Fig. 2.1 Heavy Duty Bench: With Swivel Base

AASTU, College of Electrical & Mechanical Eng.
Dept of Manufacturing Eng. Workshop Practice
2. HAND CUTTING AND WORK HOLDING

2.1 Safety precautions
2.2 work holding devices
Types
Vise is fastened near the edge of the bench with bolts fig. It is often used to clamp parts
together while cutting, filing or chipping or being assembling.
Fig. 2.1 Heavy duty bench Vise with swivel base

The leg vice is an older form of vice, which is used for heavy work. It is made of mild steel
with cast steel jaws. It has a long leg that touches the ground (Figure 2.2). The leg vice does not
have quick release levers. Although it is strong, its greatest disadvantage is that the jaws are only
parallel in one position, which makes gripping of work difficult.
Fig.2.2 Leg Vise
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Fig. 2.3Hand vise

Hand vise Is used for holding small objects like keys, rivets, small drills, screws, sheet metal,
etc, Which are too small to be held in a bench vice.
2.3 cut, chip and file with required tolerances

2.3.1 Types of chisels, hacksaw and files
Hand cutting tools are Hacksaw, Chisel and File
Hacksaw
Hack saw is a tool used to cut off metal to lengths or to cut out shapes in sheet metal
and other relatively thin sections. It composed of three main parts; the frame, the handle
and the blade. The frame can be of either a solid or an adjustable type. The solid frame is
more rigid and can accommodate blades of only one specific length. The frame of the
hack saw is steel frame, which can be turned at right angles for cutting deep into the
material. The blade is secured in the rigid frame. The teeth point forward to enable the
saw to cut on the forward stroke. A wing nut at the back of the frame provides adjustment
for blade tensioning.
Hacksaw blades are made of cast or high-speed steel. There are two types: all-hard and
flexible. The difference between the two is that the all-hard snaps easily, and it is therefore not
recommended for school work. The blades come in the following lengths: 225, 250 and 300 mm.
They are also available with 14, 18, 24 and 32 teeth per 25 mm for cutting different materials
(Table 1.1).
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Table 1.1
Number of teeth per 25mm(1 Diameter of material to be Material to cut
inch) cut
14 25mm Aluminum, bronze, cast iron
18 6mm Angle iron , cast iron, tool
steel
24 1.6mm Brass pipe ,Heavy sheet
metal
32 Less than 1.6 mm Sheet metal over18gage
Fig.2.4 Adjustable hack saw
Fig. 2.5 Non adjustable hack saw
While cutting with the hack saw, at least three consecutive teeth should be in contact with the
material. If the material is soft and has a large section, use a blade with few teeth per 25 mm (14
or 18 teeth per 25 mm) Use a fine-tooth blade when cutting a fairly thin section.
Points to be considered when using hacksaw :
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1. Hold the work securely in the vice.

