Mitigating Risk Impact of Disputes On Real Estate Business and Investment in Lagos: The Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Approach

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ii
Articles
Mitigating Risk Impact of Disputes on Real Estate

Business and Investment in Lagos: The Alternative
Dispute Resolution (ADR) Approach
Okpaleke, F. C., Otegbulu, A. C., Emele, C. R. 1
The State, the Media: Conceptual Elucidations and the

Nigerian Context?
Adeniyi S. Basiru 24
Complaining Behavior in the Service Context: Evidence

from Benin City
Isibor F. O., Agbonifoh B. A. 36
Automated Teller Machine Service Quality and Customer

Satisfaction in the Nigeria Banking Sector
J.T. Akinmayowa, D.O. Ogbeide 52
Stress Among Academic Staff in a Nigerian University

J. T. Akinmayowa, P. A. Kadiri 73
iii
Mitigating Risk Impact of Disputes on Real Estate Business

and Investment in Lagos: The Alternative Dispute
Resolution (ADR) Approach
By
Okpaleke, F. C.
Managing Partner, Mark Odu & Co, Estate Surveyors & Valuers, Property
Development and Land Use Planning Consultants, Lagos, Nigeria.
Otegbulu, A. C.
Department of Estate Management,
University of Lagos,
Emele, C. R.
Department of Estate Management,
University of Lagos
jumboemele2001@yahoo.com,
Abstract: The occurrence of disputes in various forms of human interactions has

increased in complexity and has assumed a disturbing dimension in recent times. Due to
uncertainty surrounding dispute resolution through litigation, professionals in the
various disciplines are always seeking for alternative and innovative ways through
which risk of disputes that arise in the course of business transactions and professional
activities can be resolved without recourse to litigation. The objective of the study
therefore is to examine the impact of dispute as an emerging risk factor in real estate
business and investment and the adoption of Alternative Dispute Resolution techniques
as innovative approaches to real estate investment and management dispute resolution
thereby mitigating dispute risk impact on real estate investment. Utilising content
analysis of cases in real estate investment sourced from the High Court of Lagos State,
some ADR centres and consultant Estate Surveyors and Valuers in Lagos State, results
showed among others that there were huge loss of investment in real estate, tribal
tensions, discrimination and damaged business relationships when ADR frameworks
were not involved in disputes resolution. The study has recommended among others
that ADR should be enshrined in all real estate management and investment contracts
and that all the stakeholders in real estate business should take advantage of the flexible
multi-level ADR clauses to better the chances of dispute resolution along the real estate
value chain.
Key Words: Alternative Dispute Resolution, Dispute, Real Estate Investment, Risk
Mitigation.
1
1. Introduction management procedure, an efficient

The study of risk and its impact on mitigation of the adverse impact of
real estate investment has centered dispute would involve a resolution
on the very broad risk categories in process that amongst others address
finance, business and the entire the three key variables of
market framework in both developed uncertainty, time and cost. These
and emerging economies including three parameters are sensitive to
other forms like natural, political and every investment analysis.
regulatory, construction-design, According to Babawale (2007), risks
socio-cultural, “omo-onile”, youth, and uncertainty are inevitable
community risks among others concomitants of many forms of
which are common characteristics of investment with the former existing
developing economies like Nigeria because most investment decisions
(Nubi & Babawale, 2013). Dispute are made under conditions of
as an emerging form of risk in real uncertainty. All business transactions
estate investment appears not to have according to Gill, Biger, Mathur and
been sufficiently correlated and Tibrewala (2010) involve some
addressed despite the contractual, degree of risk. Risk is not alien to
multi-disciplinary and capital real estate as real estate development
intensive nature of real estate and investment are laden with
investment which is evident in plethora of risk which can occur at
literature. The very complex nature various stages of the real estate value
of real estate investment and the investment process. Weigelmann
inevitable interactions and (2012) considers real estate
relationships involving customers, development and by extension
clients and organizations cutting investment as one of the riskiest
across the entire real estate value activities that are speculative in
chain sometimes result in disputes. nature. Therefore, in anticipation of
Okpaleke (2014) notes that real an unknown future demand, risk and
estate disputes when not well uncertainty are key elements that
managed and resolved, the influence decision making. The
associated returns and overall classical assumption in most real
multiplier benefits to the economy estate investment analysis is that
will remain hampered. Lebovits and investors aim to maximize wealth by
Hidalgo (2010) on their part opine selecting investment based on their
that anyone who has leased or risk and return characteristics.
purchased real estate can appreciate According to Allen and Floyd
the potential for dispute and (2005), successful decision making
understand the need for parties to be in real estate requires careful
protected against costly and time analysis of risks and the return
consuming litigation. As part of risk offered by an investment. Nubi and
2
Babawale (2013) posit that of income, capital return and psychic

