In flow i attendNOZZLES xe mass Mf'= flow rate and the numerical subscripts denote success witjons of the channel. ‘Then if z i ms A = cross-sectional area of channel, m? (ft?) V= fluid velocity, m/sec (ft/se2) v= fluid specific volume, m4/kg (ft?/Ib) p= fluid density, kg/m’ (Ib/ft® M= AV/v= AVp = constant or, sing the same subscripts as before, say VE fan kg/sec (Ib/sec) In the ideal case the flow process is isentropic; in the actual device flow is essentially adiabatic, but the process is irreversible because of attendant friction and turbulence. In either case (see Fig. 11—1): 9% ig ‘cae eo —+—— + m+ —4tan= 9) 294) ( 902, canta P2v2 whiz ——+ + +—— + — (1-23) gh) 2969) OM (4) ares ve 4 Te ee ae [aan * 82 * “a ian 9% a Figure 11-1 For both the ideal and the actual case, no work is done on or by the Working substance, no heat is transferred and the inlet and outlet may be Considered to be at the same level. Further, since the function of a nozzle 369iy ‘inte the nozzle ay equationNOZZLES yn the ideal case the ropic relationships apply; thus i neni? Brample 11-1: Air enters an ideal nozale at a pressure of 60 psia with a temperature of 1340°F. The pressure at the nozzle exit is 15 psia. Determine the increase of kinetic energy of 1 Ib of air produced by an jsentropic expansion through the nozzle. Solution: T, = 1340 + 460 = 1800°R. ee fete Ht ‘ao he nf) = 1800(53) = 1211°R Va? Vi? —— - — = (7, — T») = 0.24(1800 — 1211) 29 J 29d Bi = 141.4 Btu/Ib In the usual case V; is very small in comparison with V2 and the corresponding kinetic energy term of Equation (11-1) is neglected. The assumption of low entrance velocity eats conditions at inlet) will be made for all problems in this chapter. For this condition the velocity of @ gas at ony section within a nozzle may be determined from Va=¥ 2g(De,(T1 — Ts) m/sec (ft/sec) Gai-3) and ‘the ideal or maximum velocity is obtained when 7; is the temperature of isentropic expansion as defined above. Equation (11-2) may be further developed in terms of pressures; thus at oe (- 7) = Wel Ie DP and for a gas, (De, hel ty] ow nang 37DifferNOZZLES jater.._In the converging portion of the nozzle, A is decreas it negative (dA <0). In the diverging portion, if any, A incase dA is positive (4A > 0). But at the throat, the area A is instantaneously jnvariant and dd = 0. Under this condition the preceding equation becomes: pde+ edp =0 and (11-8) ‘The corresponding nozzle flow energy equation using the concept of stagnation enthalpy is: 2 tha ho (14) 29(J) Differentiating for a fixed set of inlet conditions (fo = a constant) yields: cde 4 dh=0 94) For a gas with constant specific heat, dh = ¢,d7’ and ede _ _ Rk ara (11-8) Combining Equations (115) and (11-6) yields a relationship for ¢) (C4) = Rk (sl) =F or Rkg, c] aT = a= [=i ad (7) ‘The isentropic relationship can be written as: pi 373(a) ) () ua been ast through and then characte which th shape m observati under th, sible flowNOZZLES Solution: See Table 3—I for R for helium. = kRT9,=| (1.66)(2080 Aw Peed ®) = uni ; i Ee Jens ne (b) Nyy =e He = L2T2 © Ny > 1.0; thus the local flow is supersonic. 11-5. Fluid Flow and Nozzle Shape. In the preceding article it has heen assumed that the process accompanying the passage of the fluid through a nozzle or diffuser might be controlled. This is only partly true ‘and then only when the nozzle or diffuser shape suits the fluid and its flow characteristics. Where the fluid is a liquid, i.e., for incompressible flow in which the change of specific volume with pressure is negligible, the proper shape may be deduced from the basic equations and certain physical observations. For this purpose Equation (1—23) may be written as Ve - Vit ae Pr») c under the conditions of Art. 11-3 and since, for frictionless, incompres- sible flow, w= and m= ‘Thus, for incompressible flow the increase in kinetic energy across a nozzle is produced solely by the imposed pressure difference. Liquid nozzles usually discharge against atmospheric pressure; hence, the pressure difference is increased by raising the pressure at the nozzle entrance and results in increased exit ‘velocity. ‘The continuity equation may take the rm, Mu= AV in which if and v are constant. It is apparent that for a liquid nozzle the area A must decrease in order to increase the fluid velocity, V. A liquid Rozzle must therefore be convergent, as shown in Fig. 11-2. Also, for any Particular liquid nozzle the exit area is fixed; thus the fluid velocity and ‘the mass flow rate will increase with increased pressure drop across the 375that wh minimuNOZZLES Equation (11—11) expresses the relationship between nozzle or diffuser