2. Grip the hacksaw firmly, using both hands (Figure 4.9).
3. Use the same stance as for filing.
4. Use the full length of the blade.
5. Move the blade in a straight line to avoid breaking it. Do not exert too much pressure on
the blade.
6. Make sure the blade is held tightly in the frame; if it is loose, it is likely to break.
Fig 2.6 using a hack saw
Chisel
These are sometimes referred to as cold chisels because they are used to cut cold metals.
They are made of cast steel or alloy steel, with a hardened and tempered cutting edge.
The common types of chisel include:
1. The flat chisel, used for general-purpose chiseling;
2. The cross-cut chisel, used for cutting grooves such as keyways, and for chipping;
3. The half-round round-nosed chisel, used for cutting grooves (which are either curved
or half-round);
4. The diamond-pointed chisel, used for working into corners and cutting small grooves.
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• Grind off the mushroom head caused by hammering. If it is not removed, pieces may snap off,
and this can be dangerous.
Chiseling is one of the methods of cutting material.
Though, it is inaccurate it is still widely used. The chisel is held in one hand and hammered
to chop out, shear and chip material. When it becomes difficult to use shears or a saw, you can
use the chisel in cutting metal plate or sheet. This process is called chopping out.
Fig 2.7 Flat chisel
Fig 2.8 Cross-cut
Fig 2.9 Round nose chisel
Fig 2.10 Diamond –point chisel
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When chopping out slots and holes, drill holes in the waste to help prevent distortion of
the material and to make cutting easier (see Figure 2.11).
When you are cutting strips from material (about 1.5 mm to 4.5 mm thick), you can use the
shearing process (Figure 2.12):
1. Hold the metal in the vice.
2. Hold the chisel at an angle of about 45° to the work.
You can chip the metal (Figure 2.13) to produce grooves or to reduce the width or thickness.
Nowadays the grinder, shaper and miller are widely used for this purpose, but if these machines
are not available, chipping is still an economical process.
Fig 2.11 Chopping out
Fig 2.12 Shearing
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Fig 2.13 Chipping
Safety precautions
1. Eye protection must be worn when using chisels.
2. Heads of cold chisels will be ground with a slight radius at the first sign of burring or
mushrooming.
3. Keep the chisel head trimmed at all times to prevent mushrooming particles from flying.
4. Work away from the body when striking a chisel.
5. Chisels must not be used as pries or wedges, as the brittle steel may break and cause injury.
6. Gloves and chisel holders are recommended when using chisels
Files
Filing is a method of removing metal, which is the most widely used hand tool in the school
workshop, is used for this cutting operation. It is made of carbon tool steel containing about 1.3
per cent carbon.
Parts of a file:
1. The handle, which is made either of wood or of mounded plastic (the wooden type is fitted
with a metal ferrule to avoid splitting when fitting the tang);
2. The tang, which is the part that fits into the handle;
3. The teeth, which are either single cut or double cut .
4. The Heel, the part of the file where the tang begins
5. The Belly, It is the edge of the file
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Fig 2.14 Parts of File

Use the single cut on softer materials (such as brass and aluminum) and the double cut for
general filing, especially on iron and steel.
Flat File
The flat file tapers throughout the last third of its length. The faces are double cut but the edges
are only single cut. It is used for general bench work.
Square file
• The square file has teeth on all four sides, which are parallel for two-thirds of the file
length. It is used for shaping square slots and grooves.
Round file
• The round file, as its name implies, has a round cross-section. When the file is tapered as
well, it is known as a rat tail. Some round files are parallel throughout their length. The
round file is used for enlarging holes and for working in curved areas.
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• The triangular file is sometimes referred to as three-square. It is double cut on all three
sides. It has a section that is an equilateral triangle, and this makes it useful for getting
into sharp corners.
Triangular file
Needle file
• Needle files are used for fine work. The ends are knurled to give them a firm grip, as they
do not have handles like the other files.
Half round file
Half Round File: This is tapered double cut and its cross-section is not a half circle but only
about one-third of a circle. This file is used for round cut and filing curved surfaces.
Method of filing
Draw filing
Draw filing produces a finer surface finish than cross filing. Small parts, as shown in figure 2.15,
are best held in a vice. Hold the file as shown in the figure. Notice that the arrow indicates that
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the cutting stroke is away from you when the handle is held in the right hand. If the handle is
held in the left hand, the cutting stroke will be toward you. Lift the file away from the surface of
the work on the return stroke. When draw filing no longer improves the surface texture, wrap a
piece of abrasive cloth around the file and polish the surface, as shown in the Figure below.
Fig 2.15 Draw- filing
Cross filing
Figure 2-16, shows a piece of mild steel being cross filed. This means that the file is being
moved across the surface of the work in a crosswise direction. Keep your feet spread apart to
steady yourself as you file with slow, full-length, steady strokes. The file cuts as you push it.
Ease up on the return stroke to keep from dulling the teeth. Using either position first, file across
the entire length of the stock, then, using the other position, file across the entire length of the
stock again. Because the teeth of the file pass over the surface of the stock from two directions,
the high spots and low spots will be visible after filing in both positions. Continue filing first in
one direction and then the other until the surface has been filed flat. Test the flatness with a
straightedge, or where precision is required, with Prussian blue and a surface plate.
Fig 2.16 Cross filing
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Care of files
To make files last, you need to handle them with care.

