CHAPTER 17

NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

1 INTRODUCTION
Recall from Chapter 16 that the basic principle of the finite element method is that a
mathematical model of a structure can be built up from a series of discrete ‘finite’
elements, each of which has an analytically defined relationship between force and
displacement (in a mechanical problem). This force-deformation relationship, or
stiffness, of each element can be assembled to create a global stiffness matrix for the
whole structure. Then, by employing a matrix solution technique, the response of
the entire structure to the prescribed loads and boundary conditions can be
determined.
The finite element method is characterised by the simple relationship between a
vector of forces, F, the stiffness matrix, K and a displacement vector, U where

{F} = [K]{U} (17.1)

The majority of the FE analysis performed to date has been linear; that is, the
stiffness, K, of the structure being analysed is assumed to remain constant. In most
cases, this is an approximation, since even small deflections in a structure are likely
to introduce some changes in stiffness. However, in many instances, the
approximation is valid within the limits of the engineering analysis and so the results
are quite acceptable.
This assumption of linearity, in the FE solution, provides several key benefits.
For example, the results can be factored – if a load of 10N produces a deflection of
5mm in a structure, a load of 25N will produce a deflection of 12.5mm. In this case
the past loading history of the structure is not important – ‘residual’ stresses can be
ignored. Another major benefit is the principle of superposition – results obtained
from the individual application of different loads can be factored and added together
to produce the results from the simultaneous application of all the loads. The
factoring and superposition of results is particularly useful when analysing an object
where many separate loads may be applied, in different combinations and with
different magnitudes.
Despite the clear benefits of linear FE analysis, the assumption of linearity can
severely limit the capacity of the finite element technique to model real engineering
problems undergoing realistic loading. A major drawback of the assumption that the
structural stiffness remains constant during the analysis is the implication that the
material properties must remain constant throughout the analysis. This precludes the
analysis of any structure in which the material might yield and undergo plastic
deformation or in which the material stiffness is dependent on the strain, the strain
rate or a temperature field, which vary with time. All these conditions are likely to
exist during the life of a soldered interconnection.
305
306 CHAPTER 17

There are other limitations inherent in the linear assumption. For example,
changes in the structural stiffness that may arise from contact between parts of the
structure and/or any subsequent frictional sliding cannot be taken into account in a
linear analysis. Also, linear analysis will become invalid if the structure undergoes
large deflections, because significant changes in the shape or orientation of a
structure can alter its stiffness.
In general, it can be seen that many real-life engineering problems, including
micro-electronics with its different materials, high working temperatures over long
periods and other conditions varying with time, cannot be analysed accurately using
a linear FE approach because there are too many non-linearities for the assumption
to remain valid.
Given these limitations, how can a non-linear analysis overcome such problems?
In simple terms, a non-linear finite element analysis differs from a linear analysis in
that the ‘stiffness’ of the structure in a non-linear analysis is not assumed to be
constant throughout the simulation. That is to say, F ≠ K U , and we consider
the stiffness to include both geometric, load and material stiffness terms. It will be
shown in subsequent sections, that this change in the underlying assumptions of the
finite element method has an effect on the way the input data are defined, the way
the solution is obtained, and the way in which the results are interpreted.
In some cases, the non-linear model may be more difficult to set up; it may be
more computationally intensive to run, and it may require the interpretation of a
larger quantity and a wider range of results
Fundamentally, non-linear analysis is an extension of linear analysis: it is based
on matrix solution techniques and employs elements, material models, loads, and
boundary conditions. There is an important difference, however, and that is the
solution procedure is an incremental-iterative process and the elements and
constitutive laws may be highly sophisticated.
It is important to note that both linear and non-linear FE analyses should provide
the same answer for a linear problem. It is only when the problem contains some
form of non-linearity that the linear assumptions lead to a loss of accuracy.
Table 17.1 illustrates the main differences between linear and non-linear
analyses.
 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 307
Table 17-1. Comparison between linear and non-linear analysis (1)

