Enjeti Africa Lecture - Slides Annotated

10/12/2020
Smart Grid
& Power Electronics
October 12, 2020
Dr. Prasad Enjeti,

Electrical & Computer Engineering
Texas A&M University
http://enjeti.tamu.edu
Power Electronics & Power Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University, enjeti@tamu.edu
Smart Grid & Power Electronics
Outline:
- This course serves as an introductory course to the field of

electric energy systems (also known as the "smart grid").
- Both stand alone and utility interface of renewable energy
sources such as solar-pv, wind and battery energy storage
systems will be covered
- Power Electronic Converters and their control in the context
of DC and AC microgrids that have the potential to electrify
many parts of Africa are studied.
Power Electronics & Power Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University, enjeti@tamu.edu 2
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http://empowerabillionlives.org/
https://www.ieee-pels.org/programs-projects/empower-a-billion-lives
https://smartvillage.ieee.org/
Powered from a solar micro‐grid, a kiosk becomes the retail home of power‐based
SunBlazer is a modular, easy to install PV
PAYGO system can operate without access to the
services such as battery charging, home lighting system sales and rentals, and rental
Internet and enables a sustained portable power
solar based community charging station
of battery‐powered tools
business
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Recommended Reading
Smart Grid
Fundamentals of Design
Analysis

Recommended Reading
Off-Grid
Electrical Systems in
Developing Countries
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Recommended Reading
Power Electronics
A First Course

Recommended Reading
Fundamentals of
Power Electronics
by Robert Erickson etal
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Power Electronics
Online course – http://www.coursera.org
Energy & Human Development
• Access to energy, of which electricity is an important form, correlates closely with human
development
• Human Development Index (HDI) versus per person energy use is a commonly used metric that
attempts to measure the development or well-being of a country
• Electricity provides lighting, which is important for work, study, socializing, and safety. It is supportive of
improved health care at hospitals and clinics, and education at schools; it can reduce the toil of manual
labor by powering pumps and motors for agriculture and milling; it can support income generation by
allowing work to be done more efficiently and extending business hours; and to many people, having
electricity brings with it a newfound sense of dignity and modernity
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The Electric Grid Today
The Electric Grid of the Future
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The grid of the Future –

Power Electronics is the Main Enabling Technology
Microgrids definition
A microgrid is a group of
interconnected loads and
distributed energy resources
within clearly defined electrical
boundaries that acts as a single
controllable entity with respect
to the grid.
A microgrid can connect and

disconnect from the grid to
enable it to operate in both grid
connected and island mode.
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Types of Microgrids – AC Microgrids

Power Electronics
 Can range from

kW to MW
operation
 Can operate
autonomously in
island mode
from the main
grid.
 Control
strategies
enable power
sharing,
frequency and
voltage control.
Y. Han, P. Shen, X. Zhao and J. M. Guerrero, "An Enhanced Power Sharing Scheme for Voltage Unbalance and Harmonics Compensation in an Islanded AC Microgrid," in IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 1037-1050, Sept. 2016.
DC Microgrids Power Electronics
• An emerging technology which

needs to face number of challenges
before widespread acceptance in
industrial and commercial
applications.
• For more information:

• IEEE DC@Home committee
sponsored by the IEEE PES
Intelligent Grid Coordinating
Committee.
• Barriers:
• Faulty current protection
• Standardization
• Lack of widespread availability
of DC appliances/loads
T. Dragičević, X. Lu, J. C. Vasquez and J. M. Guerrero, "DC Microgrids—Part II: A Review of Power Architectures, Applications, and Standardization Issues," in IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 3528-3549, May 2016.
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Power Electronic Converters : DC-DC and AC-DC Type


Interconnected DC Microgrids
DC Microgrids – Multi Voltage

 380V dc-bus for
higher power loads
 48V dc-bus for
medium power loads
 24V dc-bus for
smaller loads
 Built-in energy
storage
 Renewable energy
source interface
 Electric utility
interface
T. Dragičević, X. Lu, J. C. Vasquez and J. M. Guerrero,
"DC Microgrids—Part II: A Review of Power
Architectures, Applications, and Standardization
Issues," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol.
31, no. 5, pp. 3528-3549, May 2016.
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DC Microgrids – Voltage Droop Control for Load Sharing

Vdc
Vdc
Voltage
Current
Principle of Droop Control – Example

+ +
Battery is Rs1 Rs2 PV is
rated for i1 i2 rated for
9kWh 110 V +‐ v1 v2 +‐ 110 V 21kW
‐ ‐
Battery DC-DC
converter
If AC Load is 3kW and DC V
v1=‐0.33i1+110 droop
load is 7 kW, total = 10kW (volts)
at a given time v2=‐0.143i2+110
110
For a terminal voltage of PV DC-DC
105
Vdc=100V, from the droop converter
100
curves we have, 95
droop
110 100 90
𝐼 30𝐴
0.33 85
110 100 80
𝐼 70𝐴 75
0.143
0
𝑃 3𝑘𝑊; 𝑃 7𝑘𝑊 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
I (Amperes)
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Nanogrids – Examples
Nanogrids – Examples
A generic design of a solar home system with a PV module, AC

source inputs and multiple DC outputs. Note: external AC
source may not always be available
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Solar Energy Systems Add some pictures here from Africa
Residential Space Commercial
Utility
Public Agriculture
Photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion
 PV cells are made up of semiconductor

devices such as silicon, gallium arsenide,
etc.
 Sunlight converted into an electric current
 Individual cells are connected in
series/parallel to create a PV modules and
arrays.
https://pveducation.org/index.php
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Improved equivalent circuit of PV cell

 Rp parallel resistance models a shaded cell, provide
current path
+
–  Rs series resistance models interconnections and silicon
I Rs resistance.
+
 Stackable to model a series connected string.
V
Id
I  I sc  I o  e 38.9  Vd   1  d
V
Isc  KCL:
Rp   R
p
–  KVL: V  Vd  I Rs
I
 String: Vstring  n Vd  I Rs 
PV cell I-V characteristics
+
–
I Rs
+
V
Id
Isc Rp
–
I
https://pveducation.org/index.php
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The PV Cell: Temperature,