investment process is viewed as a income. Correspondingly, viability
return/risk trade-off. Thus investors of investment properties is to a large
should be skilled in identifying, extent dependent on the magnitude,
analyzing and mitigating the risk consistency and sustainability of the
element that are inherent in their cash flows in the form of rentals. In
investment options. In addition, considering the blend of fixed and
Greer and Kolbe (2003) indicate that variable cash flows that characterize
the tendency for expected return to real estate investment, Anim-Odame
increase or decrease along with (2013) concluded that in an
associated risk is an inescapable efficiently priced market, it would be
characteristic of free market. Despite expected that returns on real estate
the acclaimed risk prone nature of investment will also sit between
real estate with uncertainty those on fixed income and equity
associated with decisions therein, it investments.
remains a key factor in the wealth of Globally, dispute resolution has been
nations, corporate entities and anchored on litigation as the
individual investors. It has been mainstream judicial means of
estimated that 50 – 70% of global resolving dispute thus yielding
wealth are anchored in real estate unintended consequences for parties
(Bell, 2006; Pollock, 1994) with and stakeholders. The Lord Woolf
Savills World Research (2014) 1995 Access to Justice, Interim
estimating the global real estate Report narrowed the key problem
value to be in the neighborhood of facing the civil justice system in
$180 trillion dollars, a major leap England and Wales to cost, delay
from Pollock’s 1994 estimate of $44 and uncertainty noting that litigation
trillion dollars. The expected was not the only means for achieving
investment return is a major pre- a fair, appropriate and effective
requisite for real estate investment resolution of commercial disputes.
decision (Otegbulu & Onukwube, Delay and the resulting costs leave
2007). According to Baum and businesses feeling disenchanted by
Crosby (1996) investment in real the court system. The resultant
estate can generate returns in three reforms emanating from the Woolf
ways namely, generating a flow of report and the adoption/replication
income (or reducing income tax); has enhanced the increasing pursuit
generating a return on capital (or of alternative dispute resolution
reducing capital tax), whether it is (ADR) as a fair, appropriate and
less than, equal to or in excess of the effective means of resolution of
initial sacrifice; or producing a disputes in various business spheres
psychic income, a positive feeling (Fenn, Rickman & Vencappa, 2009;
induced by investment ownership. Aina, 2012a).Thus, ADR is said to
Thus, investment return is a function be tied to business as the more the
3
investment the greater the potential Investopedia (2014) defines risk as