The following hints should help you to prolong their effective life.
1. Keep them separately in racks and do not allow them to rub together.
2. Never use them on hardened steel.
3. Do not use a file as a hammer.
4. Keep them away from acids to prevent corrosion.
5. Use the file card frequently to avoid pinning (see below) .
Fig 2.17 Brush or file card

Using the file card
As you file, the teeth of the file may become clogged with metal filings and scratch your work.
This is known as PINNING. You can prevent pinning by keeping the file teeth clean. Rubbing
chalk between the teeth will help prevent pinning, but the best method is to clean the file often
with a file card and brush. Use the file card with a pulling motion, holding it parallel to the rows
of teeth. Then, use the brush to remove any loose filings.
2.4 replace dull or broken tools
Hack saw blade

If the hack blade is broken or dull it should be replaced. While replacing, the blade is set into the
frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle.
Chisel
If the chisel is dull it should be grind to the recommended angle (if possible) or replace.
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File
If the file is broken it should be replace.
3. DRILLING
3.1Safety precautions
Drilling machines are one of the most dangerous hand operated pieces of equipment in the
shop area. Following safety procedures during drilling operations will help eliminate accidents,
loss of time, and materials. Listed below are safety procedures common to most types of drilling
machines found in the machine shop.
• Machine Guarding required – suggest using a magnetic backed safety shield as a minimum.
• Secure the work piece by clamping it to the table or holding it in a vise.
• Clear the table of unnecessary clutter.
• Wear safety glasses.
• Do not wear gloves while drilling.
• Constrain long hair (wear a hat).
• Constrain loose clothing (roll up your sleeves).
• When the tool is about to break through, ease up on the feed force.
• Remove chip fragments only when the machine spindle is stopped.
• Never remove long stringy chips with your bare hands.
3.2 Types of drilling machines
The Drill Press is one of the most frequently used machine tools. They are used mainly for
drilling holes but reaming, countersinking, and boring can also be accomplished with the drill
press. Most workshops are equipped with at least one pedestal-type drill press. These machines
are used to drill holes in wood, plastic, aluminium, brass, steel, and most other common
engineering materials.
Types of drilling machines
Portable hand drill
The portable drill is a hand-supported, power-driven machine tool that rotates twist drills,
reamers, counter bores, and similar cutting tools. The portable drill may be electrically powered
by means of an internal electric motor (Figure 3-1)
M.A 12
Fig 3.1 portable hand drills
Fig 3.2 portable electric drill

Steps
For drilling by hand, the work piece must be mounted securely. Thin workplaces should
be backed up with a thicker piece of wood or metal to prevent the drill from snagging in
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the work piece. Do not attempt to hold any work piece by hand or serious injury could
result.
Select a twist drill of the proper size for the hole to be drilled. Ensure that the twist drill
selected has the right type of shank for the type of chuck mounted on the portable drill.
Taper shank drills cannot be mounted in a drill with a geared chuck. Check each twist
drill for sharp cutting edges prior to use.
After securing the twist drill in the proper chuck, connect the portable drill to its power
source. Position the portable drill perpendicular to the work piece and centre the chisel
point of the drill in the center-punched hole of the work piece.
Apply firm but not too heavy pressure upon the portable drill, pull the trigger or throttle
button to start the drill.
Apply a few drops of cutting oil to the twist drill and hole (Figure 3-3) to improve the
cutting action and prevent overheating of the twist drill. For long drilling operations, stop
the drill and allow it to cool; then apply additional cutting oil to the drilling area. The
lock button can be engaged for lengthy cutting operations.
Continue drilling the hole while applying enough pressure to produce a clean chip, but
not so much pressure as to cause the motor to strain or the drill to bind. The drill must be
held firmly at all times to prevent the drill from being wrenched from the hands of the
operator if the flutes of the drill should snag on a metal burr in the hole.
As the twist drill nears the back wall of the work piece, release the lock button so that the
drill can be stopped immediately if required. Decrease the feed pressure as the drill
breaks through, and cautiously feed the drill through the wall of the work piece. If the
drill should snag on a burr, stop drilling immediately and withdraw from the hole.
Carefully feed the drill back into the hole while the drill is turning to cut through the burr.
M.A 14
Figure 3.3 Drilling lubrication