Feature Linear Non-linear

Load-displacement
Stress-strain relationship
Magnitude
of displacement
Material properties
Reversibility
Boundary conditions
Loading sequence
Iterations and increments
Computation time
Use of results
Initial state of stress/strain
Displacements are
linearly dependent on the
applied loads.
A linear relationship is
assumed between stress
and strain.
Changes are assumed
small and ignored. The
original (undeformed)
state is used as the
reference state.
Linear elastic properties
are usually easy to obtain.
The behaviour of the
structure is completely
reversible upon removal
of the external loads.
Remain unchanged
throughout the analysis.
Not important. The final
state is unaffected by the
load history.
The load is applied in one
load step with no
iterations.
Relatively small in
comparison to non-linear
problems.
Superposition and scaling
allow results to be
factored and combined as
required.
Unimportant.
The load-displacement
relationships are non-
linear.
With material non-
linearity, this relationship
is a non-linear function of
stress, strain and/or time.
Displacements may not be
small; hence an updated
reference state may be
needed.
Non-linear properties may
be difficult to obtain.
Upon removal of external
loads, the final state may
be different from the
initial state.
May change, e.g. a
change in contact area.
The behaviour of the
structure may depend on
the load history.
The load is often divided
into small increments
with iterations performed
to ensure that equilibrium
is satisfied at every load
increment.
Due to the many solution
steps required for load
incrementation and
iterations, computation
time is high.
Factoring and combining
of results is not possible
due to the history
dependence.
Usually required for
material non-linearity
problems.
308 CHAPTER 17

2 TYPES OF NON-LINEARITIES
There are three major types of non-linearities typically used in engineering
problems. The most relevant to microelectronics is material non-linearity, which
can be can further divided into two distinct types of behaviour:
• Time-independent behaviour, such as the elasto-plastic behaviour of solder
loaded past the yield point.
• Time-dependent behaviour, such as the creep of solder when the effect of
change of strain with time is important. This usually requires some form of
power law to express the stress-strain rate relationship. This was covered
in Chapter 3. At fixed strain, stress varies with time as stress relaxation
occurs. Two other material models of this type are viscoelastic and
viscoplastic behaviour in which both effects of plasticity and creep are
combined. In this case, the stress is dependent on the strain rate.
The other two non-linearities include: Geometric Non-Linearity, which covers
large deformations and/or large strains; and Boundary Non-Linearity, for example
the opening/closing of gaps and contact. These will be discussed in more detail in
subsequent sections.

3 MATERIAL NON-LINEARITIES
The assumptions of linearity are based on the practical experience that for small
deformations, many materials exhibit an elastic response – the material returns
instantaneously to its original shape when the loading is removed. In addition the
value of the elastic stiffness, Young’s modulus, is a constant for a particular material
at a particular temperature. (See Chapter 2 for more detail).
The use of the term ‘small’ raises the obvious question: ‘How small is small?’
There is no definitive answer. In fact, it is better to use the term “significant”, since
the decision on whether a number is small or not depends largely on whether its
magnitude is significant in terms of the analysis being performed.
In analysing the behaviour of a structure when the strains in the material are not
small and the material no longer behaves elastically, the original shape is not
retained after the loading is removed. This behaviour is normally described as
plasticity, and is characterised by a stress-strain curve where the material has a
constant elastic stiffness up to a certain small strain value and then undergoes some
form of yielding, followed by plastic flow at higher values of strain. Further details
were presented in Chapter 2.
Such material behaviour cannot be modelled using the linear finite element
method because once the yield point is reached the stiffness changes as the
deformation increases. A non-linear solution technique must, therefore, be used.
Many metallic materials have clearly defined yield points, so that data required
to characterise behaviour can be as simple as Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio,
yield stress, and hardening modulus. However, most ductile materials may exhibit
strain rate dependence, where the values of the yield stress and hardening modulus
change depending on the rate at which the materials are being deformed. In
addition, as seen earlier, yield stress and hardening modulus may also be highly
 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 309

dependent on temperature. With their generally small yield stress, and sensitivity to
strain rate and temperature, solders are most unlikely to be amenable to linear
analysis.

3.1 Time-Independent Behaviour (Plasticity)

When a ductile material experiences stresses beyond the elastic limit, it will yield,
acquiring large permanent deformations. Plasticity refers to the material response
after yield. In metals, such plasticity was described in Chapter 2. The following
sections consider the process from a more analytical viewpoint, with an emphasis on
the finite element method.