for dispute to arise (Ufot, 2013). the chance that an investment’s
Therefore, because of the huge return actual return will be different than
on investment as well as risk on the expected and includes the possibility
investment and time that are lost of losing some or all of the original
when real estate business and investment. Different versions of
investment disputes are resolved risk are usually measured by
through the court system, it becomes calculating the standard deviation of
a problem to real estate professionals the historical returns or average
and all stakeholders. returns of a specific investment with
a high standard deviation indicating
However, this problem can be
a high degree of risk. In real estate
addressed by appropriate research on
or property investment, risk
global paradigm shift of dispute
according to Nubi and Babawale
resolution in real estate business and
(2013) are categorized broadly into
investment as offered by ADR.
three namely: business risks, market
In view of the foregoing, the risk and finance risk more applicable
objective of this study is to critically to developed economies while
examine and assess the impact of emerging economies like Nigeria is
dispute as an emerging form of risk characterized by natural risk,
on real estate investment and how economic and financial risk, political
ADR mechanism which presents a risk, legal and regulatory risks, and
better alternative to litigation could construction risk incorporating
be deployed as an innovative and social-cultural risk, land owner risk
emerging area of mitigating the risks (Omo-onile), community and youth
of disputes by parties in real estate risk. Risk mitigation relates to the
business and investment. steps taken in order to reduce the
This paper is divided into five parts. adverse effects of risk. Unique to
Following the introduction in the business continuity and disaster
first section is the review of recovery are four types of risk
literature, conceptual and theoretical mitigation strategies which are risk
underpinnings in section two. acceptance, risk avoidance, risk
Section three describes the limitation and risk transference
methodological approach while (Melissa, 2013). Risk limitation is
section four covers the content the most common risk management
analysis and summary of findings. strategy used by businesses and
The final section concludes the paper limits an entity’s exposure by taking
with recommendations. some action. It strategically employs
2.0. Literature Review and a bit of risk acceptance along with a
Conceptual Framework bit of risk avoidance or an average of
both. In real estate investment, risk
2.1. The concept of Risk and Risk
can be greatly reduced with
Mitigation
4
relatively simple risk management as court congestion, inordinate delay,

procedures such as judicious crippling formalism, and undue
investment, diversification, market reliance on technicalities over
research, and property management, justice, irreparable damage to social
shifting risk to tenants and hedging and business relationships, exorbitant
(Greer & Kolbe, 2003). costs and blatant interference
amongst other negative factors
2.2 Dispute, Dispute Resolution, (Ibidapo-Obe, 2013;Iriekpen,2010).
Litigation and Dispensation of Reflecting on delay of administration
Justice of justice, the Late Hon. Justice
Disputes are inevitable parts of ChukwudifoOputa, a Retired jurist of
human nature. In any social contest, the Supreme Court of Nigeria was
human beings are bound to agree and quoted in Oke (2013:21) stating that:
disagree at times. When human
beings interact in their day to day The administration of justice in
our courts suffers from two
activities, disagreement and disputes
major constraints, namely delay
are bound to occur (Zack, 1995; and expense. If it takes 7-
Anyebe, 2012). According to 10years to decide a case, a
Younis, Wood and prospective litigant may decide
AbdulMalak(2008), the definition of not to go to court at all. But the
dispute has resulted “in dispute” by one thing that frightens litigants
scholars. While some scholars see away from the courts is the
disputes as simple disagreements inordinate expense which has to
(Anyebe, 2012), others are of the be incurred with the result that
view that disputes occur when there a very large proportion of
is a rejection of a claim by one party country men are, as it were,
priced out of our legal system.
and the other party refuses to accept
the rejection of the claim (Ren, Although the above quote was made
Anumba&Ugwu, 2001; Diekmann& several years ago, the issues of delay
Girard (1995). As posited by Younis, are still a subsisting factor in the
Wood and AbdulMalak that disputes courts. World Bank (2013) doing
can be both positive (constructive) business reports that it takes 443
and negative (destructive), the focus days (14-15months), 40 procedures
of this paper is the risky and and costs 92% of claim value to
destructive disputes. Therefore, enforce a small claim contract in
dispute resolution, as integral part of Nigeria adopting a Lagos magistrate
commercial and social development court as case study. These figures
is the major function of law through indicate the ease of enforcing
litigation (Aina, 2005).Litigation has contract and measure the efficiency
been the primary dispute resolution of resolving a commercial dispute
means, a mechanism of the state and before a local court. The World Bank
its formal justice system. It is also ranked Nigeriapoorly as
however laden with challenges such the136th of the 186 countries
5
surveyed compared to Ghana (43), Alternative dispute resolution (ADR)