shape and corresponding flow velocity. For an increasing flow velocity dV > 0 and for a decreasing velocity dV < 0, while for a decreasing area GA < 0 and for an increasing area dA > 0. When the local Mach number js less than unity (subsonic flow), the velocity and area will vary in the opposite sense. For this case, an increase in downstream velocity reqi a decrease in area and vice versa. When the local Mach number is greater than unity (supersonic flow), the velocity and area vary in the same sense. Hence, an increase in velocity requires an increase in area—and the converse. Table 11~I summarizes the conditions for various flow and area combinations. For sonic conditions the Mach number W,, is unity, and Equation (11-11) becomes AL -y Va ‘which verifies the statement made without proof in Art. 11—4 to the effect that when sonic velocity occurs, it characteristically occurs at the point of minimum cross-sectional area where dA = 0. Table 11-1 “ : 4o-[i-m Nozze DIFFUSER subsonic flow Nec LO y, ->- Y fi -C}- % av>o avco “ “ oe <0 a 0 eee Ne LO %, ec ile % >- Ye a>o aveo “ “ 4>o Geo 377For a subsonic flow to Table 111 dem foe In addit The gra tn Equation ratte as:NOZZLES Daf feYmg] aim Using the isentropic relations, similar expressions for pressure and density can be written as: --Ma ae science ‘The values of p, T and p in a flow can be determined with a knowledge of f, the local Mach number, W,,, and the flow stagnation conditions. Example 11-4: Helium has a value of k= 1.66. For a Mach number, WN, equal to 1.0, determine: (a) T/T; (b) p/po; and (¢) p/po. Solution: @®) = p+ (A) (11-12) = ft +h at 4) 1.330 or (b) (11-13) or 379NOZZLES Table 11-11 Name of working substance Gases: Helium 0.49 Air 0.53 Oxygen 0.53 Hydrogen 0.53 Vapors: ‘Ammonia (NH) 0.54 Carbon dioxide (C03) 0.55 Sulphur dioxide (SO: 0.55 Methyl chloride (CH3Cl) 0.56 Steam, initial state, wet 0.58 Steam, initial state, superheated 1.30 0.55 A normalized plot of pressure through a converging-diverging nozzle is shown in Fig, 11-8, For the case of no flow there will be fo change in pressure through the nozzle. If the pressure at the throat area is less than the stagnation pressure but greater than the critical pressure, the flow will be subsonic in the throat, and flow through the downstream siverging section will be decelerated’ with a corresponding increase in pressure. the throat pressure is equal to the critical pressure, the flow is termed critical, For either convergent or convergent-divergent nozzles, critical flow is established when the smaale exat premere tlequel (o'er lems Mite miCraoa Pressure. If the nozzle is convergent, the critical pressure will occur in the exit section, i.e., the section of minimum area. If the nozale is convergent- divergent, the critical pressure is found to occur in the throat, again at the section of minimum area. In either case critical flow establishes the maximum mass rate of flow through the nozzle. And in either case the critical condition is a function of the stagnation state of the fluid at the nozzle entrance. As stated above, the convergent nozzle cannot induce Velocities exceeding an imposed sonic value; and at one time it was thought that this sonic velocity was the ultimate for any compressible fluid. “However, when expansion is continued in a divergent section, the velocity can continue to increase to supersonic values as the pressure decreases from the critical value to the exit pressure. It is recognized that “tical flow may occur in a convergent-divergent nozzle when the exit Pressure is greater than the critical pressure with a return to the subsonic ‘gime as indicated in Fig. 11-3. However, this condition is not Sncountered in any applications of this text and will not be considered. 381¥OZZLES. RT, 53.3 = 1501 Tp, pola, AEB () nd,2—_ 1(0.50)? A= pd = Toa = 0.001364 ft? oe 18 im ee = 0.001364 « y7-py x 60 = 8.9 b/min pa) LS 1.4-1 @ m= nz] = 1800 (5) TT Lire vexit = ¥ 2g, Es a ool T; — Ts) = 223.8) 0.24(1800 — 1211) = 2661 ft/sec RT, 53.3 « 1211 1h eae 2 _| 4iu _ | 4% 8.9 x 29.88 x 144 4.7] =F =| ge, = 0.553 in. 11-8. Performance of the Actual Nozzle. Velocity Coefficient and e Efficiency. The actual nozzle must be as short as possible for two incipal reasons: (1) the total effect of friction is directly influenced by he length of the nozzle, and (2) it is desirable to keep nozzle spaces in hinery to a minimum in the interests of overall space and weight Teguirements. In addition, the exact curves of an ideal nozzle are very icult to produce with available cutting machinery. For these reasons the profile of the actual nozzle usually consists of a radial