Irradiance
The PV Cell
---5 ohm load line 36 cell string, 0.5V/cell and
4 4A at full sun. If a 10Ω load is
connected, what is the
3.5 operating point?
PV Curve
3 10 Load line
I=2.1A
Current [A]
2.5
V=21.1V
2 P=44W
1.5 Voc= 0.6271 V/cell
= 22.6 V
1
0.5 What is the max power from

this module?
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 - Connect a 5 ohm load
Voltage [V]
- Pout ~ 18V*3.75A = 67.5W
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Example question
Fig. 1 shows a PV panel connected to a heater (modeled as an electrical resistor). The i-v curve of the PV panel
(SPR-E20-327-COM) is shown in Fig. 2 for different solar irradiance:
a) What is the Maximum Power that the PV panel can supply the heater?
At 300W/m2 the maximum power is = 56*1 = 56 watts ; The resistance of the heater is 56 ohms
b) If R=16.7, what is the power supplied to the heater?
The 16.7 ohm resiance line intersects the 300W/m2 I-V curve at 1.2A and 20V (see figure). Therefore the power
supplied to the heater is = 20*1.2 = 24 watts
Maximum Power
1000W/m2
4
3.5
800W/m2
3
2
2.5 600W/m
Current [A]
Fixed heater resistance (R= 5 ohms) moves

2
the operating point away from max power
400W/m2 point as insolation decreases
1.5
P op pnt. P max How Can We
1
68W 68W Deliver
0.5 48W 54W Maximum Available
0
27W 40W Power to the
0 5 10 15
Voltage [V]
20 25 12W 26W
Heater?
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Maximum Power
1000W/m2
4
Converter
3.5
DC/DC
800W/m2
3 R= 5 ohms
2
2.5 600W/m
Current [A]
Gain of the DC-DC Converter G = Vo / Vpv adjustment

2
2 to attain maximum available power
400W/m
1.5
Insolation VPV G Vo Pmax
1 1000W/m2 18.4 1 18.4 68W
0.5 800W/m2 18.4 0.9 16.4 54W
600W/m2 18.3 0.77 14.1 40W

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage [V] 400W/m2 18 0.63 11.4 26W
Question – if R = 20 ohms, find DC/DC converter gain

1000W/m2
4
Converter
+
DC/DC
3.5 2 Vo
800W/m
-
3 R= 20 ohms
2
2.5 600W/m
Current [A]

400W/m2
1.5 If the heater resistance is 20 ohms, determine the DC-DC
converter gain G to attain maximum power at 1000w/m2
1 Maximum power at 1000W/m2, Pmax = 68W occurs at Vpv= 18.4 V

for R=20 calculate 𝑉 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅 = 37 V
0.5 Therefore the DC-DC converter gain G = Vo / Vpv = 37/18.4 = 2
0 Need a Boost Converter

0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage [V]
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Maximum Power Point Tracking
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)– Perturb & Observe Algorithm
Hill Climbing
Method
Converter
DC/DC
Duty Cycle D = Vo / Vpv adjustment to

attain maximum available power
Via closed loop control
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Components of a Residential System
PV Modules Mechanical BOS

60, 72, 96, 128 cells Balance of System
250 W – 450 W Rails, Mounts
Electrical BOS
DC-AC Conversion Panels/Protection
Inverters Communications
Power Electronics Conduit/Wire
Shading of a PV Module
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Shading of a PV Module https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules-and-arrays/shading
• Cells are connected in series in a module to

increase the voltage. Since the cells are in
series, the current has to be the same in
each cell and shading one cell causes the
current in the string of cells to fall to the
level of the shaded cell.
• Shading just one cell in a module to half
causes the output power of the whole module
to fall to half. No matter how many cells there
are in the string, completely shading one cell
causes the output power of the module to fall
to zero
• Solution is bypass diodes
Anatomy of a Typical Silicon Solar Module
Sixty-cell module, 6x10 layout, 6” cells

◦ Three “substrings”
◦ Cell voltage ~0.55 V; Module voltage ~33 V
◦ 14%-17% efficiency
Front contacts – conducts on sun-facing side
Three “bypass” diodes – for shaded or broken cells

◦ Protects against “hot spots” and mitigates shading effects
Junction (J-) box houses diodes and PV output wires
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Shading of a PV Module
Bypass diodes in paralleled modules.

There are typically two or three bypass
diodes in each 36 to 72 cell module
Impact of Shading with 3 Bypass Diodes

One Shaded Cell
• A reduction of 85 W i.e. 38% reduction in output power

• Also notice the multiple maxima in the power curve
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Large Scale (MW) Solar PV Power Plants
Photovoltaic converter topologies

- Centralized Converter
 PV modules connected in series forming strings with

adequate voltage
 Strings connected in parallel for adequate current
output
 Centralized Inverter performing DC-AC conversion
for utility interface
 Disadvantages: low energy harvest due to centralized

MPPT, mismatch losses between PV modules, losses
in string diodes.
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Large Scale PV Plant – Centralized Inverter

• Central Inverter
• DC coupling of PV panels
• Medium voltage transformer interfaces PV plant with the
utility grid.
Series/Parallel
DC Collection connected solar
panels
Multiple DC
collection to
3-phase optimize MPPT
Source: SMA Solar Technology
DC to AC
Inverter
Intermittency of Solar Energy
 PV power from a 4.6 MW

array in Arizona.
 Clouds affect the output
power produced by PV
panels.
 Energy storage is a
solution to solve
intermittency issues.
Source: www.megawattsf.com
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Microinverter AC PV System Architecture

- Module-level maximum power point
DC‐AC
tracking (MPPT)
- No DC wiring
- Converter attachment
- Mount to rail
DC‐AC
- Mount to module frame
- J-box substitution
- Disconnecting AC de-energizes system
- Variations
DC‐AC
- Two/four modules to one converter
Ref: Patrick Chapman, SUNPOWER