When a portable drill is mounted to a vertical stand, the operating procedure is identical to that
used for the upright drilling machine. Use the lock button while drilling and use the hand lever to
drill to the required depth.
Portable drilling operations can be difficult to an inexperienced operator. It is difficult to keep
the twist drill perpendicular to the work piece during drilling, and it is hard to drill to a desired
depth accurately. If help is available, use the buddy system to keep the drill aligned while
drilling. To drill to depth, mark the twist drill with a light colored marking pen or a strip of tape
and keep a close watch on the drill as it cuts. Another way to drill to depth accurately using the
portable drill is to use a jig, such as a piece of metal pipe or tubing cut to length, to indicate when
the drill has reached the desired depth.
Bench drilling machine
Has only a hand feed mechanism which enables the operator to ‘feel’ how the drill is cutting. It
is erected mostly on the bench and used for drilling light work pieces.
Fig 3.4 Bench drilling machine
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Pedestal drill
A drilling machine, called a drill press, is used to cut holes into or through metal, wood, or
other materials. Drilling machines use a drilling tool that has cutting edges at its point. This
cutting tool is held in the drill press by a chuck or Morse taper and is rotated and fed into the
work at variable speeds. Drilling machines may be used to perform other operations. They can
perform countersinking, boring, counter boring, spot facing, reaming, and tapping .Drill press
operators must know how to set up the work, set speed and feed, and provide for coolant to get
an acceptable finished product. The size or capacity of the drilling machine is usually determined
by the largest piece of stock that can be center-drilled. For instance, a 15-inch drilling machine
cans center-drill a 30-inch-diameter piece of stock. Other ways to determine the size of the drill
press are by the largest hole that can be drilled, the distance between the spindle and column, and
the vertical distance between the worktable and spindle.
Fig. 3.5 Pedestal drilling machine
M.A 16
All drilling machines have the following construction characteristics: a spindle. Sleeve or quill,
Column, head, worktable, and base.
• The spindle holds the drill or cutting tools and revolves in a fixed position in a sleeve. In
most drilling machines, the spindle is vertical and the work is supported on a horizontal
table.
• The sleeve or quill assembly does not revolve but may slide in its bearing in a direction
parallel to its axis. When the sleeve carrying the spindle with a cutting tool is lowered,
the cutting tool is fed into the work: and when it is moved upward, the cutting tool is
withdrawn from the work. Feed pressure applied to the sleeve by hand or power causes
the revolving drill to cut its way into the work a few thousandths of an inch per
revolution.
• The column of most drill presses is circular and built rugged and solid. The column
supports the head and the sleeve or quill assembly.
• The head of the drill press is composed of the sleeve, spindle, electric motor, and feed
mechanism. The head is bolted to the column. The worktable is supported on an arm
mounted to the column.
• The worktable can be adjusted vertically to accommodate different heights of work. or it
may be swung completely out of the way. It may be tilted up to 90° in either direction, to
allow for long pieces to be end or angled drilled.
• The base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine and when bolted to the
floor, provides for vibration-free operation and best machining accuracy. The top of the
base is similar to a worktable and maybe equipped with T-slots for mounting work too
large for the table.
3.3 Drill bits
Twist drills are the most common cutting tools used with drilling machines. Twist drills
are designed to make round holes quickly and accurately in all materials. They are called
twist drills mainly because of the helical flutes or grooves that wind around the body from
the point to the neck of the drill and appear to be twisted (Figure 3.6). Twist drills are simply
constructed but designed very tough to withstand the high torque of turning, the downward
pressure on the drill, and the high heat generated by friction.
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Figure 3.6 Twist drill nomenclatures

There are two common types of twist drills, high-speed steel drills, and carbide-tipped
drills. The most common type used for field and maintenance shop work is the high-speed
steel twist drill because of its low cost. Carbide-tipped metal drills are used in production
work where the drill must remain sharp for extended periods, such as in a numerically
controlled drilling machine. Other types of drills available are: carbide tipped masonry drills,
solid carbide drills, TiN coated drills, parabolic drills and split point drills. Twist drills are
classified as straight shank or tapered shank (Figure 3.6). Straight shank twist drills are
usually l/2-inch or smaller and tit into geared drill chucks, while tapered shank drills are
usually for the larger drills that need more strength which is provided by the taper socket
chucks.
Sharpening twist drills
Twist drills become dull and must be resharpened. The preferred method of resharpening a
twist drill is with the drill grinding machine, but this machine is not always available in field
and maintenance units, so the offhand method of drill sharpening must be used (Figure 3.7).
The offhand method requires that the operator have a knowledge of the drilling geometry
(Figure 3.8).
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Figure 3.7 Off- hand method of drill sharpening
Figure 3.8 Drill Geometry
3.4 Drilling parameters