section from ‘entrance to throat (or section of minimum area) and a straight line taper throat to exit. To prevent excessive turbulence in the divergent ence should not be greater than 12 degrees. ion, the angle of div n cross-sectional shape of the actual nozzle illustrated in Fig. 11—4 may be circular, square or rectangular.NOZZLES inwhich ig = enthalpy at the nozzle entrance, J/kg (Btu/lb) fag = enthalpy after isentropic expansion to the nozzle exit pressure, J/kg (Btu/Ib) ‘A measure of the performance of an actual nozzle is the degree to which it is js able to approach ideal performance. On this basis, nozzle efficiency defined as (11-18) As stated in Art. 11-3, the energy equation for adiabatic flow applies to both the ideal and the actual nozzle. Although in the latter case the flow is adiabatic, it is inherently irreversible. The result is an increase of entropy of the fluid as it passes through the nozzle with an accompanying jncrease in the exit enthalpy. ‘Thus the change of enthalpy through an actual nozzle will in all cases be less than the energy available in the given situation. Both the ideal and the actual nozzle processes are illustrated on hes coordinates in Fig. 11-5. (As might be expected, there is a high degree of similarity between illustrations of gas processes on T—s and h—s coordinates because enthalpy is a direct function of temperature.) As shown, ihe available energy is hi — hz, and the actual change of enthalpy is hy— runs * ENTHALPY ROW + _-aTUILE-R Figure 11-5 Since from Chapter 5 Mee eal gaa (11-19) 385,NOZZLES Brample 11-6: The nozzles of a gas turbine ‘ive ail of $4 psia with a temperature of 1480°F and discharge to the mec, blades at a pressure of 18 psia, For a i i bades ato B nozzle velocity Coefficient of 0.97, the air velocity leaving the nozzles, ft/sec; (b) corresponding nozzle efficiency, %; and he Hinewer ; (b) the Pr cbine blades, Efa/lE ie c) the kinetic energy delivered to Solution: Yu-0 T; = 1480 + 460 = 1940°R mie = 72] F = r940(2! , Ta ssea = n(2] = 1940 MITR ALE. = hy- ha = o (Ts — To) = 0.24(1940 — 1417) = 125.5 Btu/Ib (a) 2 twat OR 29,Jey( T, — 12) = 22380, yA = 223.8 x 0.97/125.5 = 2432 ft/sec (b) a (0.97)? = 94.1% 0} KE gy = My AB) = 0.941 « 125.5 = 118 Btu/Ib 11-9. Flow of Vapors in Nozzles. The flow of superheated vapors in nozzles is similar in all respects to the flow of gases. However, when the steam is initially saturated, or when the initial degree of superheat is relatively small such that the expansion process crosses the saturation line and continues into the wet region, the performance of the nozzle is materially affected by the phenomenon of supersaturation. Supersaturation occurs when a vapor expands into the wet region with such rapidity that condensation, ie., the actual formation of liquid particles, lags behind the pressure change, and the vapor exists temporarily in an unstable condition. In this supersaturated condition the vapor will have a greater velocity and a lower temperature than for a corresponding stable expansion, For this reason the mass rate of flow may be greater than that provided by stable isentropic expansion in those cases of supersaturation in which the critical pressure is in the wet region. It is generally believed that supersaturation persists to the throat of a nozzle With the expansion in the divergent section progressively approaching 387However, the fluid pro equations are repeated diagrams (see Fig. 11-6). te jn all st comp! conve! mass | sectios develo averag nozzle averag even | substa interm moder expantNOZZLES and, for negligible entrance velocity, the exit velocity is v= Va =f 29(Dng(hh = ha) m/seo (ajesaearesy) actual tn all cases the equation of continuity applies. That is, V2 ++ kg/sec (Ib/see) Steam, like air, is a compressible fluid and exhibits similar compressible flow characteristics. The steam nozale, too, may be either convergent or convergent-divergent. For either nozzle type maximum mass flow accompanies the establishment of critical pressure in the throat vecion. Although the equation p./pe = (2/k + 1)("/*) was initially developed for gases, it is applied to steam and other vapors on the basis of average values of k For steam that is highly superheated entering the ovale, the critical pressure ratio is approximately 0.55, based upon an verage value of k of 1.30. When the steam enlering the nozzle contains ‘vena small amount of moisture, the critical pressure ratio becomes substantially 0.68 for a. corresponding value of & of 1.13. However, the intermediate situation in which the entering steam is saturated or only moderately superheated requires particular