.

In this example, learners are given 20 counters. They must then try to
find all the possible fraction parts that they can of 20. They could work in
groups of two to four members (not more, as they would not have enough
of a chance to express themselves). The discussion of the different fraction
parts, could go on in the whole group. Once the group thinks that they
have found all the possible fraction parts they can put up their hands
and say “Full House!”, to call you to come and check up on them. As a
follow up, ask each learner to record in full and good language one of the
fraction parts which they found. Try this activity out yourself!
Look around for other ideas of games and activities, or make them up
yourself and share them with your colleagues. Record your ideas so that
you don’t forget them!
Fractions as a form of division

Example 1.7
1
Find 6 of 18 counters.
Do this yourself and you should come to the conclusion that

1
6
of 18 counters is 3 counters.
Now note that 18 ÷ 6 is also 3. Check this out with all the other
examples you have done with discontinuous wholes.
1
You should come to the conclusion that n of m = m ÷ n
NB: Don’t panic about the use of letters. It is just a way of generalising
what you have found out already,

12 Unit 1
For example:
1
• 5 of 30 = 30 ÷ 5 = 6;
1
• 7
of 14 = 14 ÷ 7 = 2;
1
• 12
of 36 = 36 ÷ 12 = 3.
Once you are satisfied that your learners have established this general
rule, you can move on to finding non-unit fractions (fractions where the
numerator is not one). We will discuss these in the next section.
Activity 1.2
Complete the following:
1 1
1. 2
of 4 = 4 ÷ ? = ? 2. ?
of 10 = 10 ÷ 5 = ?
1 1
3. 12
of ? = 24 ÷ 12 = ? 4. 6
of 18 = ? ÷ ? = 3
1 1
5. ?
of 12 = ? ÷ 3 = ? 6. 7
of 14 = ? ÷ ? = ?
1 1
7. ?
of ? = 15 ÷ 3 = 5 8. ?
of 24 = 24 ÷ ? = 8
1 1
9. 3
of 21 = ? ÷ ? = ? 10. 8
of ? = ? ÷ ? = 4
Activity 1.3
1
1. What does n of m = m ÷ n mean to you?
2. Give 2 examples, one of a continuous whole and one of a
discontinuous whole.
3. Illustrate each of your examples.
You should now be able to do all of the exercises in the activities that
follow.

Activity 1.4
How many equal sized parts have the wholes below been divided
into?

14 Unit 1
Activity 1.5
Identify what fraction of the whole has been shaded in each case.

Activity 1.6
Shade the fraction part requested in each case.
Note that there is more than one correct answer for F to O.

16 Unit 1
Activity 1.7
Which of the following illustrations correctly give the fraction parts as
indicated?

Unit 2 Non-unit fractions
The activities thus far would cover fraction work in the Foundation
Phase. At the beginning of the Intermediate Phase you will need to spend
some time revising the idea of finding Unit Fractions (fractions where
the numerator is 1). You then need to move on to fractions where the
numerator is some other number besides 1, i.e. fractions of the form:
m
n
where n ≠ 0
In other words, fractions where the numerator can be any number m,

and the denominator can be any number n. Just remember that the
denominator can never be 0. That is why we write
n ≠ 0. Again, don’t panic about the use of letters. It is just a way of

generalising what you have found out already.
If you think about what the denominator is in a fraction, you will soon be
able to decide why it can never be 0.
Here is a fraction:
5 numerator
6 denominator
You must learn these names if you don’t know them already. This is the
most important terminology in the section on fractions. You could set
examples where the learners use the terminology repeatedly, to help them
build the words into their regular speech.

18 Unit 2
Here are some ideas:

• In these examples, which numeral is missing, the numerator or the
denominator? Fill in a value and name the fraction:
3 17 1 1 1
? ? 6 ? 15
• In these fractions, double each denominator and add 5 to the

numerator.
2 7 15 6
4 3 30 7
We now move on to new activities which are an extension of the previous

activities where the numerator of the fraction was always 1. Learners
should not experience too many difficulties if unit fractions have been
well grasped.
Examples using continuous wholes

Example 2.1
3
Find 4 of this circle.
3
1. W
hat does 4 mean? Which number is the numerator and which is
the denominator?
3 The 3 (the numerator) stands for 3 equal parts

4 The whole is divided into 4 (the denominator) equal parts
2. The whole is the circle.

Non-unit fractions 19
3. W
e cut the circle into 4 equal parts (4 quarters).
1
Each part is 4 of the whole.
4. We have shaded 3 of the 4 equal parts (quarters), so I have shaded

3
4
of the whole.
Example 2.2
5
Find 6 of a square sheet of paper.
5
1. W
hat does 6 mean?
Which number is the numerator and which is the denominator?

2. The whole is a square sheet of paper
1
3. We fold the paper into 6 equal parts. Each part is 6 of the whole.

20 Unit 2
5
4. W
e shade 5 of the 6 equal parts (sixths), so we have shaded 6
of the whole.
Examples using discontinuous wholes
Example 2.3
2
Find 3 of 9 apples. So to work through the process we need to follow:
2
1. W
hat does 3 mean?

2. The whole is 9 apples:

3. T he denominator is 3, so the whole (9 apples) is divided into

3 parts of equal size which we call thirds. Each group has
3 apples in it.
1 1 1
3 3 3
4. The numerator is 2, so 2 of the three groups have been shaded.
2
5. This represents 3 of 9 apples.
1 2
6. So 3 of 9 apples is 3 apples, and 3 of 9 apples is 2 groups of
3 apples, which is 6 apples.
2
7. So 3 of 9 apples = 6 apples.
Example 2.4
3
Find 4 of 36 beads. So to work through the process we need to
follow:
3
hat does 4 mean?
1. W

2. The whole is 36 beads:

22 Unit 2
3. T he denominator is 4, so the whole is divided into 4 parts of equal

size which we call quarters. Each group has 9 beads in it.
4. The numerator is 3. So 3 of the 4 groups have been shaded.
3
5. This represents 4 of 36.
1 3
6. So 4 of 36 is 9 beads, and 4 of 36 beads is 3 groups of 9 beads,
which is 27 beads.
3
7. So 4 of 36 beads = 27 beads
Activity 2.1
1
1. Find 5 of 15 cupcakes.
3
2. Find 5 of 15 cupcakes
7
3. Find 8 of a sheet of paper.
9
4. Find 10 of 30 pencils.
7
5. Find 8 of 24 counters.

Activity 2.2
In these diagrams, what fraction is shaded?

24 Unit 2
Activity 2.2
In these diagrams, what fractions do the shaded areas represent?
Fill in the missing numbers:
4. In Question 1 above, the whole consists of ______ cookies. There

are 5 groups and 2 have been shaded so the denominator of the
fraction is ______ and the numerator is ______.