South Africa (80), and Botswana comprises the range of dispute
(86) with the sub-Saharan average at resolution processes and mechanisms
123.This report partly confirms an for settlement of dispute outside or
earlier study of 100 cases concluded as an alternative to litigation. It is a
at the Lagos High court between general term used in describing a set
2001 and 2003 by Osibanjo (2008), of techniques that enable disputants
revealing a general average case in reaching a mutually beneficial
conclusion time at between 12 and position when disputes occur
18 months. Osibanjo further whether there is an engagement of an
indicated that anecdotal data from external party or not. Specific
estate agents show a decline in rental processes as stated in Aina (2012b)
properties stock due to delays and include:
difficulties is recovering possession  Negotiation
from defaulting tenants at the court.  Mediation
Real estate development financing  Early Neutral Evaluation
from banks and other financing  Arbitration
institutions because of similar  Hybrid Processes such as
reasons of difficulties in realizing Med- Arb and Mini-trial.
securities of real estate investment Negotiation involves the disputants
are unwilling to grant credit secured talking directly to each other in
on real estate and the multiplier private while retaining firm control
negative effect on the subsector in of the entire discussion as there is no
particular and the general economy third party facilitator. Both parties
lingers. present their own positions and
Based on the series of inefficiencies endeavor to get the best possible
evident in literature globally, outcome. Thus, negotiation could be
litigation the traditional method of a fast and inexpensive mode of
dispute resolution is gradually giving settling a brewing dispute. Where
way to ADR techniques in this direct negotiation between the
technology-driven era (Ajogwu, disputants fails to resolve the
2013).This however does not suggest dispute, the next option might be for
a complete discard of litigation, them to invite a neutral third party to
rather the conception, promotion act as a Mediator. In a mediation
and adoption of ADR techniques as procedure, the third party plays the
viable supplemental to litigation role of adviser to both parties. He
(Iriekpen, 2010). does not take a position but merely
2.3 Alternative Dispute Resolution encourages the parties to come to a
(ADR): An innovative risk settlement. This marks a point of
management tool. difference from Arbitration where
the third party intervenes practically
as a judge would in a litigation to
6
make a binding award. Arbitration resolution via the five recognized