Single Module Energy Harvesting
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- Microinverter Technology – Plug & Play Panasonic VBHN330SA17E >
330 Watt AC Solar Panel with
Enphase IQ7X 320 Watt Micro
Vsp Db Inverter
Q1 Q3
Filter AC
output
Qb Q2 Q4
H-Bridge
Flyback DC-DC SPWM
20 V – 60 V
(BCM) Inverter
• Many possible topologies
• A flyback DC/DC converter with HF isolation & a H-Bridge PWM inverter offers a simple two
stage solution
• Resonant reset & other ZVS schemes can be used to improve efficiency

- DC/DC Converter (power optimizer) for each panel
 The shading problem is

nearly eliminated, one
shaded module does not
affect the rest of the
system
 Every module is remote
monitored and faults can be
easily detected
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Wind Power Systems
Small Wind Energy Systems
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Large Wind Energy Systems
 Wind turbines range from 100 kW – several

MW
 Wind turbines are grouped together to form

wind farms.
 Wind farms provide power to the utility

grid.
 Wind farms are deployed both onshore and

off-shore
Wind Power Conversion System
• Generator / ac-dc rectifier / dc-link / dc-ac inverter / transformer / electric utility
• Wind speed is a major factor in power production
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Wind Power in Africa

http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/view/44926/the-five-biggest-wind-energy-markets-in-africa/
Compare: Installed capacity in China (2019): 210,050 MW

Installed capacity in US is 107,443 MW
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
Mechanical Power:
1
𝑃 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑤 𝐶
2
ρ – Air density in kg/m3
A – sweep area in m2
Vw - wind speed in m/s
Cp – blade power coefficient
GOAL: maximize Cp by
controlling ωM
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Intermittency of Solar Energy

• PV power from a 4.6 MW
array in Arizona.
• Clouds affect the output
power produced by PV
panels.
• Energy storage is a
solution to solve
intermittency issues.
Electrical Energy Storage Definition

 Different technologies are used to
store energy (e.g. kinetic energy,
potential energy, chemical energy,
etc.) that is later converter to
electrical energy [1].
 Major energy storage technologies
include:
o Pumped Hydro
o Rechargeable batteries
o Compressed air
o Flywheels
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Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS)
 Batteries convert chemical

energy to electrical energy
 Different battery chemistries:
o Lead-Acid
o Lithium ion (Li-ion)
o Sodium Sulfur (NaS)
o Flow batteries
AES Angamos Lithium-Ion BESS
 20 MW/5MWh system
 Can provide 20 MW for
up to 15 minutes.
 Energy storage
supplier: A123 systems
 Location: Mejillones,
Chile
 Services: Spinning
Frequency regulation
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Tesla PowerWall 2
7 kW/ 14 kWh
system
 A typical US house
uses ~30 kWh per
day
 Uses Li-ion
batteries.
 Inverter included in
the powerwall.
 Cost: $5,500
Flywheel Energy Storage Systems (FESS)

 Energy is stored in the form of kinetic energy
in a rotating disc.
 carbon fiber composite rim, supported by a
hub and shaft with an attached
motor/generator
 Power electronics and the motor/generator
efficiently convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy when the flywheel is
charging and back to electrical energy when
discharging
 Long life cycles: 20-years and 100,000 full
depth of discharge cycles
 Fast response and ramp rates
 Suited for high power, low energy applications
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Flywheel Energy Storage Systems (FESS)
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
 “Store energy in the form of pressurized

air, usually in underground caverns.”
 At low demand, electrical energy is used
to compress air.
 Compressed air is used “in the combustor
of a gas turbine to generate electric
power”
 Overall efficiency is 65-70%.
 Can be constructed in MW range.
 Discharge over long periods of time (4 – 24
hours).
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The Electric Grid of the Future – Role of Power Electronics
Introduction to Power Electronics

 Role Role
Power Electronics
 Applications
Interface
 Requirements
Converter
Source Load
Controller
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Applications
 Portable Electronics
 Consumer Electronics / Appliances
 Renewables-based Electricity Generation
 Electric/Hybrid Vehicles
 Improving Efficiency
 Utility Applications
 Information Technology
Applications – Portable Electronics
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Tesla Fast Charging Stations in the World
EV Charging Stations in Africa
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Electric Charging Lanes – Soon to come
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Efficiency Improvement
No Power Electronics
Tungsten filament
resistor Lighting
Power Electronics
High frequency
converter
100 W 23 W 17 W
8hrs a day for 365 days 8hrs a day for 365 days 8hrs a day for 365 days
= 100*8*365 = 292 kWh = 23*8*365 = 67.16 kWh = 17*8*365 = 49.74 kWh
If 1 kWh = 10 cents If 1 kWh = 10 cents If 1 kWh = 10 cents
Then electricity cost is Then electricity cost is Then electricity cost is
= $29.2 = $6.72 = $4.97
Efficiency - η
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Efficiency - η If the output power

is still 100 Watts,
Designer B can
achieve 11 time
A power supply draws power from the utility input (Pin)
and is designed by designer A to deliver an output smaller size than
Designer A
power Po = 100 Watts to a load at 90% efficiency.
a) Calculate the losses
Now Another designer B employs the same package size

and with advanced semiconductor devices / power
electronic circuits is able to achieve an efficiency of
99%
what is the maximum output power that can be

supplied to output load using the same package?
Note: Since the size of the package in both cases is the

same, assume that the maximum allowed power
dissipation within this power supply, without
overheating it, remains unchanged.
The 90s Efficiency - η

Today
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Interdisciplinary Nature of Power Electronics
Cybersecurity
AI /
Machine
Learning
Power Electronic Converters are mostly