Unit 3 More complex fractions
We begin by reminding ourselves that a fraction has the form:
numerator
denominator
We recall that the denominator is the number of equal parts that the
whole is divided into and the numerator is the number of equal parts
represented by that fraction.
m
We say that a fraction has the form where n≠ 0.
n
In Unit 2 we asked why the denominator can never be 0. If we understand

that the denominator is the number of equal parts that the whole is
divided into, it becomes clear that we cannot divide anything into no
equal pieces. So the denominator cannot be 0. And we use the symbol “≠”
which is an “equals” sign crossed out. This means “is not equal to”.
Up until now we have only found fraction parts of group of objects when
the denominator divides into the group exactly. We have not, for example
found 3 of a group of 9 chocolate bars, because we cannot divide 9
4
chocolates into 4 groups of equal size.
So now we need to look at some examples of this more complex form of

finding fractions.
With your learners you would begin with unit fractions (fractions where
the numerator is 1) and move on to the more complex form of non-unit
fractions (fractions where the numerator is not 1).

26 Unit 3
Example 3.1
An example with unit fractions
Find 1 of 3 Tex Bars.

4
What we are being asked to do is to divide 3 Tex Bars into 4 equal

shares. We might need to find 1 of 3 Tex Bars because we need to
4
divide the Tex Bars equally between 4 people.
This is a great group exercise. Using groups of 4, learners need to be left

to tackle this problem themselves before you show them how it could
be done. See if they can manage it.
If they seem stuck, suggest they divide each bar into quarters (4 equal
parts), then try to divide it equally. Ask them how many quarters each of
them has. They should come up with “3”. So each of them has:
3 3 of the 4 equal parts

4 A Tex Bar has been divided into 4 equal parts
In mathematical language:
The whole is 3 Tex Bars, and we want to find 1 of the whole.
4
We need to divide the 3 Tex Bars into into 4 equal parts (i.e. quarters).
We cut each Tex Bar into 4 pieces of equal size (i.e. into quarters)

More complex fractions 27
Now the 12 equal pieces of Tex Bar form the whole and 3 of them
will be a quarter of the whole (the 3 Tex Bars), in other words we will
have 1 of the 3 Tex Bars.
4
And what you have in your hand is actually 3 of one Tex Bar.
4
So, a very important conclusion: 1 of 3 Tex Bars = 3 of 1 Tex Bar.

4 4

28 Unit 3
Example 3.2
Find 1 of these 5 discs.

6
So again this is a great group exercise. Using groups, learners need

to be left to tackle this problem themselves before you show them
how it can be done. Give them the diagram and a pair of scissors
so that they can cut the discs up. See if they can manage it. Do
not be surprised if they come up with different ways of solving the
problem. There certainly are more than one way of dividing the
discs up. So long as they end up with 6 equal shares, they need to be
congratulated for solving the problem.
If they seem stuck, suggest they divide each disc into sixths (6 equal
parts), then try to divide all the pieces equally into 6 shares. Ask them
how many sixths each share has. They should come up with “5”. So
each of the shares is:
3 5 of the 6 equal parts

4 Each disc has been divided into 6 equal parts
In mathematical language:
The whole is 5 discs, and we want to divide them into 6 equal parts
(i.e. sixths).
We cut each disc into 6 pieces of equal size (i.e. into sixths).

The whole (the 5 discs) has now become 30 pieces of equal size.
Each piece is: 1 of a disc.
6
1
of these 30 pieces is 5 pieces.
6
So we have 1 of the 5 discs. And 1 of the 5 discs is actually 5

6 6 6
(five sixths) of one disc.
So, a very important conclusion: 1 of 5 discs = 5 of 1 disc.

6 6
Example 3.3
Still unit fractions
Find 1 of 2 bottles of Coke.

8
What we are being asked to do is to divide 2 cokes between 8

learners. Then each learner will get 1 of 2 cokes.
8
The whole is 2 cokes. We cannot just pour the cokes out because we
have 2 cokes and we want to divide them into 8 equal parts, i.e. find
1
of 2 cokes.
8

30 Unit 3
We will start with 8 glasses.
Then we divide the first coke between the 8 glasses. In other words
we will pour 1 of the first Coke into each glass.
8
Then we divide the second Coke between the 8 glasses. We are

adding 1 of the second Coke to each glass.
8
So, in total, each glass receives 2 of a Coke. And 1 of 2 cokes is 2

8 8 8
of a Coke.
So 1 of 2 = 2 of 1.
8 8
We have now established the rule that: 1 of n = n of 1.

m m
Activity 3.1
1. Use 3 squares to find 1 of 3.

8
2. Use the rule we have established above to find 1 of 3 pizzas.
12
3. Complete the following:
3.1 1 of 10 = ?
7
1
3.2 of ? = 15
? 2

Non-unit fractions of discontinuous wholes

Fractions where the Numerator is not 1
Example 3.4
How do we find 3 of 3 cupcakes? Again, this is a problem you
4
should give your learners to tackle in groups before you show them
how to do it.
3 The numerator is 3, so we need to find 3 equal parts

4 The denominator is 4, so we need to divide the whole
(3 cupcakes) into 4 equal parts
1. The 3 circles represent the 3 cupcakes.
2. W
e cannot divide 3 whole cupcakes into 4 equal parts, so we have
to divide each cupcake into 4 equal parts (quarters). You now
have 12 quarter cupcakes.
3. D
ividing the 12 quarters into 4 equal parts, each equal part has 3
quarters.

32 Unit 3
4. So 1 of 3 cupcakes is 3 quarters, i.e. 3 of 1 cupcake.

4 4
5. We want 3 of 3 cupcakes, so we shade 3 of these groups.
4
6. This represents 9 quarter cupcakes, i.e 9 of 1 cupcake.

4
7. I f you fit these 9 quarter cupcakes together, you will find that
9 quarter cupcakes is the same as 2 1 cupcakes.
4
Example 3.5
This is a more abstract example.
Use grid paper to find 3 of 10.

4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
2
3
4
Looking at the fraction:
3 Numerator, the number of equal parts

4 Denominator, the number of equal parts the whole needs
to be divided into.
1. The 10 columns represent the discontinuous whole.

2. B
ecause the denominator is 4, the 10 columns have been divided
into 4 rows. Each row represents 1 of 10 (the whole).
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
2
3
4
3. 3 rows represent 3 of 10 (the whole).

4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
2
3
4
4. Each block represents 1 , because it is 1 of a column.

4 4
3
5. In the three rows, which represent of 10, there are 30 blocks.
4
3 30
6. So of 10 = .
4 4
We have now discovered the rule for finding non unit fractions
(fractions where the numerator is not 1) of any whole number.
Written mathematically, we say that: m of p = mp and again n ≠ 0.

n n
You don’t need to worry too much about the letters (the algebraic
notation), but it should be clear to you now that:
2
• of 10 = 2 x 10 = 20
3 3 3
7
• of 2 = 7 x 2 = 14
15 15 15
5
• of 4 = 5 x 4 = 20 , and so on.
9 9 9

34 Unit 3
Activity 3.2
1. Find 3 of 5, using the grid below to assist you. Record your
8
language pattern.
2. Find 3 of 9 cupcakes. Record your language pattern. Use circles

4
to represent the cupcakes.
3. Find 2 of 8 strips of paper. Use the following grid paper to assist
5
you. Record your language pattern.
4. Find 6 of 2. Use the following grid paper to assist you. Record

7
your language pattern.