process is controlled by a single possible tracks or doors- mediation,
arbitrator or a panel of arbitrators. In arbitration, conciliation, early neutral
Nigeria, apart from Conciliation, evaluation and hybrid processes (see
Arbitration is the principal ADR Onyema, 2013). Lagos court of
procedure regulated by statute via Arbitration (LCA) and the Citizen
the Arbitration and Conciliation Act Mediation Centers are products of
(ACA), Cap A18, LFN the State to promote arbitration and
2004.However, Lagos State recently mediation respectively in Lagos
enacted the Lagos State Arbitration State with the later governed by the
Law 2009 to provide a framework Citizens’ Mediation Centre Law
for regulating arbitration practice in 2007(repealing the 2003 version) and
the State. In conciliation, the parties the first statutory institutionalization
use a neutral third party (conciliator), of Alternative Dispute Resolution
who meets with the parties (ADR) in the legal system of Nigeria
separately and may at any stage of outside the customary law and
the conciliation make proposals for a commercial arbitration praxis
settlement of the dispute. Early (Ibidapo-Obe& Williams, 2010).
Neutral Evaluation as described by Other private and institutional bodies
Ajogwu (2013) is a process in which that render ADR services to the
parties to dispute make presentation business community abound in
to a neutral party who then renders a Lagos State such as Chartered
non-binding opinion. Neutral Institute of Arbitrators, Negotiation
evaluative reports provide an and Conflict Management Group
unbiased evaluation of relative (NCMG), Institute of Chartered
positions of the disputants, as well as Mediators and Conciliators (ICMC)
guidance on the likely outcome if the and Institute of Construction
case were to be heard in court. Apart Arbitrators. Real estate stakeholders
from the main ADR processes could avail themselves of the range
discussed above, other processes of a of ADR services under the
mixed nature are also used, including instrumentality of any of the above
Summary Jury Trial; Mini-Trial; bodies for cost and efficient
Ombudsman; Rent-a-Judge; Med resolution of dispute thereby
Arb and the Multi-Door Courthouse. mitigating the associated risk impact
Lagos Multi-Door Court House on real estate investment.
(LMDC), a product of co-operation
2.4 Litigation and ADR: A
between the State Government and
theoretical underpinning.
civil society governed by the LMDC
Several theories have been employed
Law of 2009 is the first court-
by researchers in the explanation of
connected ADR center in Nigeria
the fundamental reasons why parties
and Africa providing a
to a dispute decide how to resolve
comprehensive approach to dispute
their disputes. For the purpose of
7
this study, two of such theories are of an effective dispute system for
examined and the extent to which businesses. More than 70 per cent of
they explain the issues under the respondents affirmed that an
investigation. First is the theory of unpredictable judiciary was a major
predictability used in the explanation problem in their business operations.
of the less attractiveness of litigation The survey also confirmed that the
in the Japanese legal system overall level of investors’ confidence
(Ramseyer, 1988). This theory in government institutions, including
hinged on the premise that there the judicial system, had a positive
were less litigation cases due to the correlation with the level of
fact that the Japanese legal system investment and measures of
was more predictable and stable economic activities of which real
because no changes occurred in the estate is a major segment.
training and appointment of judges The other relevant theory is the
or no issues of fairness, equity and asymmetric information theory
integrity about judges’ interpretation (Akerlof, 1970) which has been
of statutes. The predictability theory applied in several disciplines across
when examined in the context of the finance and investment, economics,
time it was propounded, socio- risk management, agent-principal
cultural, economic environment and relationships in real estate and law
differences in the legal system of among others. Bebchuk (1984) used
Nigeria is not relevant and the asymmetric information theory to
applicable to Nigeria having also offer an economic explanation on the
been criticised as not been able to role of information in the outcome of
predict changes in the litigation litigation cases. Parties to litigation
behaviour of the Japanese (Ginsburg cases normally have different
& Hoetker, 2006). In Nigeria for information about the probable
instance, the legal system in which outcome of the case. Information in
litigation is regulated has an this instance is privately made
adversary background from the available to the plaintiff and the
British common law adopted system defendant. With this asymmetry of
with dispute resolution mechanism information on the part of the
defined by the court, which offers plaintiff (of the damages and relief
the litigation process, a poor fit for sought) on one hand and the
business and investment and is defendant (on whether there is a
highly unpredictable in terms of the breach of real estate investment
process of justice delivery and the contractual terms or not) on the other
actors involved including their hand, there is high probability that
activities. A World Bank survey of settlement as an outcome will fail.
3,600 firms in 69 Latin American Thus, when settlement fails or