3.1.1 Outline of a Finite Element plasticity algorithm

There are several assumption used in modelling elasto-plasticity. These may be
summarised as follows:
• Elasto-plastic flow is path-dependent, i.e. it is dependent on the load path,
but is independent of time.
• All of the variables, e.g. displacement, can be expressed as ‘rates’, where
rate is used to indicate a sequence of events, as opposed to change with
time. Time in this form of analysis, is referred to as pseudo-time.
• The external loads are applied in small increments and the deformation and
resulting stresses can be accumulated to give the final state of stresses and
strains.
In elasto-plastic problems, the use of load incrementation and equilibrium
iterations is necessary to achieve the final solution. Within each load increment, the
plasticity relationships, which depend on the current state of loading, are satisfied
and the variables updated for the next load increment. Iterations are required within
each increment in order to ensure that the requirements of satisfying the constitutive
equations and the overall equilibrium are satisfied. The iterations are terminated
when the solution has converged to some previously specified criteria. The number
of iterations depends on the size of the load increment, and whether the stiffness
matrix has been updated to reflect the current stress-strain state.
A simplified FE algorithm for modelling elasto-plastic behaviour is given by the
following (1)
• Apply the load assuming elastic behaviour everywhere. The overall
stiffness matrix is obtain, and the following equations solved to obtain the
displacement vector:
[ K e ][u ] = [ F ] (17.2)
where [ K e ] is the elastic stiffness matrix, and [ F ] is the full load vector.
• Calculate the effective stress at all Gauss (integration) points, and check the
maximum value against yield stress, σ y . If it does not exceed σ y , then
there is no need for a plasticity analysis. If it does, scale down the
310 CHAPTER 17

magnitudes of all nodal displacements such that the node or Gauss point
with the highest effect stress is just yielding. The scaling factor is used to
determine the fraction of the applied loads that causes initial yielding.
• Divide the remainder of the applied load into small increments, either as
specified by the user, or according to a suitable automatic scheme.
• Apply one load increment, and re-solve the equations to obtain the new
displacements corresponding to this load vector. Use either the initial
[ ]
(elastic) stiffness matrix K e , or the tangent stiffness matrix, ª¬ K p º¼ ,
which is updated to contain the current state of plasticity, as follows:

ª¬ K p º¼ [ ∆u ] = [ ∆F ] (17.3)

Many Finite Element codes use the initial stiffness matrix and then update
it after a few load increments or iterations to reflect the current state of
plasticity.
• Perform iteration to ensure that the solution is acceptable, i.e. it satisfies
both the equilibrium conditions and the plasticity material laws. From the
computed ∆u[ ] , the total and plastic strain increments can be calculated,
and then the corresponding stress. An out-of-balance or residual force
[ ]
vector, R , is calculated by integrating the stresses over all the elements
and subtracting the internal forces from the external forces. If convergence
[ ]
is not achieved, i.e. R is not smaller than a specified tolerance, an
iteration is commenced by solving a new set of equations, as follows:

ª¬ K p º¼ [ ∆ucorr ] = [ R ] (17.4)

Where [ ∆ucorr ] is a correction to the displacement vector in order to

balance the residual force vector. Using this correction, the displacement
vector is improved and the iteration repeated to obtain a new residual force
vector. The displacement corrections and the residual forces should be
getting smaller with each iteration, until convergence is achieved.
• Store the computed increments of displacements, strains and stresses at
each node, and update the existing values.
• Apply the next load increment and perform iterations as necessary.
Terminate the calculations when the final load is processed.
Summarising the important points in the above algorithm, the fundamental
characteristic of a non-linear FE solution is that the stiffness matrix is not constant
during the analysis. The stiffness matrix may need to be recalculated many times
over the course of the analysis; therefore, an iterative-incremental solution technique
 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 311

is normally employed. The loading is applied in successive incremental stages; and

an iterative scheme is used to find equilibrium at each increment. In this way the
solution proceeds with successive changes to the stiffness at each increment until the
final load has been reached.
Several consequences arise from the use of this solution procedure: The non-
linear analysis almost certainly takes longer than a linear analysis of the same model
because the matrix solution is carried out many times rather than just once. In
addition, there is the possibility that the analysis will not complete at all. The
incremental, iterative approach relies on the non-linear changes being relatively
smooth. If there are sharp changes in the stiffness of the structure, the solution may
not converge to an equilibrium state.
The level of expertise of the analyst, and the quality of the software itself are
often key factors that determine whether or not a non-linear analysis is successful.
A very good and comprehensive description of Finite Element algorithms and
procedures used in non-linear analysis is presented by (2).

3.2 Time Dependent Behaviour (Creep, Viscoelasticity, Viscoplasticity)

In this class of material models, rate refers to real time, unlike the models described
above.