Activity 3.3
Make your own drawing or grids to illustrate your solutions.
1. What is 2 of 5 pizzas?
3
4
2. Find of 3 chocolates slabs.
5
3. Use grid paper to illustrate how to find 5 of 8.
6
4. Use grid paper to illustrate how to find 2 of 4.
9
7
5. Use grid paper to illustrate how to find of 12.
10
3
6. Use grid paper to illustrate how to find of 4.
4
Activity 3.4
Use the rule we have discovered to complete the following:
1. 2 of 7 = ? x ? = ?
3 ? ?
2. 35 of 12 = ? x ? = ?
? ?
?x?
3. 512 of 11 = = ?
? ?
? ?
4. 2? of 5 = =
7 ?

Unit 4 Improper fractions and
mixed fractions
In most of the fractions we have worked with, the numerator was smaller
than the denominator. Fractions like these, we call proper fractions.
Proper fractions: are fractions where the numerator is smaller than the
denominator:
Examples of proper fractions: 1 , 1 , 2 , 4 , 1 , 4 , 2
2 8 3 6 4 7 9
In Unit 3 you came across fractions where the numerator is a bigger

number than the denominator. These are called improper fractions.
Improper fractions: are fractions where the numerator is a bigger number

than the denominator.
3 11 7 7 9 10 16
Examples of improper fractions: , , , , , ,
2 8 3 6 4 7 9
Converting improper fractions into mixed

numbers
Example 4.1
Explain the meaning of 3 . You will need to understand improper
2
fractions and develop a concept of what a number like means for
yourself.
3 The numerator means we have 3 equal parts

2 The denominator means that the whole has been divided into
2 equal parts (halves)

Improper fractions and mixed fractions 37
So this fraction represents 3 halves. So what does 3 halves look like?
1. Take 2 sheets of paper and fold them into halves:
2. Colour in 3 of these halves:
3. Y
ou will find that you have coloured in one whole sheet of paper
and then half of the second sheet of paper.
4. We write this number as 1 1 and call it ‘one and a half’
2
5. 1 1 is called a “mixed number”. It consists of a whole number part
2
and a fraction part.
6. So 3 = 1 1
2 2

A mixed number is a number which consists of a whole number part
and a fraction part.
Example 4.2
Convert 9 into a mixed number.
2

2 equal parts (halves)

38 Unit 4
1. This fraction represents 9 halves

2. Take several sheets of paper and fold them into halves
(why halves?)
3. Colour in 9 of these halves
4. Y
ou have coloured in 4 whole sheets of paper and one half of
another sheet of paper
5. We write this number as 4 1 and we call it ‘4 and a half’
2
So 9 = 4 1
2 2
Example 4.3

4

4 equal parts (quarters)
1. This fraction represents 7 quarters

2. Take 2 sheets of paper and fold them into quarters
(why quarters?)

3. Colour in 7 of these quarters
4. Y
ou have coloured in one whole sheet of paper and 3 quarters of
the second sheet of paper
5. We write this number as 1 3 and we call it ‘one and three quarters’
4
So 7 = 1 3
4 4
Example 4.4
5

5 equal parts (fifths)
1. This fraction represents 24 fifths

2. Take several strips of paper and fold them into fifths (why fifths?)

40 Unit 4
3. Colour in 24 of these fifths
You have coloured in 4 whole sheets of paper and 4 fifths of another

sheet of paper. We write this number as 4 4 and we call it ‘four and four
5
fifths’
So 24 = 4 4
5 5
By now you may have come up with a way to convert improper fractions
into mixed numbers without using the concrete examples. Can you find a
way to do this?
Try to convert 5 into a mixed number without any concrete tools like
3
strips of paper, etc. We can do it like this:
1. W
e divide the denominator into the numerator to find out how many
wholes there are in the improper fraction.
2. The number left over is the fraction part of the mixed number.
5
So to convert into a mixed number we divide 3 into 5.
3
2
This gives us 1 whole and over.
3
5
So = 12
3 3

24
And for the previous example when we had to convert to a mixed
5
number.
1. We divide 5 into 24.

4
2. This gives us 4 wholes and over.
5
24
So =44
5 5
Activity 4.1
1. A
re the following numbers proper fractions, improper fractions or
mixed numbers?
• 1 1
2
3
•
2
• 1
2
• 7
9
• 9
7
• 7 1
9
• 25
8
• 28
25
• 8 8
25
• 3
4
• 5
6
• 6
5
• 1 3
4

42 Unit 4
2. F ind these using concrete examples (strips, or pieces of paper):

a) Convert 7 into a mixed number
2
6
b) Convert into a mixed number
5
12
c) Convert into a mixed number
3
3. Find these using your method:
a) Convert 3 into a mixed number
2
7
b) Convert into a mixed number
3
25
c) Convert into a mixed number
8
Converting mixed numbers into improper

fractions
You also need to be able to go the other way. So you need to be able to
convert mixed numbers into improper fractions.
Example 4.3
If I have 2 1 discs, how many half discs do I have?
2
hat does 2 1 discs mean?

1. W
2
It means 2 whole discs and a half disc
2. W
e have to find how many half discs we have, so we cut the
2 whole discs into half discs.

3. We now find we have 5 half discs
4. This is the improper fraction 5

2
So 2 1 = 5
2 2
Example 4.6
Use paper folding to find 3 1 as an improper fraction

4
hat does 3 1 mean?

1. W
4
We have 3 wholes and 1 of a whole.
4
We need 3 whole sheets of paper and 1 of a sheet of paper.
4
2. W
e fold the 3 whole sheets of paper into quarters. Why do we fold
them into quarters?
3. Count the number of quarters. There are 13, so we have 13 quarters.

4. Written as a fraction we have 13
4
So 3 1 = 13
4 4

44 Unit 4
Example 4.7
Convert 2 4 into an improper fraction.

5
1. What does 2 4 mean? We have 2 wholes and 4 of a whole.

5 5
5
2. We fold the 2 whole sheets of paper into fifths. Why fifths?
3. Count the number of fifths. There are 14. So we have 14 fifths.

4. Written as a fraction we have 14
5
So 2 4 = 14
5 5
Example 4.7
Convert 5 1 into an improper fraction.
4
1. What does 5 1 mean?