Voltage-Link Systems
 Switching Power-Pole asq Athe basic building-block
1
+ idA dA
iA 0
Vin d A Ts Tup t
+ Ts
vA vA
- Vin
-
vA
qA  1or 0 0
t
• Voltage Port
• Current Port
• Bi-Positional Switch – control via pulse width modulation
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Transistor and diode forming a switching power-

pole in a Buck converter

iL
Vin 
 Vo

(a)
 
iL iL
Vin  Vin 
Vo Vo
 
 
qA  1 qA  0
(b) (c)
Power semiconductor
devices are the heart of
power electronics
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Design of Switching Power-Poles

 Power Semiconductor Devices qA
1
+ idA dA
o Diodes
iA 0
V d A Ts Tup t
in
+ Ts
vA
o Transistors - vA Vin
-
vA
qA  1or 0 0
 Losses in Switching Power-Poles

t
o Switching Losses
o Conduction Losses
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Choice of Diodes
Line-Frequency Diodes
Fast Recovery Diodes
Schottky Diodes
Choice of Diodes For the purpose

of analysis we
will use the ideal
characteristics
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Power MOSFET Characteristics

iD
iD R DS ( on )  1/slope
D iD VGS  11V
Io
 9V
VDS 7V
G
  5V
VGS  VGS (th )
VGS S
0 VDS 0 VGS ( th) VGS ( I o )
VGS
RL
(a) (b) (c)
• Easy to control by the gate

RDS ( on )  V 2.5 to 2.7
DSS
• Optimal for low-voltage operation at high switching
frequencies
• On-state resistance a concern at higher voltage ratings
GaN MOSFET Characteristics

http://gansystems.com
What are the advantages of

GaN vs Silicon
GaN impacts not only the power
transistor, but also overall product
design and in decreasing cost
around other system components
including: capacitor, cooling, heat
sinks, and inductors. With GaN
technology, power systems are:
 4 x smaller (1/4 the size)

 4 x lighter (1/4 the weight)
 4 x efficiency (1/4 the
efficiency loss)
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Silicon Carbide (SiC) MOSFET
Silicon Carbide (SiC) MOSFET
We will use these parameters in calculations

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Integrated Base Transistor (IGBT)

Characteristics
Selection of Power Semiconductor

Devices
Voltage Ratings
Current Ratings
Switching Speeds
On-State Voltage Drop
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Switching in a Power-Pole
iD iD

RGG vDS on
 VGG Io

Vin

Io
off
0
Vin vDS
Turn-on Characteristics
vGS
iDiD vGS ( Io )
D
D
vGG
vDS  vGS (th)
G
 vDS
iD
G
 VGG  on B 0
 vGG S Io
S t
0 0
iD
Vin vDS
Vin Vin A
iD Io

 off
I oI0 0 vDS 0
Vin td (on ) tri t fv t
idiode  I o  iD iD  I o
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Turn-off Characteristic
vGG vGS
iD D
vGS ( I o )
 iD
vGS ( th )
v DS
G on C 0
S
vGG t
Io
 0
Vin D Vin
Io
 off v DS iD
Io
0 Vin v DS 0
t
t d ( off ) t rv t fi
Calculating Power Losses Within the MOSFET

(assuming an ideal diode)
V in V in
vDS vDS
Io
iD iD
0 t fv t fi
t ri t rv t
tc ,on t c , o ff
V in I o V in I o
p sw p sw
0 tc ,on t c , o ff t
tc , on  tri  t fv
1
Switching Losses: Psw  Vin I o (tc , on  tc , off ) f s
2
tc , off  trv  t fi
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Quiz Question # 3 – Switching Losses

For a switching power pole, V = 500V, Io = 10A (dc), The switch duty cycle “d” is 50% at a switching frequency f
= 100kHz. The switch on resistance Rds (on) = 0.5 ohm
Switching Losses: P  1 V I (t  t ) f
Turn on-off rise time = tr = 120ns sw
2
in o c , on c , off s
Turn-on-off fall time = tf = 50ns

Calculate: tc , on  tri  t fv
a. The switching losses and conduction losses
tc , off  trv  t fi
Pcond  d  RDS ( on ) I o2 
Conduction
Losses:
b. A GaN MOSFET is used instead with turn on-off rise time = tr = 11ns ; turn-on-off fall time = tf = 9ns ; the
switch on resistance Rds (on) = 80 m-ohm. Calculate switching losses and conduction losses and compare the
two results.
Over 87%
reduction in
losses
Conduction Loss:
iD R DS ( on )  1/slope
D iD VGS  11V
 9V
VDS 7V
G
  5V
VGS  VGS (th )
VGS S
0 VDS
Pcond  d  RDS ( on ) I o2 
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DC-DC Converters
Pout = 500 W, Pin = 1000 W

Losses = 500 W and the efficiency is
50% - Not acceptable
Power
Electronics
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DC – DC Buck Converter
Power Electronics – Simulations - PSIM

https://powersimtech.com/
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Power Electronics – Simulations - PLECS
https://www.plexim.com/
Others:
- LTspice
- MATLAB
- Typhoon HIL
DC – DC Buck Converter (assume continuous conduction)

S1
S1 is ON & D1 is OFF
diL D1
vL  L
dt
V0
S1 is OFF & D1 is ON diL

vL  L
dt
V0
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DC – DC Buck Converter – Critical Inductance
S1
D1
Where Lmin is the

minimum (critical)
inductance required to
maintain continuous
conduction
DC – DC Buck Converter
S1
1 Where the duty cycle is 0<D<1
2 Where ΔIL is inductor current D1

ripple (peak to peak)
3 Where Lmin is the minimum

(critical) inductance
required to maintain
continuous conduction
4
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10/12/2020
DC – DC Buck Converter –Output Capacitor Design

1 𝑇 Δ𝐼 1
Note: Δ𝑄 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∗ ∗ ∗ 𝑇 ∗ Δ𝐼
2 2 2 8
𝑇 ∗ Δ𝐼 1
Now: Δ𝑉 ; 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 Δ𝐼 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2 & 𝑇
8∗𝐶 𝑓
1 𝐷 6
solve for: C
Δ𝑉
𝑉 ∗8∗𝐿∗𝑓
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Δ
𝑇
𝑑𝑉
2 𝑖 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
DC – DC Buck Converter Effect of Inductor Resistance rL