countries as cited in Aina (2012b) lingers, alternative dispute resolution
confirms the benefits and relevance (ADR) becomes readily available as
8
a tool of mitigating the risk or effect secondary data which include reports
of prolonged and costly litigation. of cases reported to ADR centers in
Extant literature shows the Lagos for resolution and decided
increasing integration of the ADR cases from the Courts in which the
techniques with the litigation Estate Surveyors and Valuers were
process. Ajigboye (2014) submits involved either as parties, expert
that the concept of a comprehensive witnesses, consultants, or investment
justice centre as propounded by managers detailing the cost, duration
Professor Frank Sander in 1976 and socio-economic impact of the
which will combine the ADR cases. This study was carried out in
mechanism and the age long Lagos State, the most populous of
litigation process subsequently the 36 states in the Federal Republic
described as Multi-Door Courthouse of Nigeria. According to Babawale
is a very welcome development and Omirin (2011), the metropolis of
because the nature of disputes also Lagos is about 37% of the land mass
affects the efficiency of the legal of the state which doubles as the
system applied in resolving the commercial capital of Nigeria and a
dispute. former Federal Capital thereby
3.0 Research Methodology conferring a special status on the
State. Current population estimates
The research method adopted in this
put Lagos State population at over 17
study is content analysis. Ladki,
million people and one of the largest
Darwiche, Baablbaki, Talhouk,
cities in the world by the year 2015.
Ghasha and Firikh (2009) provide
The metropolis represents the hub of
the framework that guides data
the Nigerian property market and a
analysis in studies involving
large portfolio of real estate business
content analysis. The justification for
and investments. Thus, Lagos
adopting content analysis in certain
metropolis maintains the highest
areas of real estate research is valid
concentration of commercial
where there are data challenges and
activities and the Lagos commercial
in cases where institutional or some
property market, real estate activities
elements of regulatory control of
and real estate professional practice
professional activities are available
in the metropolis can rightly be
(Babawale,2013).In agreement with
considered to be a good
Emele, Okpalaeke and Umeh (2014)
representation of the Nigerian
and guided by the model of Ladkiet
commercial property market
al (2009), the content analysis was
(Ibiyemi & Tella, 2013). Lagos State
carried out with particular attention
has the largest judiciary with 52
to the financial cost, length of time
courts in the High Court Division
and social-economic effects of cases
and 118 courts in the Magistrate
involving both litigation and ADR in
Division, the largest number of
real estate business and investment.
policemen and largest ministry of
Therefore, this study relies solely on
9
justice (Osibanjo, 2008). The State 4.0. Content Analysis: The Impact
has the multi-door court house, the of Litigation and ADR Compared
first court connected ADR centered The tables below show a
in Nigeria and Africa. Lagos is comparative content analysis and
projected to emerge the hub of summary of findings of the real
commercial arbitration and other estate cases that were resolved
alternative dispute resolution (ADR) through both litigation and ADR. In
mechanism in the West African order to protect the confidentially of
region with the promulgation of the the persons and organizations
Lagos Court of Arbitration Law involved, their names and identities
(Law No.8 of 2009) and Lagos state have been omitted as requested by
Arbitration Law 10 of 2009 the data providers.
(Adesanya,2014; Adekoya,2010).
10
Table 1. Summary of findings from the content analysis of selected litigation cases
S/No Type Of Real Estate Dispute Duration of Litigation Cost Of Litigation (N) Analysis of Socio-Economic Impact of
litigation on the parties and investment
1Landlord & Tenant dispute 2½ years N 650,000.00 on  Loss of rent aggregating N2,547,850.00,
over outstanding rent and - Attorney’s fees covering court awarded but unpaid non
possession of a six (6) - Filing fees, cost of market rent for 3 years plus differential;
bedroom duplex + 2 room executing judgment  Damage to property and neglected repairs
B/Q in Ikeja CBD and and willful damage assessed at over
Capital of Lagos State. N 2,000,000.00
 Unpaid utility bills i.e. electricity bill, water
rate, tenement rate etc.
 Marred long term landlord-tenant
relationship of over 15 years;
 Emotional trauma and deprivation of a
septuagenarian retiree landlord.
 Distortion and truncation of long term
projected viability of the subject real estate
investment.
 Tenant loss of image and humiliation from
forceful eviction and fief of belongings
consequent of judgment.
2Landlord and tenant dispute 3 years N 1,000,000.00 on  Unpaid utilities bill & service charge
over outstanding rent and - Attorney’s fee  Loss of 4 years rent estimated at
possession of 4 B/R flat in - Filing & N 3,200,000.00
Omole Estate, a High subsequent  Marred relationship.
Income residential estate in execution cost  Threat to life and police harassment.
Ikeja environs)  Tribal tension & discrimination-Ibo tenant
and Yoruba landlord.
 Property manager’s man-hour and financial
loss being owner’s representative in court.
11