4
We have 5 wholes and 1 of a whole.
4
4

2. We fold the 5 whole sheets of paper into quarters. Why quarters?
3. Count the number of quarters. There are 21. So we have 21

quarters.
Written as a fraction we have 21

4
So 5 1 = 21
4 4
You need to do plenty of examples like this to become comfortable with

converting mixed numbers into improper fractions. After a while you
should be able to come up with a way to convert mixed numbers into
improper fractions without the concrete examples.
Try to do this example without the concrete tools like strips of paper, etc.
Convert 7 1 to an improper fraction.

2
By now, we will have worked out how to convert a mixed number to an

improper fraction without the use of concrete examples.
1. We multiply the whole number part of the mixed number by the

denominator of the fraction.
2. This will convert the whole number to a fraction.
3. Then we add this fraction to the fraction part of the mixed number.

46 Unit 4
So for 7 1
2
1. 7 × 2 = 14 (multiplying the whole number by the denominator)
14
2. So 7 =
2
14 15
3. So 7 1 = +1 =
2 2 2 2
If we look at the example of 5 1 above:

4
1. 5 × 4 = 20
20
2. So 5 =
4
3. So 5 1
= 20 +1= 21
4 4 4 4
Look very carefully how this is set out. Be very careful about how you use
the “=” sign. This sign means “is equal to”.
So it would be incorrect to put an “=” sign at the beginning of each line

above.
Activity 4.2
1. C
onvert these mixed numbers to improper fractions using
concrete examples.
23 ; 33 ; 14 ; 62
2 4 5 3
2. C
onvert these mixed numbers to improper fractions using the
method you have devised without using any concrete tools.
31 ; 53 ; 63 ; 92 ; 71
2 7 8 5 4

Like fractions
We call fractions which have the same denominator “like fractions”.
For example 3 and 6 both have the same denominator, 7. So they are like
7 7
fractions.
Why do you think they are called like fractions? In what way are they
alike?
Examples
2
1. and 3 and 4 are all like fractions because they have the same
5 5 5
denominator, 5.
5
2. and 5 and 5 are NOT like fractions because they do not have the
2 3 4
same denominator, even though they do have the same numerator.
1
3. and 2 and 3 and 4 and 5 are all like fractions because they have
3 3 3 3 3
the same denominator, 3. Notice that some of them are improper
fractions, but they are all like to each other.
Activity 4.3
1. Is 7 like to 8 ?
12 12
2. Give 5 other fractions which are like to:
a) 4
15
b) 13
23
c) 9
8

48 Unit 4
Activity 4.4
1. Give 6 examples of improper fractions.
2. Give 6 examples of mixed numbers.
3. Give 3 like fractions.
4. Convert 22 to a mixed number.
7
5. Convert 5 5 to an improper fraction.
6
6. Are fractions like 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 18 improper fractions?
2 4 4 5 18
Explain your answer. Give the numerical value of these fractions.

Unit 5 Equivalent fractions
Your learners may have begun to notice that certain fractions which
look different have the same value. Your learners may have begun to say
2 1
things like “but 4 is the same as 2 ”. You should encourage this early
observation. Ask them if they can find other examples. (Let them ‘run’
with it).
Equivalence of fractions using a

continuous whole
Activity 5.1
1. T ake 5 pieces of paper that are the same size. Fold each of them
into thirds, as illustrated below.
A B C D E
2. Shade the first third on each piece of paper.
A B C D E

50 Unit 5
3. Now fold pieces B, C, D, and E as indicated below.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 15 15 15
12 12 12
9 9 9 1 1 1
6 6 6 1 1 1 15 15 15
1 1 1 1 1 1 12 12 12 1 1 1
1 1 1 15 15 15
3 3 3 9 9 9
1 1 1 12 12 12 1 1 1
1 1 1 15 15 15
6 6 6 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 9 9 12 12 12 15 15 15
A B C D E
4. S o B is folded into sixths, C into ninths, D into twelfths, and E
into fifteenths.
5. Now decide what fraction of each paper has been shaded.
Your answer could have been the following:

1
A 3 is shaded
2
B 6 is shaded
3
C 9 is shaded
4
D 12 is shaded
5
E 15 is shaded.
1
Is there anything wrong with saying that 3 is shaded for all the pieces
of paper?
1
In fact, all these fractions have the same value ( 3 ) although they can be
written in different ways.
You know that the shaded fraction of each paper is the same size. You
can verify this for yourself if you are unsure by putting all the pieces
on top of each other. So although we can name the shaded parts
differently, these fractions all represent the SAME AMOUNT.
They are called EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS.

Equivalent fractions 51
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS are different numerals which represent the

same number. We can use the equivalent fractions above to find a rule to
find other such equivalent fractions. We now know that:
1 2 3 4 5
3
= 6
= 9
= 12
= 15
Examine the numerators and denominators of the fractions above to see if

you can come up with a rule to find equivalent fractions. You should have
noticed something like the relationship indicated below:
You will have noticed that if you multiply the numerator by a number,
and multiply the denominator by the same number, you have found an
equivalent fraction.
Activity 5.2
Part A
1. Take 24 counters. This is the whole and each counter represents

1
24
of the whole.

52 Unit 5
2. Now put the counters into pairs. How many pairs are there?
What fraction of the whole does each pair represent?

2 1
So 24 = 12
3. Now put the counters into groups of three. How many threes do
you get?
What fraction of the whole does each group of three represent?

3 1
Complete: 24 = ?
4. Now regroup the counters into fours. How many groups of 4 do you
get?
What fraction of the whole does each group of four represent?

4 1
Complete: 24 = ?
5. Carry on, grouping the counters into groups of six, eight and
twelve.
6. How many groups of six did you find? What fraction of the whole
is each group of 6?
6 1
Complete: 24 = ?
7. How many groups of eight did you find? What fraction of the whole
is each group of eight?
8 1
Complete: 24 = ?

8. H
ow many groups of twelve did you find? What fraction of the
whole is each group of twelve?
12 1
Complete: 24 = ?
Part A
Now using the same groups of counters again:
1
1. How many counters are there in 2 of the whole?
2
3
4
6
12
You will notice that each group above has 12 counters in it.
So you can come to the conclusion that:
12 6 4 3 2 1
24
= 12 = 8 = 6 = 4 = 2
Once again if you look at the numerators and denominators in the

above fractions, you should notice a relationship between them.
This gives us the other general rule for finding equivalent fractions:
If you divide the numerator by a number, and divide the denominator
by the same number, you have found an equivalent fraction.

54 Unit 5
VERY, VERY IMPORTANT! Some people give the rule for finding
equivalent fractions as follows: “What you do to the top, you do to the
bottom.” This is WRONG and very misleading.
Make sure that you understand why this is wrong and then phrase this
rule correctly for yourself. Make sure that you always state the rule
correctly for your pupils.
You should now be able to recognise, name and work with equivalent
fractions. Equivalent fractions come in very handy when we add and
subtract fractions, as you will see later.
Fractions in “lowest terms”

Another useful concept is that of fractions in “lowest terms”.
We have now established that:

1 3 4 10 12
2
= 6 = 8 = 20 = 24 and so on.
1
All these fractions have the same value 2 . We could make many
1
equivalent fractions to 2 .
1
But we say that 2
is the fraction “in lowest terms”. Can you see why?
When a fraction is in lowest terms, there is no number that will divide into
both the numerator and the denominator.
Example 5.1
2
1. Convert the fraction 12 to lowest terms.
We can see that this is NOT in lowest terms because we can divide
both numerator and denominator by 2.