𝟐∗𝝅∗𝒇∗𝑳
Inductor Quality factor : Q = 𝒓𝑳
V0 -+
𝑉 𝑟 ∗𝑖 𝐿 𝑉 =0 Inductor Volt-second-balance Repeat the

𝑉 𝑉 𝑖 ∗𝑟 ∗𝐷 ( 𝑉 𝑖 ∗ 𝑟 )*(1-D) = 0 analysis if MOSFT
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑣 𝐿 𝑉 𝑉 𝑖 ∗𝑟 on-resistance
𝑑𝑡 Solve the above equation to obtain 𝑉 and diode
forward drop
𝑽𝒊𝒏 ∗ 𝑫
𝑽𝒐 𝒓𝑳 3 need to be
𝟏 considered
𝑹
V0 𝑽𝒐 ∗𝑰𝒐
Efficiency η 𝑽𝒐 ∗𝑰𝒐 𝑰𝟐𝑳 ∗𝒓𝑳
since 𝑰𝑳 𝑰𝒐 we have
𝒓𝑳 𝑉 η
Simplify the above equation to obtain η 𝑹 𝑉
𝑟 ∗𝑖 𝐿 𝑉 =0 0.01 0.99D 99%
𝟏
𝑑𝑖 2 η 𝒓𝑳 4 0.1 0.91D 90.9%
𝑣 𝐿 𝑉 𝑖 ∗𝑟 𝟏
𝑑𝑡 𝑹
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10/12/2020
Design a DC-DC Buck Converter for Maximum Power

1000W/m2
4
Converter
3.5
DC/DC
800W/m2
3 R= 5 ohms
2
2.5 600W/m
Current [A]

2
400W/m
1.5
Insolation VPV G Vo Pmax
1 1000W/m2 18.4 1 18.4 68W
0.5 800W/m2 18.4 0.9 16.4 54W
600W/m2 18.3 0.77 14.1 40W

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage [V] 400W/m2 18 0.63 11.4 26W
DC – DC Buck Converter –Design Example

Input voltage 𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 18 V to 25 V
Output voltage 𝑽𝒐 = 10 V to 20 V
Output voltage ripple = 2%
Output current 𝑰𝒐 = Varies between 1.5A to 4A
Switching Frequency 𝒇 = 500kHz
a) Specify the inductor value such that converter is in continuous conduction
b) Find the capacitor value C that meets the specification.
c) Also determine the required rms current rating of the MOSFET, inductor and the
capacitor.
Follow the design equations and obtain L

and C for worst case conditions. Choose TI Gan half bridge LMG5200 80-V, 10-A
L 3 uH Choose a low loss ferrite inductor that does

not saturate for a dc current of say 5A
C 5 uF Choose a high frequency capacitor with low
ESR
Iin 4A Choose a MOSFET with twice the current and
voltage rating. i.e. 8 A, 50 V device
Rds 15-20 For TI GaN
m-ohm
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10/12/2020
DC – DC Buck Converter – PSIM Simulation
DC – DC Buck Converter - Interleaving
• Parallel operation / Multiphase operation – to increase the

current output. Used in high output current requirements
• Phase shift can be employed between phases to effectively
multiply the ripple frequency at the output
• Also power dissipation is spread to multiple phases over a
wider area on a PCB
TI-article: Benefits of a multiphase buck
• Offers improved reliability and redundancy against failures converter
& https://www.eetimes.com/benefits-of-
multiphasing-buck-converters-part-1/
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DC – DC Buck Converter – Interleaving - multiphase

• Each phase is driven by gate drive signals of the same
switching frequency fs but adjacent phases are phase shifted
by 360°C/N .
• For example, a three-phase converter is driven by gate
signals at 0, 120, and 240 degrees.
The MAX77812 is a quad-phase high-

efficiency stepdown (buck) converter capable
of delivering up to 20A of maximum current
DC – DC Boost Converter – Inductor Resistance

Switch - ON
Inductor Volt-second-balance
𝑉 𝐼 ∗𝑟 ∗𝐷 (𝑉 𝐼 ∗𝑟 𝑉 )*(1-D) = 0
Solve the above equation to obtain 𝑉
𝑽𝒐 𝟏 𝟏 6
𝑑𝑖 𝒓𝑳
𝐿 𝑖 ∗𝑟 𝑉 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟏 𝑫 𝟏
𝑑𝑡 𝑹 𝟏 𝑫 𝟐
𝑣 𝐿 𝑉 𝑖 ∗𝑟
𝑽𝒐 ∗𝑰𝒐
Switch - OFF Efficiency η 𝑽𝒐 ∗𝑰𝒐 𝑰𝟐𝑳 ∗𝒓𝑳
since 𝐼 we have
Simplify the above equation to obtain η
𝟏
η 𝒓𝑳 7
𝟏 𝟐
𝑹 𝟏 𝑫
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 𝐿 𝑉 𝑖 ∗𝑟 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
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DC – DC Boost Converter – Inductor Resistance
𝑽𝒐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟏 𝑫 𝟏 𝒓𝑳
𝑹 𝟏 𝑫 𝟐
𝒓𝑳 D 𝑉 η
𝑹 𝑉
𝟏 0.01 0.8 4 80%
η 𝒓𝑳
𝟏 𝟐
0.02 0.8 3.33 67%
𝑹 𝟏 𝑫
𝒓
• Lower 𝑳 ratio will yield better results.
𝑹
• Maximum boost ratio by design should be limited to
3 for better performance & higher efficiency
• MOSFET / Inductor / Capacitor section become
very important for better performance
Buck Boost Buck/Boost

Converter Converter Converter
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒐 𝑫
𝑽𝒐 𝑫 ∗ 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒐
𝟏 𝑫 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟏 𝑫
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DC – DC Converter – Topology Selection