Owner not in a position to pay expert witness
fees being financially distressed by the
tenant’s indebtedness.
3Eminent domain case 2 years - uncertain  Abandoned road expansion project
(Compulsory acquisition of  Massive socio-political and economic impact
block of 6 flats at Okota by  Cost, time overrun and delay on project.
the Lagos State  General depreciation in capital and rental
Government) value of properties in the neighbourhood on
account of poor accessibility.
4Foreclosure & Property title 3 years N 4,800,000.00 on  Loss of rent from void and non-market rent
suit over a detached house - Attorney’s fees (A estimated at approximately N 5.5 million.
within a high-brow estate in Senior Advocate  Disrupted work schedule, travel cost and
Lagos mainland between a of Nigeria (SAN) associated travel risk by the property owner,
financial institution and a retained by the a USA based surgeon
private investor. property owner.  Emotional trauma over feared loss of life
- Travel cost investment
- 1 ½ years security  Loss of interest in real estate as investment
bill  Police harassment and threat to life.
- Maintenance cost.  Uncertainty of decision and associated risk.
 Encumbered investment hindering other
attributes.
5Claim of Agency 3 years (in the High OverN 1,000,000.0  Loss of value. Judgment sum not
commission from Court) on commensurate with cost of litigation and real
warehouse sale in Apapa, 2 ½ years (in the -Attorney’s fee worth of judgment sum award.
Lagos (Between an Estate Court of Appeal) And associated  Marred relationship and closed business.
Surveyor & and an expenses. Opportunities.
Industrial giant)  Uncertainty of decision and associated risk.
 Man-hour loss due to prolonged case
duration marked with physical presence of
key parties in court.
6Landlord-tenant/ownership 6 years (in the High Not less than  Loss of rent for over 13 years (Estimated at
12
suit over block of flats in court N10,000,000.00 on over N 120 million)
Ikoyi 5 (in the Court of direct solicitors fee  Financial exposure to bank
Appeal) on the part of  Emotional trauma
Still pending at the purchaser-landlord  Incessant police harassment
Supreme Court  Threat to life
 Marred relationship
 Truncated investment opportunities
 Dilapidated structure lacking maintenance.
 Uncertainty of decision and associated risk.
 Unrealized investment goal by purchaser who
died in the course of the case.
 High dilapidated building on account of
abandonment and non-maintenance and
improvement works presumably from the
uncertainty of court decision.
 tribal tensions, discrimination and threat to
lives
7Monetary claim and loss of 2 years (case ongoing) N 850,000 paid on  Loss of three years revenue(rent)-Estimated
rent case over vandalized - Legal fees at N 9.5 million)
and abandoned property - Expert witness fees  Emotional trauma from continuous sighting
bungalow in Ikeja GRA. - Quantity surveyor of vandalized property kept in status quo as
and estate valuer evidence pending site visit by judge
fees for priced bill  Uncertainty of decision and associated risk
of quantities and  Progressively dilapidated structure due to
valuation report prolonged exposure to weather element. May
end up being demolished.
8Breach of property 1 ½ years N 250,000 on  Marred relationship
management contract -legal fees  Reputation loss
between Estate firm and  Undue exposure
property owner.
9Landlord-tenant 3 ½ years N 350,000 still  Loss of rental income for 5 years aggregating
13
case(outstanding rent and ongoing-legal fees N 2, 300,000.
possession) for apartment at  Negative influence on other tenants.
Abiola Crescent Ikeja  Accumulated utility bills like PHCN, water
rate and neighborhood security bill.
 High repairs cost due to denied access to
enforce repairs obligations.
Table 2 Summary of content analysis of selected ADR Cases.
S/No Type of Real Estate Duration Of ADR Cost Of Analysis of Socio-Economic Impact of ADR
Dispute Intervention ADR (N) on the parties and investment
1. Contract for purchase and In a day mediation -LMDC  Speedy resolution of disputes.
development of property in session, the matter administrative fees
Lagos Island. commenced by 10 -LMDC ADR session  Reduction in parties’ expenses and time
This real estate dispute a.m. and terms of fees
appears to be the most settlement signed Parties were free to  Restoration of pre-dispute relationship
reported Lagos multi-door about 8.30pm same represent self or had
court house case and is day as against 17years counsels  Reduction in the case dockets of the
actually her prominent case the matter was accompanying them. court
study with partially unveiled litigation in the court. -Speed of completion
parties. It involves a former saved parties  Parties satisfaction with justice system
Vice President of Nigeria as litigation cost and
the chairman of an time. Seventeen years  Lifted encumbrance on the subject
investment corporation and dispute in court landed property thereby freeing the
a leading estate agent in resolved in one day development and resultant attributes.
Lagos who sold the subject after non-legal
property to a government interest of the feuding
 Emotional and physical trauma of the
agency resulting in law suit parties were
prolonged case mitigated.
between corporation, the identified and
14
estate agent and four others. addressed.  Harmonious coexistence
 Reduction of decision uncertainty and
associated risk
2Landlord-Tenant dispute Resolved after 4 -Free as services at  Speedy resolution of dispute.