2 1
So 12 = 6 (We have divided both the numerator and
denominator by the same number (2), so these are equivalent
fractions)
1
6
is the fraction in lowest terms as there is now no number that
will divide into both the numerator and denominator.
12
We can see that we can divide 3 into both the numerator and the
denominator, so the fraction is not in lowest terms.
12 4
So 15 = 5 , dividing both numerator and denominator by 3.
4
5
is the fraction in lowest terms.
15
This may be a little more difficult as there are a few numbers that
will divide into both numerator and denominator, but as long as
you remember your rule, you should manage. We can see that 5
will divide into both the numerator and the denominator.
15 3
So 45 = 9 (We have divided both the numerator and the
denominator by 5)
3
But 9 still is not in lowest terms, because 3 will divide into both
the numerator and the denominator.
3 1
So 9 = 3 (dividing both the numerator and denominator by 3)
15 1
So 45 = 3 , and the fraction is now in lowest terms.

56 Unit 5
Activity 5.3
3
1. Give 4 fractions which are equivalent to 8
24
2. Give 4 fractions which are equivalent to 40
3. Complete the following by filling in the missing numbers:

? 3
15
= 5
4 12
12
= ?
5 25
?
= 30
2 ?
18
= 9
4. Which of these fractions is in lowest terms?

4
16
3
7
2
6
5
15
8
21
1
2
35
20
Take the fractions in number 4 above that are NOT in lowest terms and
convert them to lowest terms.

Unit 6 Comparing fractions
It is natural to compare whether or not certain numbers are bigger or

smaller than other numbers. We use comparisons of size and number
to make all sorts of decisions and in discussions and arguments. So an
understanding of how to compare fractions, decimals and percentages is
important. Without these comparisons it is difficult to make an accurate
or fair decision.
When we make comparisons with fractions, it can be a bit more involved

than when we compare whole numbers. We will start by comparing
fractions using concrete wholes, and then move onto examples using
numbers only.
When we compare fractions we usually need to know the answers to two

questions.
1. Which number is bigger?

2. By how much is it bigger?

58 Unit 6
Using the Fraction Wall to Compare Fractions

1
1
1 1
2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
1 1 1 1
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
6 6 6 6 6 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
This is a Fraction Wall. At the very simplest level, we can use the fraction
wall to compare fractions and decide which is bigger. Each line represents
a whole, and the whole is divided into a number of parts of equal size in
each row. So line 2 has 2 halves which equal one whole, and line 3 has 3
thirds, which equal one whole, and so on.
Also you can see that 2 halves is really the same size as 3 thirds and 4
quarters and so on.
Another important point to notice is that as the denominator gets bigger,

the fraction gets smaller. This is because the denominator is the number
of equal parts that the whole is divided into. We can think about this in
this way:

Comparing fractions 59
If I divide a cake equally between 6 people, giving each person one sixth
of the cake, they will get a bigger slice than if I divide the cake equally
between 10 people, giving each person a tenth of the cake.
1
And if you compare the size of the blocks, you can see that is bigger
2
than 1 and 1 is smaller than 1 .
3 8 6
You can also use the Fraction Wall to compare fractions with numerator
bigger than one.
For example, comparing the size of the blocks, 2 and 4 .
5 7
Activity 6.1
Use the Fraction Wall to decide which number is bigger, and which is
smaller.
1. 1 and 1
6 3
1 1
2. and
8 6
3 4
3. and
5 7
3 5
4. and
4 6
Now we can use concrete wholes to compare fractions.
Example 6.1
Compare 1 and 1 using continuous wholes
3 2
1. Which number is bigger and which number is smaller?

2. By how much?
We use a circular disc to represent the whole. We divide it into thirds

and into halves and then shade 1 and 1
3 2

60 Unit 6
It is clear from the above that 1 is bigger than 1 and 1 is smaller

2 3 3
than 1 .
2
But how do we decide the answer to the second question.
“By how much is 1 bigger than 1 ?”

2 3
To answer this question we need to divide each disc up into smaller

equal parts. Examine the drawings below:
From this illustration it becomes clear that 1 is bigger than 1 by 1 .

2 3 6
Why do you think we divided the discs into sixths?
Example 6.2
Compare 2 and 3 .
3 4
1. Which is a bigger number? Which is the smaller number?
2. How much bigger? How much smaller?
We can use discontinuous wholes to solve this problem. So we are

going to use counters to tackle this problem. We start with 12 counters.
This represents the whole.

(Why do you think we are using 12 counters rather than another

number like 8?)
To represent 2 , we divide the counters the counters into 3 equal parts.

3
(The denominator is 3, so we the whole needs to be divided into 3 equal
parts)
We shade 2 of these equal parts. (The numerator is 2 so we need 2 of

the equal parts)
2
3
To represent 3 we divide the counters into 4 equal parts.

4
(The denominator is 4 so we divide the whole into 4 equal parts)

62 Unit 6
We shade 3 of these equal parts. (The numerator is 3 so we need

3 of the equal parts)
3
4
So we can see that 3 is bigger than 2 and 2 is smaller than 3

4 3 3 4
Now to answer the question: “How much bigger and how much
smaller?”
We can see that 3 is bigger than 2 by one counter.

4 3
But what is the value of 1 counter? There are 12 counters in the whole,
so one counter represents 1 of the whole.
12
So we can say that 3 is bigger than 2 by 1 and 2 is smaller than

3 4 3 12 3
by 1
4 12
(If you couldn’t answer this question before, perhaps you can see now
why we used 12 counters rather than another number like 8?)

Example 6.3
Compare 2 and 1 using discontinuous wholes.

5 4
1. Which is bigger?
2. By how much is it bigger?
We are going to use 20 counters.
Perhaps by now you will have realised that we need a number of

counters that 5 and 4 (the denominators of the fractions) will divide
into.
For 2 we divide the counters into 5 equal parts (the denominator is 5

5
so we need 5 equal parts) and then shade 2 of them. (the numerator is 2
so we need 2 of the equal parts).
And we find that 2 of 20 counters is 8 counters.

5
For 1 we divide the counters into 4 equal parts (the denominator is 4

4
so we need 4 equal parts) and shade one of them. (the numerator is 1
so we need one of the equal parts).

64 Unit 6
And we find that 1 of 20 counters is 5 counters. It is clear that 2 is

4 5
bigger than 1 . 2
is bigger than 1
by 3 counters. Each counter
4 5 4
1 2
represents of the whole. So is bigger than 1 by 3 .
20 5 4 20
Example 6.4
Using paper strips compare 3 and 4 .