Selecting Drill Speed
Speed refers to the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the drilling machine spindle. For drilling,
the spindle should rotate at a set speed that is selected for the material being drilled. Correct
speeds are essential for satisfactory drilling. The speed at which a drill turns and cuts is called the
peripheral speed. Peripheral speed is the speed of a drill at its circumference expressed in surface
feet per minute (SFPM). This speed is related to the distance a drill would travel if rolled on its
side. For example, a peripheral speed of 30 feet per minute means the drill would roll 30 feet in 1
minute if rolled on its side. It has been determined through experience and experiment that
various metals machine best at certain speeds; this best speed for any given metal is what is
known as its cutting speed (CS). If the cutting speed of a material is known, then a simple
formula can be used to find the recommended RPM of the twist drill.
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The slower of the two recommended speeds is used for the following formulas due to the
varying conditions that may exist, such as the rigidity of the setup, the size of the drilling
machine, and the quality of finish.
RPM = CSx4
D
Where RPM = drill speed in revolutions per minute.
CS = Recommended cutting speed in surface feet per minute.
4 = A constant in all calculations for RPM (except metric).
D = the diameter of the drill itself.
For example, if a 1/2-inch (0.500-inch) twist drill is to cut aluminium, the formula would be
setup as follows:
RPM = 200 X 4 = 800 = 1600 RPM
.500 .500
Thus, the drilling machine would be set up to drill as close to 1,600 RPM as possible. It is best to
use the machine speed that is closest to the recommended RPM. Metric system of measurement,
a different used to find RPM:
RPM = CS (m) x 320
D (mm)
When using the formula must be
Where RPM = Drill speed in revolutions per minute.
CS = Recommended cutting speed in surface meters per minute.
320 = A constant for all metric RPM calculations.
D = Diameter of the twist drill in millimetres.
For example, if a 15-mm twist drill is to cut medium-carbon steel, with a recommended cutting
speed of 21.4 meters per minute, the formula would be set up as follows:
RPM= 21.4 x320 = 6848
15 15
RPM = 21.4 x320 = 6.848 =457 RPM

5 15
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Round this RPM up or down to the nearest machine speed The speeds on these tables are just
recommendations and can be adjusted lower if needed, or to higher speeds if conditions permit.
Selecting drill feed
Feed is the distance a drill travels into the work piece during each revolution of the spindle. It is
expressed in thousandths of an inch or in millimetres. Hand-feed drilling
Machines have the feed regulated by the hand pressure of the operator; thus, the skill of the
operator will determine the best feeds for drilling. Power feed drilling machines have the ability
to feed the drill into the work at a preset depth of cut per spindle revolution, so the best feeding
rate can be determined.
The selection of the best feed depends upon the size of the drill, the material to be drilled, and
the condition of the drilling machine. Feed should increase as the size of the drill increases. After
starting the drill into the work piece by hand, a lever on the power-feed drilling machine can be
activated, which will then feed the drill into the work until stopped or disengaged. Too much
feed will cause the drill to split; too little feed will cause chatter, dull the drill, and possibly
harden the work piece so it becomes more difficult to drill. Drills ½ inch or smaller can generally
be hand-fed, while the larger drills require more downward torque and should be power fed.
3.5 Drilling operations

3.5.1 Reaming
Reaming has a wide range of applications for finishing bores. It provides a surface
Which is superior to that normally obtained by boring? is quicker than lapping and is suitable for
hand work.
When bores are to be finished by parallel reaming, less time is required on them in the lathe than
if they are to be finished outright by machining or lapping; and if they are machined slightly
tapered, reaming will correct the error. Where sufficient metal surrounds bores, parallel reaming
will pull two which are out of position into alignment, for location by a dowel, or so a shaft or
spindle will turn freely.
Fig 3.9 Reamer
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Figure 3.10 Reaming operations