3.2.1 Creep
Creep is a rate (time) dependent material non-linearity in which the material
continues to deform under a constant load. If a uniaxial tensile specimen is loaded
at high temperature (T>0.4 Tm, where units are in Kelvin) the change of strain as a
function of time, at a constant temperature, is similar to the form given in Figure 17-
1.a. As presented in Chapter 2, the time-strain curve may be divided into three
stages termed primary, secondary and tertiary creep, although some authors define
four stages to include the initial elastic strain on loading.
In the primary stage, the strain rate decreases with time. The secondary stage
has a constant or approximately constant, strain rate associated with it; see Figure
17-1.b. While in the tertiary stage, the strain rate increases rapidly until rupture.
Creep behaviour can be represented by a set of curves relating the stress, strain and
time. Those for constant time (isochronous) and constant strain (isostrain) are
illustrated in Figure 17-1.c.
312 CHAPTER 17

Figure 17-1 a) Primary, Secondary and tertiary stages of creep, b) creep strain rate, c)
Isochronous and isostrain creep curves.(1)

The dependency of creep deformation rate εc as a function of stress, strain,

temperature and time, can be represented in a form similar to:

ε = f1 (σ ) f 2 ( ε ) f3 (T ) f 4 ( t )
c (17.5)

Although this form of equation has proved to be useful, it is the user’s

responsibility to insure, via experimental evidence, that it is applicable to a
particular material and stress-temperature range. More detailed information on these
and other models is available elsewhere (3).
The stress dependence of secondary (or minimum) creep has been described in
several ways. Two of the most common are:
εc = Aσ n Norton , εc = B sinh ( βσ ) Prandlt
The time dependence of creep, equation 17.5, has been expressed in several
forms, including:
f4 (t ) = t Secondary , f 4 ( t ) = bt
m
Bailey
 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 313

The exponent m<1 is used to represent the primary creep stage.

The temperature dependence, from both theoretical considerations and
experimental evidence, is of the form:

§ −Q ·
f3 (T ) = exp ¨ ¸ (17.6)
© RT ¹

where Q is the activation energy, R the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute
temperature. Refer to Chapter 3.
A favourite model to represent secondary creep in isothermal conditions is the
Norton model. This is given by:
εc = Aσ nt (17.7)
where A and n are material constants determined experimentally. If both primary
and secondary behaviour are of interest, then the Norton-Bailey model is often used,
i.e. εc = Aσ nt m (17.8)
Alternatively, the secondary creep and Bailey models may be combined,

εc = A1σ n1t + A2σ n 2t m (17.9)

Again, it is the user’s responsibility to insure that the model chosen from the
many available is applicable to the problem at hand. However, most Finite Element
codes consider only the primary and secondary stages of creep.
A change in stress during primary creep can be accommodated in modelling by
assuming either a time hardening or strain hardening response. In the time
hardening approximation, the creep strain rate depends only upon the time from the
beginning of the creep process. That is to say, the stress curve shifts up or down.
As the stress changes from σ 1 to σ 2 , the different creep rates are calculated at
points A to B.
Strain hardening assumes that the creep strain rate depends only on the current
accumulated creep strain. In this case, the stress curve shifts left or right. As the
stress changes from σ 1 to σ 2 , the different creep rates are calculated at points A to
B.
The differences between the time hardening and strain hardening assumptions
can be illustrated as in Figure 17-2 (4). The time hardening assumption is easier to
use, but the strain hardening assumption is considered more accurate. Neither time
nor strain hardening assumption is suitable for situations where the stress changes
sign, that is stress reversal or in covering all three stages of creep. Both of these
assumptions are usually implemented in commercial Finite Element codes.
314 CHAPTER 17

Figures 17-2 ( a) time hardening (b) strain hardening

In Table 17.2 the various forms of implicit creep models, as supported by the
commercial, ANSYS® Finite Element, code are illustrated. Although this list is
not exhaustive, it is representative. Note that ANSYS® does not directly support
tertiary creep models.