4 5
1. Which is smaller?
2. By how much is the one smaller than the other.
We are going to divide the paper strips into 20 equal parts. We are
using 20 because both the denominators (4 and 5) will divide into 20.
We now divide the first strip of paper into 4 (the denominator of 3 )

4
3
equal parts, and shade 3 (the numerator of ) of these equal parts.
4
Using what you know about equivalent fractions we can see that
4
= 15 .
5 20
We then divide the second strip into 5 (the denominator of 4 ) equal

5
parts, and then shade 4 (the numerator of 4 ) of these equal parts.
5

Using what you know about equivalent fractions we can see that
4
= 16 .
5 20
You can see that 3 is smaller than 4 and it is smaller by 1 . If you find
4 5 20
it difficult to see this, place the two strips of paper next to each other.
You will see that the shaded area representing 3 is one block smaller
4
4
than the shaded strip representing .
5
Activity 6.2
Using concrete wholes compare the following numbers and decide
which is bigger. Then decide how much bigger it is.
1. 1 and 2
3 5
2. 3 and 1
7 2
3. 2 and 4
3 7
The Symbols >, < and =

These symbols can be confusing and cause difficulties:
> means bigger than. The number on the wider side, or open side, of the
symbol is a larger number than the number on the smaller side, or closed
side.

66 Unit 6
< means smaller than. The number on the smaller side, or closed side, of
the symbol is a smaller number than the number on the bigger side, or
open side.
= means exactly the same size. The numbers on both sides of the symbol
are exactly the same size.
We use the hungry crocodile to explain the ‘bigger than’ and ‘smaller than’
symbols.
The open mouth of the crocodile goes towards the bigger number. The
crocodile likes to eat BIG numbers. So, for example,
3 4
• 3 < 4
• 3 is smaller than 4.
4 3
• 4 > 3
• 4 is bigger than 3.
You should give your learners lots of practice using these symbols with
whole numbers before introducing them for fractions.

How much bigger is one number than another?
Example 6.5
We know that 7 is bigger than 4. But how much bigger is 7 than 4?
Take 7 blue counters and 4 white counters.
Matching the counters, you can see that there are 3 blue counters left
over
In other words, 7 counters is a bigger number of counters than

4 counters and the amount by which 7 counters is bigger than 4
counters is 3 counters.
Try these examples for yourself:

1. How much bigger is 10 than 4?
2. How much smaller is 3 then 5?
3. How much bigger is 1 than 1 ?
2
You have probably realised by now that you use subtraction to find
how much bigger or smaller the one number is than the other.

68 Unit 6
So the solutions are:

1. 10 is bigger than 4 by 6. (10 – 4 = 6)
2. 3 is smaller than 5 by 2. (5 – 3 = 2)
But what about example 3?
3. 1 is bigger than 1 by 1 . Did you realise that you have found

2 2
1– 1 = 1?
2 2
Comparing fractions using equivalent fractions

If you look closely at the examples above, you will see that our concrete
examples really lead to using equivalent fractions. We have used
equivalent fractions to convert our fractions to like fractions. Then we
have used the like fractions to say which fraction is bigger or smaller.
We can also use these like fractions to decide how much bigger or smaller
the one fraction is than the other.
Once we are familiar with equivalent fractions and the rules for finding
them, we can do simple numeric conversions to compare fractions.
Let us look at some examples.
Example 6.6
Compare the fractions 4 and 3 to decide which one is bigger and
7 4
by how much.
In order to compare these fractions, we need to convert them into

like fractions, in other words, fractions with the same denominator.
We use equivalent fractions to do this.

The smallest number that both 7 and 4 will divide into is 28, so
this will be the smallest denominator that we can use for our like
fractions.
We are going to convert both the fractions into fractions with

denominator 28.
4
= 4 x 4 = 16 (Using the rule that we can multiply numerator and
7 7x4 28
denominator by the same number to make equivalent fractions)
3
= 3 x 7 = 21 (Using the same rule)
4 4x7 28
So we can see that 3 > 4 and the amount it is bigger is 5

4 7 28
( 21 – 16
), subtracting to find how much bigger.
28 28
Example 6.7
Compare the fractions 7 and 21 to decide which is bigger and by

8 28
how much.
We need to convert these fractions into like fractions in order to

compare them.
The smallest number that both 8 and 40 will divide into is 40, so
this will be the smallest denominator that we can use for our like
fractions.
We are going to convert both the fractions into fractions with

denominator 40.

70 Unit 6
7
= 7 x 5 = 35 (Using the rule that we can multiply numerator and
8 8x5 40
denominator by the same number to make equivalent fractions)
33
already has denominator 40.
40
So we can see that 7 > 33 and the amount it is bigger is 2

8 40 40
2
= 1 (dividing both numerator and denominator by 2).
40 20
So 7 > 33 and the amount it is bigger is 1 (giving the answer in

8 40 20
lowest terms.)
Activity 6.3
Repeat Activity 6.2, but use equivalent fractions to decide which
number is bigger and by how much.
Using Decimals to Compare Fractions

Once we have covered the topic of decimals we can also use decimals to
compare fractions. This we will do in a further module.

Unit 7 A ddition and subtraction of
fractions
At some time, we all need to be able to add and subtract fractions.
For example, if a builder needs to quote for a contract and he is going to

need a quarter of a bag of cement for part of the work and a two thirds of
a bag for another part and a five sixths of a bag for another part, he will
need to be able to calculate how many bags of cement he is going to use in
total.
We will begin with addition and subtraction of fractions which have the
same denominator.
Some concrete examples.
Example 7.1
Here is a strip marked off in thirds.
We are going to use this strip to find 1 + 1 .

3 3
1 1
We colour in and then another as we are adding them.
3 3
We can now see that two of the thirds are coloured in.
This means that 1 + 1 = 2
3 3 3
Notice that when we added these fractions, the denominator did not
change. Only the numerators are added.

72 Unit 7
Example 7.2
You have a pizza. You eat 2 and your friend eats 3 .
6 6
How much pizza has been eaten? How much pizza is left?
Here is the pizza and since the denominator of the fractions is 6, we

have divided the pizza into 6 equal parts. Each part is 1 .
6
Now we shade the parts that were eaten, so we colour in 2 and

6
then 3 .
6
We have shaded 5 of the sixths, or 5 .