3.5.2 Lapping
Lapping is the removal of material to produce a smooth, flat, unpolished surface. Lapping
processes are used to produce dimensionally accurate specimens to high tolerances (generally
less than 2.5 μm uniformity). The lapping plate will rotate at a low speed (<80 rpm) and a mid-
range abrasive particle (5-20μm) is typically used. Lapping removes subsurface damage caused
by sawing or grinding and produces the required thickness and flatness. Although the lapping
process is less damaging than grinding, there are two regimes of lapping: free abrasive lapping
and fixed abrasive lapping.
Free Abrasive Lapping is when abrasive slurry is applied directly to a lapping plate (e.g. cast
iron). This is perhaps the most accurate method for producing specimens and causes the least
amount of damage. Free abrasive lapping is accurate because of the rigid lapping surface which
can be tailored to suit a particular material. Fixed Abrasive Lapping is when an abrasive particle
in bonded to a substrate as with abrasive lapping films and SiC papers. Abrasive lapping films
have various particles bonded to a thin, uniform polyester substrate and are also capable of
producing a very flat surface. SiC papers are much thicker than the film and create the potential
for rounded edges on the sample.
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3.5.3 Counter sinking and counter boring

Countersinking
Countersinking is the tapering or bevelling of the end of a hole with a conical cutter called a
machine countersink. Often a hole is slightly countersunk to guide pins which are to be driven
into the work piece; but more commonly, countersinking is used to form recesses for flathead
screws (Figure 3.11) and is similar to counter boring.
Figure 3.11 Countersunk hole

Good countersinking procedures require that the countersink be run at a speed approximately
one-half of the speed for the same size drill. Feed should be light, but not too light to cause
chatter. A proper cutting fluid should be used to produce a smooth finish. Rough countersinking
is caused by too much speed, dull tools, failure to securely hold the work, or inaccurate feed. The
depth stop mechanism should be used when countersinking to ensure the recess will allow the
flathead screw to be flush with the surface (Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12 Proper and improper countersinking

Counter boring
When counter boring, mount the tool into the drill chuck and set the depth stop ‘mechanism
for the required depth of shoulder cut. Set the speed to approximately one-half that for the same
M.A 23
size of twist drill. Compute for the actual cutter size and not the shank size when figuring speed.
Mount the work piece firmly to the table or vise. Align the work piece on the center axis of the
counter bore by fitting the pilot into the drilled hole. The pilot should fit with a sliding motion
inside the hole. If the pilot fits too tightly, then the pilot could be broken off when attempting to
counter bore. If the pilot fits too loosely, the tool could wander inside the hole, causing chatter
marks and making the hole out of round. Feeds for counter boring are generally 0.002 to 0.005
inch per revolution, but the condition of the tool and the type of metal will affect the cutting
operation. Slow the speed and feed if needed. The pilot must be lubricated with lubricating oil
during counter boring to prevent the pilot seizing into the work. Use an appropriate cutting fluid
if the material being cut requires it. Use hand feed to start and accomplish counter boring
operations. Power feed counter boring is used mainly for production shops.
Fig 3.13 counter bore hole
4. Hand thread cutting
4.1 Safety
1. Do not use either the stock or the die as a hammer; the threads may be broken.
2. Remove the die from the stock after every thread cutting, clean them and pack them into
their boxes.
3. Use plenty of oil during cutting to reduce friction.
4.2 Definition of threads and thread types

M.A 24
Definition of a thread: A thread is a spiral or helical groove cut on the inside

or outside of a cylinder or cone. The thread on a rod is called an external
thread, the thread in side of a hole or nut is called an internal thread. Threads
are used to hold parts together, transmit power and provide accurate
measurements.
Thread types
V-thread: Is used in metric bolts, nuts and machine building parts. It has an included angle of
600.
Square thread: Is formed like square; the depth and width of the groove are
equal. It is used in vises and screw jacks.
Acme thread: Has an included angle of 290 and is stronger than square thread.
Figure 4.1 Types of Thread

4.3 Types of Taps and dies
Taps are used to cut threads on the inside of a hole, as in a nut. One end of
the tap is square so it can be turned with a tap wrench. As the tap turns, it bites
into the metal, removing material which flows into the flutes. To form the
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thread, the hole must be smaller than the outside diameter of the bolt or screw
that fits it. In order to cut, the point of the tap is chamfered, or tapered, with the
cutting edge higher than the back edge.
There are three basic styles of taps:

Taper Taps - This style has an 8-10 thread chamfer, it has the longest chamfer of the three
to distribute action over the maximum number of teeth; and the taper also acts as a guide in
starting the cutting action in the hole. Taper style taps start the thread square with the work-
piece. Taper taps are commonly used in through holes and in materials where a tapered guide
is necessary.
Figure 4.2 Taper tap

Plug Taps - This style has a 3-5 thread chamfer, is most widely used in through holes and
where there is sufficient room at the bottom in blind holes.
Figure 4.3 Plug tap
Bottoming Taps - This style has 1-2 thread chamfer, is made with just enough chamfer for
starting in the hole; as the name implies, it is designed to thread blind holes to the bottom.
Figure 4.4 Bottoming tap
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4.4 Tap holder and die stock

Tap holder or tap wrench is used to hold taps during internal thread (fig 4.5)
Die stock is used to hold dies during cutting of external threads (fig 4.6)
Figure 4.5 Tap holder
Figure 4.6 Die holder

4.5 Cutting internal and external threads
Internal threads
How are Taps used?
 First, measure the thread on the screw or bolt you intend to use. You can use a
micrometer to measure the outside diameter and a screw pitch gauge to measure the
number of threads per inch. If a screw pitch gauge is not available, a scale can also be
used by counting the number of threads to an inch.
 Second, determine the correct size hole to drill before tapping. This is known as the
tap-drill size. Tap drill sizes are usually computed for a 75% full thread which is as
strong as a 100% full thread and does not put undue strain on the tap. The correct tap
drill in each case can easily be found in the “Tap and Drill Chart” in our web page.
 After the hole has been drilled, clamp the work in a vise with the hole in an upright
position.
 Apply a good grade of cutting oil to the tap.
 Grasp the tap wrench with your right hand directly over the tap, or with both hands
close to the tap, and place the tap in the hole.
 Press and start to turn the tap clockwise into the hole.
M.A 27
 Turn the tap forward until resistance is felt and then turn the tap a quarter-turn
backwards to break the chip. This will cause the teeth of the tap to take a firm hold in
the side of the hole. Make sure the tap is square with the surface of the work.
Once the thread is started properly, the tap will draw itself into the work and
downward pressure is no longer needed.
 Grasp the wrench by both handles and with a slow, steady movement, continue
turning the tap into the hole, backing up occasionally (when increased resistance is
felt) to allow the chips to break.
 Never force a tap because it can become so tightly wedged that it will break. Using
too much pressure and letting the tap get out of line will also break the tap.
Figure 4.7 Starting Tap and holding Tap

External threads
Dies are just the opposite of taps in that they cut external threads on the outside of
pipes, rods or bolts. The die is held in a Die Stock and worked in much the same
manner as a tap.
What are Dies?
Dies are made either of high-carbon steel or of high-speed steel. Unlike taps, dies are used
for cutting external (male) threads.
Figure 4.8 Dies
Procedures for cutting external threads

1. Square the end of the work and chamfer it (using a file, grinding machine or centre lathe) for
an easy start (Figure 4.22).
M.A 28
2. Grip the die, held in the stock, firmly and squarely on the work.
3. Turn clockwise, about a quarter-turn, and ease back to remove chippings.
4. Apply a good supply of oil (lubricant).
5. Make adjustments of the screws after making a full cut until the depth required is achieved.
Figure 4.9 Starting Die
Figure 4.10 after die is started
M.A 29
M.A 30
5. Grinding
Introduction
A grinding machine is a machine tool used for producing very fine finishes or making very
light cuts, using an abrasive wheel as the cutting device. This wheel can be made up of various
sizes and types of stones, diamonds or of inorganic materials.
The grinding machine supports and rotates the grinding abrasive wheel and often supports and
positions the work piece in proper relation to the wheel. The grinding machine is used for
roughing and finishing flat, cylindrical, and conical surfaces; finishing internal cylinders or
bores; forming and sharpening cutting tools; snagging or removing rough projections from
castings and stampings; and cleaning, polishing, and buffing surfaces. Once strictly a finishing
machine, modem production grinding machines is used for complete roughing and finishing of
certain classes of work. Grinding machines have some special safety precautions that must be
observed.
5.1 Safety precautions
Grinding machines are used daily in a machine shop. To avoid injuries follow the safety
precautions listed below.
 Wear goggles for all grinding machine operations.
 Check grinding wheels for cracks (Ring Test Figure 5-11) before mounting. Never
operate grinding wheels at speeds in excess of the recommended speed.
 Never adjust the work piece or work mounting devices when the machine is operating
 Do not exceed recommended depth of cut for the grinding wheel or machine.
 Remove work piece from grinding wheel before turning machine off.
 Use proper wheel guards on all grinding machines.
 On bench grinders, adjust tool rest 1/16 to 1/8 inch from the wheel
5.2 Hand (portable) grinding
The portable grinder is a lightweight, hand-operated machine tool. It can be powered