Criterion Buck Boost Buck-Boost
Transistor Vˆ Vin Vo (Vin  Vo )
Transistor Iˆ Io I in I in  I o
I rms Transistor DI o DI in D  I in  I o 
I avg Transistor DI o DI in D  I in  I o 
Diode (1  D) I o (1  D) I in (1  D )  I in  I o 
IL Io I in I in  I o
Effect of L on C significant little little
Pulsating Current input output both
• Assumption - the inductor ripple current is negligible
• Conclusion: Buck-Boost converter suffers from several
additional stresses
• Worst case design (select large L and C)
DC – DC Converter – Bi-directional Power Flow
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DC – DC Buck/Boost Converter – Component Selection
www.sumida.com
Note: the ± 20% variation in inductor value
www.coilcraft.com
DC – DC Buck/Boost Converter – Component Selection

High speed switch mode power supplies require
extremely low equivalent series resistance (ESR)
and equivalent series inductance (ESL)
capacitors for input and output filtering. These
requirements are beyond the practical limits of
electrolytic capacitors, both aluminum and
tantalums, but are readily met by multilayer
ceramic (MLCs) capacitors (Figure 1).
http://www.avx.com/products/film-capacitors/
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10/12/2020
Power Supply on a Chip – PowerSoc-Conferences
Schematic of the Intel-Enpirion PowerSoC
• Packages that combine an IC and inductor into a single device.

• Such packages are larger than conventional power modules, but take up less board space than a power
module plus a discrete inductor.
• The designer does not face the hassle of selecting and designing-in a suitable inductor as the supplier has
already done the job.
Flyback DC-DC Converter

Buck Boost Converter
Now construct a inductor

with two windings of a1 a2
parallel wires as shown
b1 b2
a1 a2
b1 b2
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Flyback DC-DC Converter

a1 a2
Output is
isolated from
the input
b1 b2
Flyback converter having a

1:n turns ratio and positive
output. Notice the dots on
the windings
Multiple (isolated) outputs are

possible. By varying the turns
ratio different voltage levels can
be obtained (ex: 5V and 15V)
Flyback DC-DC Converter - Analysis

𝑑𝑖
𝑣 𝑉 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 Δ𝑖 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝐷𝑇 𝐿
𝑁
Diode voltage rating is: 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑁
Volt-sec balance across

the inductor Lm we have
𝑁
𝑉 ∗ 𝐷𝑇 𝑉 ∗ 1 𝐷 𝑇 0
𝑁
𝑉 𝐷 𝑁
∗
𝑉 1 𝐷 𝑁 Capacitor equation is same as
buck-boost:
60
10/12/2020
Solar Micro Inverter System Design & Simulation
• Another common configuration of micro-inverter.

• Four PV panels are used to reduce microinverter cost per panel
• Four Flyback converters in parallel to achieve Maximum Power Point
for each panel.
PowerElectronics
Power Electronics&&Power
PowerQuality
QualityLaboratory,
Laboratory,Texas
TexasA&M
A&MUniversity,
University,enjeti@tamu.edu
enjeti@tamu.edu 121
Commercial Products
 Hoymiles 4 in 1 Micro-inverter
61
10/12/2020
Commercial Products
 Sparq Quad 1200  1200 W four input
Micro‐inverter
Simulation Circuit
Table 1 Design Example Parameters

Flyback
Power (W) 200
Vin (V) 33
Vo (V) 400
fs-flyback (kHz) 20
N1:N2 1:4
Inverter
VAO-RMS (V) 120
fs-Inverter (Hz) 20
124
Power Electronics & Power Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University, http://enjeti.tamu.edu
62
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Flyback Design for the US (120 VRMS & 60 Hz)
• Flyback for isolation and voltage boost.

• MPPT control is implemented in Switch 1.
• Flyback Design Equations :
𝑽𝒐 𝑫.𝑵𝟐
• ≫𝑫 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟏 𝑫 .𝑵𝟏
• Inductance needed to operate full load at BCM 𝑳𝒎)
𝑽𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝑫𝟐 ŋ
• 𝑳𝒎 𝟐𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 µ𝐇
𝟐 𝒇𝒔𝒘 𝑷𝒐
• ŋ is the assumed efficiency of the flyback (99%) Design Example Parameter
Power (W) 200

𝑫 𝑷𝒐
• 𝑰𝒔𝟏 𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝟔. 𝟗𝑨 Vin (V) 40
𝟑 𝟎.𝟓ŋ∗𝑽𝒊𝒏∗𝑫
𝑵𝟏 Vo (V) 400
• 𝑽𝑭𝒍𝒚𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝟏 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒐 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑽
𝑵𝟐 fs‐flyback (kHz) 100
𝑵𝟐
• 𝑽𝑭𝒍𝒚𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑫𝟏 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝑽 N1:N2 1:4
𝑵𝟏
125
Flyback Design for Africa (220 VRMS & 50 Hz)

• Flyback for isolation and voltage boost.
• MPPT control is implemented in Switch 1.
• Flyback Design Equations :
𝑽𝒐 𝑫.𝑵𝟐
• ≫𝑫 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟏 𝑫 .𝑵𝟏
• Inductance needed to operate full load at BCM 𝑳𝒎)
𝑽𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝑫𝟐 ŋ
• 𝑳𝒎 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟗 µ𝐇
𝟐 𝒇𝒔𝒘 𝑷𝒐
• ŋ is the assumed efficiency of the flyback (99%) Design Example Parameter
Power (W) 200