Table 17-2 An example of ANSYS ®implicit creep models

Stage Name Equation

Primary creep strain hardening εc = C1σ C ε C e −C 2 3 4 /T

Primary creep time hardening εc = C1σ C t C e − C 2 3 4 /T

Primary creep generalized

exponential
ε  c = C 1 σ C 2
r e − r t

−
r = C 5 σ C 3
e C 4 / T

Primary creep generalized εc = C1σ C ( t C + C4σ C + C6σ C ) e− C / T 2 3 5 7 8

Graham
Secondary creep generalized
εc = C1 ª¬sinh ( C2σ ) º¼ e −C
C3 /T
4
Garofalo
Secondary creep exponential εc = C1eσ / C e− C / T 2 3

form
Secondary creep Norton εc = C1σ C e− C / T 2 3

Primary + time hardening C1σ C2 t C3 +1e − C4 / T

secondary creep εc = + C5σ C6 te − C7 / T
( 3 )
C + 1
 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 315

3.2.2 Viscoelasticity
Viscoelasticity is a material non-linearity that has both an elastic (recoverable) part
of the deformation, as well as a viscous (non-recoverable) part. Upon application of
the load, the elastic deformation is instantaneous while the viscous part occurs over
time. It can occur in all types of materials under the appropriate conditions,
although, as indicated in Chapter 2, it is most common in polymers above their glass
transition and in metals at high homologous temperatures.
Viscoelasticity accounts for the effect of the time-rate of change of stress in the
material, so that a viscous component to the elastic straining is included.
Temperature effects are also included in this model, so heating and cooling
sequences may be simulated. The viscoelastic model is used to characterize the
behaviours of glass or glass-like materials.
Since viscoelasticity is a combination of elastic solid and viscous liquid
behaviour the user must refer to the code used to ascertain the appropriate input data
required to capture this behaviour. However, it will certainly involve a substantial
number of parameters that must be determined experimentally. For a recent
example of viscoelastic modelling the reader is referred to (5).

3.2.3 Viscoplasticity
Viscoplasticity is a time-dependent plasticity phenomenon, where the extent of the
development of the plastic strains is dependent on the rate of loading. It is primarily
applicable in situations involving large plastic and small elastic strains, such as
metal forming (hot working) and soldered interconnections. The viscoplastic model
for solder (6, 7) unifies plasticity and creep via a set of flow and evolutionary
equations, and has been the basis of much modelling in microelectronics (8, 9,10).
The following form for the flow equation of the Anand model is given as follows:

1
§ σ ·º m
Q
− ª
εin = Ae RT
« sinh ¨ ξ ¸» (17.10)
¬ © s ¹¼

Where εin is the inelastic strain rate, A the pre-exponential factor, Q the
activation energy, m the strain rate sensitivity, ξ the multiplier of stress, R the
gas constant, and T the absolute temperature, respectively.
The evolution equation for the internal variable, s , is derived as

a
°­ s § s · °½
s = ®h0 1 − * sign ¨1 − * ¸ ¾<ε p , a < 1 (17.11)
°¯ s © s ¹ °¿
316 CHAPTER 17

with
ª ε
n
* § Q ·º
s = sˆ « p exp ¨ ¸» (17.12)
¬A © RT ¹ ¼
where h0 is the hardening/softening constant, a the strain rate sensitivity of
*
hardening/softening, s the saturation value of s , ŝ the coefficient, and n the
strain rate sensitivity for the saturation value of deformed resistance.
There are nine material parameters in the viscoplastic Anand model, which can
be determined directly from the experimental data, e.g. a series of creep and constant
strain rate tests. Viscoplasticity is characterized by the irreversible straining that
occurs over time as a function of the strain rate. From a material viewpoint,
viscoplasticity and creep are equivalent. In Table 17.3, these nine parameters, their
meaning and units are presented, while in Table 17.4 typical values for four different
solders are given.

Table 17-3Material parameters used for Anand model

Parameter Meaning Units

s0 Initial value of deformation resistance Stress, e.g. MPa

Q Q = activation energy Energy/volume

R = universal gas constant e.g. kJ/mole
R Energy/(volume-
temperature),
e.g. kJ/(mole-°K)
A Pre-exponential factor 1/time
e.g. 1/second
ξ Multiplier of stress Dimensionless
m Strain rate sensitivity of stress Dimensionless
h0 Hardening/softening constant Stress, e.g. MPa

ŝ Coefficient for deformation resistance Stress, e.g. MPa

saturation value
n Strain rate sensitivity of saturation Dimensionless
(deformation resistance) value
a Strain rate sensitivity of hardening or Dimensionless, a >1.0
softening
 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 317
Table 17-4 Typical values for solders of parameters used in Anand model

Parameter Pb-5Sn-2.5Ag Sn-36Pb-2Ag Sn-40Pb Sn-3.5Ag

s0 1.052(105) 2.30(107) 1.49(107) 2.23(104)