attention. When the expansion is such that the inception of a phase change would normally precede the establishment of the critical pressure, oe is established in the nozzle throat. Experiments by Stodola indicate that under these circumstances there is little if any moisture formed ahead of the throat, but. that sudden condensation immediately follows the cstablishment of critical flow. Since the physical characteristics of supersaturated and superheated steam are closely similar (because of the absence of moisture in both conditions), & = 1.30 is presumed by this text to apply to the supersaturated condition. Thus, for both superheated and supersaturated steam the erica pressure ratio ich will be used herein is Having established the critical flow criteria for any steam nozzle, it temaing for us to calculate the mass flow rate and the discharge velocity and kinetic energy. Although polytropic equations can be developed for these calculations, they have only limited applicability. For this reason the solution of all problems in this text will employ the general equations in conjunction with Steam Table data. Example 11-7. A converging diverging nozzle receives steam at a Pressure of 380 psia with a temperature of 480°F and expands it to a Pressure of 50 psia. Assuming a velocity coefficient of 0.98 for the 389NOZZLES 11-3. Air enters a convergent-divergent nozzle having stagnation conditions of 65 C and 285 kPa. The Mach number of the throat is 0.77. For isentropic expansion through the nozzle, calculate () the throat ssure, kPa; (b) the throat temperature, K; and (c) the throat velocity, fh/see. All pressures are absolute. ‘Ans. (a) 192.5 kPa; (b) 302.2 K; (c) 268.3 m/sec 11-4. Air enters a convergent-divergent nozzle at a pressure of 73.5 psia with a temperature of 1400°F and negligible approach velocity. The nozzle throat area is 1.373 in? and the exit pressure is 14.7 psia. For jgentropic expansion throughout the nozzle, calculate (a) the throat pressure, psia; (b) the velocity in the throat, ft/sec; (c) the rate of air flow through the nozzle, Ib/sec; and (d) the exit area necessary for the isentropic expansion, in?, Ans. (a) 39.0 psia; (b) 1930 ft/sec; (c) 1.25 Ib/sec; (d) 1.854 in.? 11-5. A convergent-divergent nozzle receives air at 88.2 psia with a temperature of 1340° F and negligible approach velocity and expands it to a discharge pressure of 14.7 psia. If the nozzle efficiency is 94 percent, calculate (a) the energy available to the nozzle, Btu/lb; (b) the actual change of enthalpy across the nozzle, Btu/Ib; (c) the nozzle exit velocity, fi/sec; and (d) the nozzle velocity coefficient. Ans. (a) 173.1 Btu/Ib; (b) 162.7 Btu/Ib; (c) 2855 ft/sec; (d) 0.97 11-6. Air enters a diffuser of a jet engine with a velocity of 1800 ft/sec relative to the aircraft. The intake pressure is 1.05 psia and intake temperature is -70°F. Assuming isentropic compression in the diffuser, calculate (a) the sonic velocity at the inlet conditions, ae (b) the inlet Mach number; (c) the stagnation temperature, “R; and (d) the stagnation Pressure, psia. Ans. (a) 968 ft/sec; (b) 1.86; (c) 659.8" R; (d) 6.61 psia 11-1. Air is accelerated by a convergent nozzle to sonic conditions at the ext; ‘The exit conditions are 14.7 pala and 75°F. For a mass flow rate of 5 Ib/sec, calculate (a) the exit velocity, ft/sec; (b) the exit density, Ib/ft3; and (c) the nozzle exit diameter, in. Ans. (a) 1134 ft/sec; (b) 0.07423 Ib/ft8; (c) 3.30 in. 11-8. Air enters an ideal diffuser at a speed of 1500 ft/sec at 22 psia and 650°F. For an isentropic compression, calculate (a) the inlet Mach number; (P) the stagnation temperature, °R; (c) the stagnation pressure, Psia; and (d) the ratio of inlet to exhaust area necessary to reduce velocity to 15 ft/sec. 393the stagnation temperature, ‘the throat temperature,NOZZLES Ans. (a) 1376 ft/sec; (b) 381.3 psia; (c) 440°F 11-14. Steam enters a convergent nozzle with negligible velocity at 500 psia and 700°F. ‘The exit area of the nozzle has a 0.5-in. diameter. The conditions of the throat are 275 psia and 560°F. Calculate (a) the available energy, Btu/Ib; (b) the nozzle efficiency, %; and (c) the mass flow rate, Ib/sec. Ans. (a) 67.5 Btu/Ib; (b) 92.0%; (c) 1.15 Ib/sec 11-15. A nozzle has a steam flow rate of 0.8 Ib/sec. The exit pressure and temperature are 40 psia and 300°F, respectively. ‘The exit area of the nozzle is 0.45 in?, and the nozzle efficiency is 92 percent. Determine (a) the actual nozzle exit velocity, ft/sec; (b) the inlet stagnation temperature, °F; and (c) the inlet stagnation pressure, psia. (Use Mollier thart.) Ans. (a) 2826 ft/sec; (b) 650° F; (c) 238 psia