6
So you and your friend have eaten 5 of the pizza.

6
1
of the pizza is unshaded. So 1 of the pizza is left.
6 6
So, in mathematical terms,

2
+ 3 = 5
6 6 6
6 2
And: – – 3 = 1
6 6 6 6
Notice that once more only the numerators of the fractions are added
and subtracted. The denominator stays the same when we add and
subtract fractions

Addition and subtraction of fractions 73
Example 7.3
Using discontinuous wholes

We have 10 pencils. If we give 1 of the pencils to a John and 2 of the
5 5
pencils to Mandla, what fraction of the pencils have we given away?
What fraction of the pencils are left?
So we begin with 10 pencils.
We need to divide the group of pencils into fifths (five groups of equal
size), as the fractions have denominator 5. We are giving both boys
fifths of the whole.
As John is given 1 the numerator is one, so we now shade one group

5
of the pencils.
Mandla is given 2 the numerator is 2, so we shade 2 groups of the

5
pencils.
We have shaded 3 groups, or 3 of the whole (the whole is 10 pencils).

5
1 2 3
So + = .
5 5 5
And we have 2 groups 2 of the whole group of 10 pencils) left

5
5 1 2
unshaded. So – – = 2.
5 5 5 5

74 Unit 7
And again, we have found that when we are adding and subtracting
fractions with the same denominator, the denominator stays the same.
Only the numerators are added or subtracted.
This is a very important concept for your learners to understand. Many

will want to add the numerator and the denominator.
When adding and subtracting fractions with the same denominator,

the denominator STAYS THE SAME. Only the numerators are
added and subtracted.
It is very important that your learners do many concrete examples so

they become really familiar with the fact that they are only adding and
subtracting the numerators.
Activity 7.1
1. Use this paper strip to find 1 + 2 .
8 8
2. Use this pizza to find 2 + 1 .

5 5
3. Make up your own concrete example to find 3 + 1 .

10 10
Now we need to apply this knowledge to non-concrete examples.

Example 7.4
Calculate 1 + 2 .
3 3
The denominator of both fractions is 3, so we are being asked to add

two fractions which have the same denominator. We have found
that when we add fractions with the same denominator, we add the
numerators, but the denominator stays the same.
We may write this as follows: 1 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3 .

3 3 3 3
So: 1 + 2 = 3 but the fraction 3 is not in its simplest form, because

3 3 3 3
we can divide both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction
by 3.
So: 1 + 2 = 1 = 1.
3 3 1
Do you understand why 1 = 1?

1
Example 7.5
Calculate 5 – 3 .
8 8
Again, both fractions have denominator 8, so we can use our rule.
When we subtract fractions with the same denominator, we subtract

the numerators, but the denominator stays the same.
5
– 3 = 5–3 = 2
8 8 8 8
And again we are not finished, because 2 is not in its simplest form,
8
because we can divide both numerator and denominator by 2.
So, 5 – 3 = 2 = 1
8 8 8 4

76 Unit 7
Example 7.6
Calculate: 5 + 4 + 2
9 9 9
These are 3 fractions which have the same denominator, so we use

our rule.
When we add fractions with the same denominator, we add the

numerators, but the denominator stays the same.
So 5 + 4 + 2 = 5 + 4 + 2 = 11 .
9 9 9 9 9
Now we have a solution which is an improper fraction, so we should

convert it to a mixed number.
To convert 11 to a mixed number, we divide 9 into 11, which gives us 1

9
whole and then there is 2 over.
9
So: 5 + 2 + 4 = 11 = 1 2
9 9 9
Activity 7.2
Calculate the following. (Give all your answers in simplest form.)
1. 1 + 3
6 6
5
2. + 7
12 12
4
3. + 2 + 5
13 13 13
9 3
4. –
16 16
4
5. + + 2 + 1
5
5 5 5 5
11 2
6. –
9 9
3 6
7. + + 1
7 7 7
11 5
8. – + 9
16 16 16

So far, we have only worked with fractions which have the same
denominator. Let us now have a look at a concrete example where we will
add fractions which have different denominators.
Example 7.7
Let us look at adding: 1 + 1

2 4
Here are two sheets of paper. One is folded in half and 1 is shaded.
2
The other one is folded in quarters and 1 is shaded.
4
We can now cut the 1 sheet out and add it to the half sheet.
4
In order to find out what fraction the shaded area is we will now divide
the sheet into quarters. Can you see why we are using quarters?
We can see that the shaded area, which is 1 + 1 is actually 3 quarters.

2 4
1 1 3
So, we have found that + = .
2 4 4

78 Unit 7
Example 7.8
Use these discs to calculate 1 + 1 .
2 3
We will cut the first disc into 2 equal pieces (the denominator is 2)
and shade one of them (the numerator is 1).
We will cut the other disc into 3 equal pieces (the denominator is 3)
and shade one of them (the numerator is 1)
Now we will put these two shaded pieces together as we need to

add 1 + 1 .
2 3
In order to find the fraction of the disc represented by the shaded

region, we will divide the disc into sixths.
Can you see why we are using sixths?

You can see now that the shaded area is 5 .

6
So we have found that 1 + 1 = 5 . (Here is another example using

2 3 6
concrete wholes.)
Example 7.9
Find the sum 1 + 2 .

2 5
Again we are faced with the sum of two fractions with different
denominators.
We will use 10 counters (a discontinuous whole) for this example.
Each counter represents 1 of the whole.

10
To find the fraction 2 we divide the 10 counters into 5 equal groups,

5
because the denominator is 5. And then we shade 2 of the groups,
because the numerator is 2.
So 2 of the 10 counters is 4 counters.

5
To find the fraction 1 we divide the counters into 2 equal groups,

2
because the denominator is 2. And then we shade in one of the groups,
because the numerator is 1.

80 Unit 7
So 1 of 10 counters is 5 counters. If we add 4 counters ( 2 ) and 5

2 5
counters ( 1 ) we get 9 counters.
2
Each counter represents 1 of the whole.

10
So 1 + 2 = 9
2 5 10
Example 7.10
Find 1 2 – 3 .
3 4
By now, you may have realised that we will need to convert the
fractions to twelfths to solve this problem, because 12 is the smallest
number that both denominators will divide into. So we are going to
use sheets of paper which we are going to fold into twelfths.
Here is 1 2 .
3
So 1 2 is 20 blocks.
3
And here is 3 .
4

And 3 is 9 blocks.
4
So, if we subtract them, 1 2 – 3 is 20 – 9 blocks, which is 11 blocks.

3 4
Each block represents 1 so 1 2 – 3 = 11 .

12 3 4 12
Activity 7.3
1. Use these discs to find 1 + 2
6 3
2. Use these 10 counters to find 3 – 1

5 2
3. Use your own concrete example to find 2 – 1

3 4
4. Use your own example to find 2 1 + 3
2 4
By now, you may have realised that we are using what we know about
equivalent fractions to make fractions with the same denominator. And
when fractions have the same denominator, we can add and subtract
them.