electrically or pneumatically, depending on the model selected. The portable grinder is used in
the field or maintenance shop to grind excess metal from welds, remove rust, and for special
finishing operations around the work area. Since this tool is hand operated, the quality of the
work depends upon the ability and experience of the operator.
M.A 31
Figure 6.1 portable hand grinders

5.3 Bench grinding
Bench grinder which usually has two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and finishing
operations and is secured to a workbench. It is used for shaping tool bits or various tools that
need to be made or repaired. Bench grinders are manually operated.
Figure 6.2 Bench grinder
M.A 32
5.4 Pedestal grinding

Pedestal grinder is very similar to bench grinder except in the size of its wheels,
power and also on the floor. It is bigger in size than bench grinder.
Figure 6.3 Pedestal grinder
M.A 33

Fig. 2.1 Heavy Duty Bench: With Swivel Base

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Fig. 2.1 Heavy Duty Bench: With Swivel Base

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AASTU, College of Electrical & Mechanical Eng.

Dept of Manufacturing Eng. Workshop Practice

2. HAND CUTTING AND WORK HOLDING

Fig. 2.1 Heavy duty bench Vise with swivel base

Fig.2.2 Leg Vise

Fig. 2.3Hand vise

2.3 cut, chip and file with required tolerances

Fig.2.4 Adjustable hack saw

Fig. 2.5 Non adjustable hack saw

1. Hold the work securely in the vice.

Fig 2.6 using a hack saw

Fig 2.7 Flat chisel

Fig 2.8 Cross-cut

Fig 2.9 Round nose chisel

Fig 2.10 Diamond –point chisel

Fig 2.11 Chopping out

Fig 2.12 Shearing

Fig 2.13 Chipping

Fig 2.14 Parts of File

Half round file

Fig 2.15 Draw- filing

Fig 2.16 Cross filing

To make files last, you need to handle them with care.

Fig 2.17 Brush or file card

2.4 replace dull or broken tools

Hack saw blade

Fig 3.1 portable hand drills

Fig 3.2 portable electric drill

Figure 3.3 Drilling lubrication

Fig 3.4 Bench drilling machine

Fig. 3.5 Pedestal drilling machine

Figure 3.6 Twist drill nomenclatures

Figure 3.7 Off- hand method of drill sharpening

Figure 3.8 Drill Geometry

3.4 Drilling parameters

RPM = 21.4 x320 = 6.848 =457 RPM

3.5 Drilling operations

Fig 3.9 Reamer

Figure 3.10 Reaming operations

3.5.3 Counter sinking and counter boring

Figure 3.11 Countersunk hole

Figure 3.12 Proper and improper countersinking

Fig 3.13 counter bore hole

4. Hand thread cutting

4.2 Definition of threads and thread types

Definition of a thread: A thread is a spiral or helical groove cut on the inside

Figure 4.1 Types of Thread

There are three basic styles of taps:

Figure 4.2 Taper tap

Figure 4.3 Plug tap

Figure 4.4 Bottoming tap

4.4 Tap holder and die stock

Figure 4.5 Tap holder

Figure 4.6 Die holder

Figure 4.7 Starting Tap and holding Tap

Figure 4.8 Dies

Procedures for cutting external threads

Figure 4.9 Starting Die

Figure 4.10 after die is started

The portable grinder is a lightweight, hand-operated machine tool. It can be powered

Figure 6.1 portable hand grinders

Figure 6.2 Bench grinder

5.4 Pedestal grinding