Q 11010 11262 10830 8900

R
A 7 11 11 6
ξ 0.241 0.303 0.303 0.182
m 41.63 80.79 80.42 73.81
h0 0.002 0.0212 0.0231 0.018

ŝ 11432 4121.31 2640.75 3321.15

n 1.3 1.38 1.34 1.82
a 33.07 42.32 56.33 39.09

4 BOUNDARY AND GEOMETRIC NON-LINEARITIES

Although these two types of non-linearity may not be directly applicable to solder
interconnection problems, they are presented here to complete the description of all
forms of non-linearity.
Boundary non-linearity occurs in most contact problems, in which two surfaces
come into or out of contact. This type of non-linearity may occur even if the
material behaviour is assumed linear and the displacements are infinitesimal, due to
the fact that the size of the contact area is usually not linearly dependent on the
applied loads. If the effect of friction is included in the analysis, then stick-slip
behaviour may occur which adds a further non-linearity that is normally dependent
on the loading history.
Geometric non-linearity is perhaps the most difficult to describe of the three
categories. This non-linearity covers all situations where a change in the geometry
or orientation of a structure leads to a change in its response. This does not
necessarily arise from large displacements, since the structural stiffness could still be
the same even though the component has moved a considerable distance and, in fact,
non-linear geometric effects can be important when displacements are very small.
Geometric non-linearities also arise when a structure undergoes large rotations, and
when structural instabilities, such as snap-through and post-buckling behaviour
occur.
Geometric non-linearities refer to the non-linearities in the structure or
component due to the changing geometry as it deflects. That is, the stiffness [K] is a
function of the displacements {U}. The stiffness changes because the shape changes
and/or the material rotates.
318 CHAPTER 17

5 SUMMARY
There are three major types of non-linearity: Geometric (large deformations, large
strains), Material (plasticity, creep, viscoplasticity/viscoelasticty) and Boundary
(contact). These may occur singly or in combination.
Indications of possible non-linear behaviour include permanent deformations and
gross changes in geometry, cracks, necking, thinning, buckling, stress values which
exceed the elastic limits of the materials, evidence of local yielding, shear bands,
and homologous temperatures above 0.4. In these cases the stress is no longer
proportional to the strain.
Non-linear problems are inherently more complex to analyse than linear
problems. And the principle of superposition (which states that the resultant
deflection, stress, strain in a system due to several forces is the algebraic sum of
their effects when separately applied) no longer applies
In this module we reviewed the basic concepts of plasticity. That is when a
ductile material experiences stresses beyond the elastic limit; it will yield and
acquire large permanent deformations. An outline of the Finite Element plasticity
algorithm was given. The important fact here is the necessary use of load
incrementation and equilibrium iterations to achieve the final solution.
We next considered viscoplasticity, and in particular the Anand model. This is
an important model for those wishing to unify plasticity and creep for solder models.
The model requires a substantial number of parameters, i.e. 9, which must be
determined from experimental work.
In conclusion, linearity is very useful, but for generally simple situations. Non-
linearity is needed for a large proportion of real-life modelling – including solders.

6 REFERENCES
1 AA Becker, Understanding Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis Through Illustrative Benchmarks,
NAFEMS, 2001.
2 E Hinton (Ed), NAFEMS Introduction to Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis, NAFEMS, 1992.
3 RK Penny, DL Marriott, Design for Creep, 2nd Ed., Chapman & Hall, 1995.
4 Basic Structural Non-Linearities, ANSYS, 2000 SAS IP, Inc.
5 MS Kiasat, et al, Time and Temperature Dependent Thermo-Mechanical Characterization and
Modeling of a Packaging Molding Compound, in “Benefiting from Thermal and Mechanical
Simulation in (Micro)-Electronics”, EuroSimE2001, 2001.
6 L Anand, Constitutive equations for hot working of metals, Intl. J. Plasticity, 1, 213-231, 1985.
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Intl. J. Plasticity, 5, pp 95-130, 1989.
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its application, in Solder & Surface mount Technology, 12/2, 2000, 31-36.
9 R Darveaux, Solder Joint Fatigue Life Model, Proc. Of TMS Annual Meeting, 213-218, 1997.
10 R Darveaux, Effects of Simulation Methodology on Solder Joint Crack Growth Correlations, Proc.
Of 50th Electronic Components & Technology Conference, 1048-1058, 2000.