82 Unit 7
You may recall that fractions with the same denominator are called ‘like
fractions’.
So to add and subtract fractions without using concrete examples we need

to convert our fractions to like fractions.
Example 7.11
Let us find 1 + 1 again (example 7.7), but this time we will not use
2 4
any concrete objects.
We will use what we know about equivalent fractions to convert the

two fractions to like fractions.
The smallest number that both the denominators (2 and 4) will divide
into is 4. We call this the ‘Lowest Common Denominator’ or LCD
for short. We need to convert both our fractions into fractions with
denominator 4.
We proceed as follows:
1
+ 1 = 1x2 + 1 ( We are multiplying the numerator and
2 4 2 x 2 4
denominator of 1 by 2. This does not change
2
the value of the fraction.)
= 2 + 1 ( Now both fractions have the same denominator. They are

4 4
like fractions.)
= 2+1 = 3
4 4

Example 7.12
Example 7.9 was 2 + 1
5 2
We will do this now using our new method.
2
+ 1 = 2 x 2 + 1 x 5 (the LCD is 10, so we are converting both
5 2 5 x 2 2 x 5
fractions to equivalent fractions with
denominator 10.)
= 4 + 5 (Now the fractions are like fractions.)
10 10
4 + 5
= = 9
10 10
Example 7.13
But what are we going to do about mixed numbers? If you look at
Example 7.10 above, how are we going to calculate 1 2 – 3 ?
3 4
The best way to do this is to convert the mixed number to an

improper fraction. You could try to work with the whole numbers
and fractions separately, but this can lead to all sorts of difficulties,
particularly with subtraction. If you do not remember how to do this,
look back to Unit 4 and revise how we set about this.
1 2 – 3 = 1 x 3 + 2 = 3 ( We are converting the mixed number to an

3 4 3 4
improper fraction.)
= 3+2 – 3
3 4
5 3
= – (We now have 2 fractions with different denominators.)
3 4
5 x 4
= – 3 x 3 (Converting both fractions to denominator 12,
3 x 4 4 x 3
because 12 is the LCD.)
= 20 – 9 (Now we have like fractions.)
12 12
11
=
12

84 Unit 7
Example 7.14
Patience and Jenny are selling slices of cake at the school fair.
They bake 5 cakes and Patience sells 2 3 cakes and Jenny only sells
6
1 2 cakes.
3
How much cake did they sell in total, and how much cake did they
have left over?
This example has two parts.

Part 1: We need to add the amount of cake sold, to find out how much
they sold in total.
Part 2: Then we need to subtract this from the 5 cakes they baked to
start with.
Part 1
23 + 12
5 3
2 x 5 +3
= + 1 x 3 + 2 (converting to improper fractions)
5 3
10 + 3 3 + 2
= +
5 3
13 5
= +
5 3
13 x 3
= + 5 x 5 (converting to like fractions with denominator 15)
5 x 3 3 x5
39 25
= + (both fractions have the same denominator, so we can
15 15
add the numerators)
= 64
15
We can convert this to a mixed number by dividing 15 into 64.

This gives is 4 whole cakes and 4 fifteenths of a cake. So they sold
4 4 cakes.
15

Part 2
They began with 5 cakes, so to find how much cake they had over,
we will subtract the 4 4 from the 5 cakes they baked.
15
5 – 4 4
15
5 15 x 4 + 4
= – (converting to improper fractions)
1 15
5
= – 15 x 4 + 4
1 15
5
= – 60 + 4
1 15
5
= – 64
1 15
5 x 15
= – 64 (converting to like fractions)
1 x 15 15
75 64
= –
15 15
11
=
15
So they had 11 of a cake over.

15
You may have seen that there is another way of doing this second
part, which is more intuitive. They started with 5 cakes and sold 4 and
a then a piece more ( 4 of a cake). So really we are looking for how
15
much of the last cake is left after they have sold 4 of a cake) of this
15
last cake.
1 4
15
= 15 – 4
15 15
11
=
15
However, this will not always work. In Example 7.13, we could not have
used this method.

86 Unit 7
Activity 7.3
Calculate the following:

1. 3 + 2
4 3
3 2
2. –
4 3
3. 3 3 + 2 1
4 3
4. 41 + 21
3 4
5. 42 + 23
3 4
3
6. + – 9
4
10 5 10
7. 63 2
+ –7
4 3
8. I am baking cakes and require 3 kg of flour for one of them and

10
1
kg of flour for the second and 3 kg of flour for the third.
2 5
How much flour do I need, and how much flour will I have over
from 2 1 kg bag of flour?
2

Understanding Fractions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Understanding Fractions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

3 5 9

PETS INSET and Professional Development short course:

Teaching Fractions: Grades 3-5

Afrikaans translation by Riekie Harm

PETS is a non-profit Public Benefit Organisation (PBO 930038834) in partnership with

Producted by The PETS Foundation

PETS Inset Programme

Unit 1: Fractions and wholes ........................................... 1

Unit 2: Non-unit fractions................................................ 17

Unit 3: More complex fractions....................................... 25

Unit 4: Improper fractions and mixed fractions ............ 36

PETS Inset Programme

Unit 6: Comparing fractions............................................ 57

Unit 7: Addition and subtraction of fractions................ 71

PETS Inset Programme

Fractions can be used to represent numbers which are not whole

We will look in detail at sound methods for teaching of fractions to young

Once learners have developed an understanding of fractions as parts

Fractions look like this:

Numerators and denominators

PETS Inset Programme

We can find fractions of a single object, like a pie or a piece of paper, or

Learners do not need to be able to distinguish between continuous wholes

To assist learners to establish any concept, we must be very careful that we

Examples we can use for a continuous whole are:

PETS Inset Programme

Language patterns to describe fractions of

The 1 stands for 1 piece of the whole

• Begin with the whole circle.

PETS Inset Programme

1 The ‘1’ stands for 1 piece of the whole

• Begin with the whole pizza.

PETS Inset Programme

1 The ‘1’ stands for 1 piece of the whole

Can you think up some other examples for finding fractions of

PETS Inset Programme

What about discontinuous wholes?

Language patterns for finding fractions of

12 cookies represent the whole.

1 one part of the whole

•  ecause the denominator (the numeral at the bottom of the

PETS Inset Programme

• The groups will each have 3 cookies in them.

We have coloured in 1 of these groups because the numerator (the

1 one part of the whole

32 counters represent the whole.

Because the denominator (the numeral at the bottom of the fraction) is

PETS Inset Programme

We have coloured in 1 of these groups because the numerator (the

1 one part of the whole

10 Apples represent the whole

PETS Inset Programme

Because the denominator (the numeral at the bottom of the fraction)

We have coloured in 1 of these groups because the numerator (the

Very important: Because you need to divide the discontinuous whole

PETS Inset Programme

Record your language pattern.

Record your language pattern.

PETS Inset Programme

Fractions as a form of division

Do this yourself and you should come to the conclusion that

PETS Inset Programme

PETS Inset Programme

• ecause the denominator (the numeral at the bottom of the

4. We have shaded 3 of the 4 equal parts (quarters), so I have shaded

3. T he denominator is 3, so the whole (9 apples) is divided into

3. T he denominator is 4, so the whole is divided into 4 parts of equal

4. In Question 1 above, the whole consists of ______ cookies. There