𝑫 𝑷𝒐
• 𝑰𝒔𝟏 𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝟔. 𝟕 𝑨 Vin (V) 40
𝟑 𝟎.𝟓ŋ∗𝑽𝒊𝒏∗𝑫
𝑵𝟏 Vo (V) 400
• 𝑽𝑭𝒍𝒚𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝟏 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒐 𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝑽
𝑵𝟐 fs‐flyback (kHz) 20
𝑵𝟐
• 𝑽𝑭𝒍𝒚𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑫𝟏 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟖𝟐𝟐 𝑽 N1:N2 1:5
𝑵𝟏
126
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Snubber Circuit Design
• Leakage inductance and switch parasitic
Capacitance resonate.
• Snubber Circuit (RCD) must be designed to absorb Ringing in
the main switch.
• Snubber Design Equations
𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝐬𝐧 𝐟𝐬
𝐏𝐬𝐧 𝐋 𝐢
𝟐 𝐤 𝒔𝟏 𝐩𝐤
𝐕𝐬𝐧
𝐍𝟏
𝐕
𝐍𝟐 𝐨
𝐕𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝐑 𝐬𝐧
𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝐬𝐧 𝐟𝐬
𝐋 𝐢
𝟐 𝐤 𝒔𝟏 𝐩𝐤 𝐍𝟏
𝐕𝐬𝐧 𝐕
𝐍𝟐 𝐨
𝐕𝐬𝐧
𝐂𝐬𝐧
𝚫𝐕𝐬𝐧 𝐑 𝐬𝐧 𝐟𝐬
127
Flyback Current Waveforms Full

Load Ipri
 Boundry Condition Mode (BCM) at full load.

 BCM enables ZCS  reduce losses. BCM
Isec
 Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM) at less than
maximum irradiance.
Light
Load
Ipri
Isec
DCM
128
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Inverter Control
• Control is done in DQ frame (DC quantity)
• DQ transformation is done through αβ
transformation.
• Single phase systems have one signal
only.
• α is the real value, β is a fictitious
component to perform the αβ-dq
transformation.
• Inverter output voltage must match the
utility grid voltage.
• The current injected to the utility grid is the
maximum available current from the solar
PV.
129
Microinverter Simulation in PLECS

(See Microinverter-Ahmed under Enjeti-Simulations)
- Time domain (Four Panel Flyback Microinverter --- with 20kHz)
- Thermal simulations (Thermal-analysis Microinverter Folder – File: Microinverter-Thermal)
130
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PV Module used in Simulation

KC200GT - Kyocera Solar
Typical cost of 300 W module is ~$250-$300.

131
Simulation Results
Full
Load Ipri
Isec
BCM
Light
Load
Ipri
Isec
DCM
132
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Injecting power (W) to the grid
133

IL 𝑋 𝑗𝑤𝐿
 The real power (W) transferred L
between two sinusoidal voltage
sources is given by: VAC δ Vgrid 0
𝑉 𝑉
𝑃 sin 𝛿
𝑋 200
V_AC V_grid
100
0
 Where: -100
-200
IL
 VAC,grid = voltage magnitude 4
0
 Xs= line reactance -4
Instantaneous power Average Power

 δ= phase angle between VAC and Vgrid 0
-400
-800
4 4.005 4.01 4.015 4.02 4.025 4.03 4.035
Time (s)
134
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IL 𝑋 𝑗𝑤𝐿
VAC
VL L
δ VAC δ Vgrid 0
IL Vgrid
𝑉 𝑉
𝑃 sin 𝛿
𝑋 V_AC V_grid
Where: 200 δ
VAC,grid=voltage magnitude 100
Xs=line reactance 0
δ=phase angle between VAC -100
and Vgrid -200
4 4.005 4.01 4.015 4.02 4.025 4.03 4.035

Time (s)
135
Operation example for EE Majors

A PV panel is connected to the grid using:
oA boost converter with galvanic isolation
oAn DC-AC converter
The boost converter is designed to maintain a VDC voltage of 200 V independently of
the insolation level
The Boost converter includes a turns ratio of n=2 for the galvanic isolation and the
inductance L = 5mH
136
Source: SUNPOWER
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Max Power Point Tracking (MPPT) scheme

start
Sense IAC(k), VAC(k), δ(k)
𝑽𝑨𝑪 𝒌𝑽𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒅
Calculate P(k) 𝑷 𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿𝒔
no yes
Pmax
P(k)‐P(k‐1)>0
Pk
P(k‐1)
yes no no yes
δ(k)‐δ(k‐1)>0 δ(k)‐δ(k‐1)>0
Power (W)
Decrease δ Increase δ Decrease δ Increase δ
δ (degrees) δk δmaxP δ(k‐1)

return
137
PLECS Simulation Results
138
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10/12/2020
Simulation Results
 The DC Bus Voltage has to be 400V
 The irradiance is changed from 1000
W/𝒎^𝟐 to 650 W/𝒎^𝟐 to examine the
controller
 The voltage stabilizes at 400 V when the
irradiance changes
Steady State
Bus Voltage
Solar System Irradiance
connected to changes from
the grid 1000 W/𝒎𝟐 to
650 W/𝒎𝟐
Simulation Results
Simulated PV-Curve
1000 W/𝒎𝟐
irradiance curve
650 W/𝒎𝟐
irradiance curve
1000 W/𝒎𝟐
 The solar panel has to supply maximum power. irradiance curve Simulated IV-Curve
 The PV curve is simulated for the panel. The PV
panel operates at 200 W when the the
irradiance is 1000 W/𝒎𝟐
750 W/𝒎𝟐
 When the irradiance decreases to 650 W/𝒎𝟐 , irradiance curve
the maximum power point goes down to 127 W.
140
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Simulation Results
Grid Voltage is fixed
When the irradiance decreases
Steady State
 The Grid Voltage is fixed
 The irradiance changed from Irradiance changes from
1000 W/𝒎𝟐 to 650 W/𝒎𝟐
1000 W/𝒎^𝟐 to 650 W/𝒎^𝟐
 The controller adjusted the
current injected while
maintaining the voltage of Steady State
the inverter matching the

grid voltage.
141
DC – AC Inverters
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DC – AC Inverters – Single Phase

 Average area per cycle (0 to T) is:
V tri Vtri Vcontrol
1 Vd Vd Vd 
V Ao ,av   2 t1  2 (t 2 t1 )  2 (T  t 2 )
VAo T  
0 t
T
Vdc
VAo 
Vcontrol

Vd t1  ( Vcontrol  2Vtri )
2

V tri 2 4V tri
Vdc
T
2
t t2  (4Vtri  2Vcontrol )
0 t1 t2 T
4V tri
Vtri
Vcontrol Substituting t1 and t2 in VAo,av yields
Vd
VAo ,1  m a   sin( t )
0 t 2
where,
ma= modulation index
Vcontrol
 
; 0  ma  1
V tri

+
Output
Vdc TA+ Fundamental of VAO
Chopped voltage VAO
2 L
io Vdc
+ - 2
Vdc o A
- + +
Vdc 0 t
TA+ VAN
2
Vdc
- -
2
N 
( V Ao )h
0  ma  1 Vd / 2 Harmonics h of VAO
f 1.2 m a  0.8, m f  15
m f  tri 1.0
f1 0.8
0.6
0.4
If the frequency of the carrier (triangle 0.2
waveform) i.e. 𝒇𝒕𝒓𝒊 = 6kHz then, 0.0
1 mf 2m f 3m f
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 (m f  2) ( 2m f  2) ( 3m f  2)
𝒎𝒇 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟔𝟎
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Carrier wave, Vtri

DC – AC Inverters
Reference voltage, Vcontrol
(Frequency, fcontrol) (Frequency, ftri)
Vdc
TA+ DA+ TB+ DB+
0 t 2
Load
b i
+
Vdc O A B
-
Vdc
Vd 2 TA- DA- TB- DB-
 Vd
Fundamental of VAO Unipolar switching sequence
Output
voltage VAO TA+ is on when Vcontrol > Vtri
TB- is on when -Vcontrol < Vtri
TB+ is on when -Vcontrol > Vtri
TA- is on when Vcontrol < Vtri
145

PSIM Simulation File Name: single-phase inverter
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DC – AC Inverters – Three Phase

Three phase Inverters: are essential for generating three phase AC power from a given DC source.
• Basic topology consists of six switches, Q1 to Q6 are suitably pulse width modulated to generate
balanced three phase output voltages: VAB, VBC, VCA respectively.
• The PWM strategy for control consists of comparing three sinusoidal modulating signals with appropriate
120 degree phase shift are compared with a triangular carrier signal and switches Q1 to Q6 are
controlled in PWM fashion.
V tri Vcontrol, A Vcontrol, B Vcontrol, C
0 t
Vd
VAo,1  ma * sin( wt )
2
Vd
VBo,1  ma * sin( wt  1200 )
2
Since the line to line output voltage VAB = VAo – VBo ,

we have,
V
VAB ,1  3 * m a * d sin( wt  30 0 )
2
Similarly the fundamental component in VBC phase
can be shown to be,
V
VBC ,1  3 * m a * d sin( wt  90 0 )
2
74
10/12/2020

idc ia
Example Calculation: In order for the inverter
3-phase Inverter vab R-L Load
ib
to generate three phase 480V AC (rms.) line to
ic line voltage (i.e. VAB,1 = 2*480 ) the required
dc-link voltage Vd can be computed as,
2 * V AB ,1
Vd 
3 * ma
Substituting VAB,1 = 2*480 ) and ma=1, we

obtain Vd = 784V DC
Solar PV Inverters – Three Phase Inverter – Grid Connection
75
10/12/2020
IEEE Power Electronics Society

https://twitter.com/IEEEPELS
https://www.ieee-pels.org/
https://www.ieee-pels.org/education/pels-past-webinars
76
10/12/2020
IEEE Power Electronics Society

https://www.linkedin.com/groups/2091456/
Thank you!!
77

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10/12/2020

Dr. Prasad Enjeti,

Smart Grid & Power Electronics

- This course serves as an introductory course to the field of

Smart Grid & Power Electronics

Smart Grid & Power Electronics

Smart Grid & Power Electronics

Smart Grid & Power Electronics

Energy & Human Development

The Electric Grid Today

The Electric Grid of the Future

The grid of the Future –

A microgrid can connect and

Types of Microgrids – AC Microgrids

 Can range from

DC Microgrids Power Electronics

• An emerging technology which

• For more information:

Power Electronic Converters : DC-DC and AC-DC Type

DC Microgrids – Multi Voltage

DC Microgrids – Voltage Droop Control for Load Sharing

Principle of Droop Control – Example

A generic design of a solar home system with a PV module, AC

Solar Energy Systems Add some pictures here from Africa

Residential Space Commercial

Photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion

 PV cells are made up of semiconductor

Improved equivalent circuit of PV cell

 String: Vstring  n Vd  I Rs 

PV cell I-V characteristics

The PV Cell: Temperature,

0.5 What is the max power from

Fixed heater resistance (R= 5 ohms) moves

Gain of the DC-DC Converter G = Vo / Vpv adjustment

0.5 800W/m2 18.4 0.9 16.4 54W

600W/m2 18.3 0.77 14.1 40W

Question – if R = 20 ohms, find DC/DC converter gain

Gain of the DC-DC Converter G = Vo / Vpv adjustment

1 Maximum power at 1000W/m2, Pmax = 68W occurs at Vpv= 18.4 V

0 Need a Boost Converter

Maximum Power Point Tracking

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)– Perturb & Observe Algorithm

Duty Cycle D = Vo / Vpv adjustment to

Components of a Residential System

PV Modules Mechanical BOS

Shading of a PV Module https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules-and-arrays/shading

• Cells are connected in series in a module to

Anatomy of a Typical Silicon Solar Module

Sixty-cell module, 6x10 layout, 6” cells

Front contacts – conducts on sun-facing side

Three “bypass” diodes – for shaded or broken cells

Junction (J-) box houses diodes and PV output wires

Bypass diodes in paralleled modules.

Impact of Shading with 3 Bypass Diodes

• A reduction of 85 W i.e. 38% reduction in output power

Large Scale (MW) Solar PV Power Plants

Photovoltaic converter topologies

 PV modules connected in series forming strings with

 Disadvantages: low energy harvest due to centralized

Large Scale PV Plant – Centralized Inverter

Intermittency of Solar Energy

 PV power from a 4.6 MW

Microinverter AC PV System Architecture