over arrears of rent and mediation sessions at the centre is free of
demand for possession the citizen mediation charge. Parties  Restoration of pre-dispute relationship.
(Involved occupants of a centre. Terms of represented
block of 6 Nos 3 bedrooms settlement thereafter themselves.  Restored vital rental cash flow the
flat at Ogba against their signed with tenants -Minimal fee for cessation of which had exposed the
landlord). Dispute apologizing to landlord retained landlord to financial hardship.
originated from a rent landlord and a slight counsel that
increase. Tenants ganged up adjustment on the monitored the  Harmonious coexistence
and refused to pay new rent revised rent made by process.
and subsequent years rent. landlord. Tenants  Viability of real estate investment
Landlord’s solicitor served agreed to clear two sustained.
tenants notice to quit with years outstanding rent Reduction of uncertainty of decisions and
the jointly retained lawyers each totaling N600, associated risk.
of the tenants challenging 000 in four
the validity on technical installments spread  Property manager that brokered the
grounds. On wise counsel over four months or innovative dispute solution solidified
the property manager opted vacate. Terms of business relationship with the landlord
for mediation instead of settlement reached and earned full fees on all rent paid
litigation. Terms of subsequently filed at from a highly satisfied landlord.
settlement reached later multi-door court house
filed via the walk-in route at and endorsed by an
the Lagos Multi-Door Court ADR judge and
House by mutual consent of became an enforceable
the parties and thereafter judgment. One tenant
endorsed by an ADR judge. that defaulted was
later evicted via this
enforceable term of
15
settlement that became
a court judgment.
3Noise pollution and Case referred from the  Restored pre-dispute relationship and
. environmental dispute Ikeja high court was harmonious coexistence.
between an aged landlady resolved via Mediation
and a popular Pentecostal after few sessions at  Satisfaction with justice system
church in Nigeria. Both the multi-door court.
properties situate in Lagos  Reduction in parties’ expenses and
mainland and adjoin each time.
other with the landlady
complaining about the  Preserve corporate image of the church
adverse impact to her health as matter was resolved without undue
of noise emanating from the publicity.
church and which was  Win –win decision process.
against the State
Environmental Laws.
4Valuation fee dispute Resolved by -Jointly paid by the  Speedy resolution of dispute
. between an Estate Valuer arbitration after two parties. The speed
and an oil company over months with fees paid made up for the high  Preservation of business relationship
fees on compensation after level of work arbitration fees. The
valuation being carried out done was established. award became  Maintenance of confidentiality that
by the former. Oil company binding. would have been lost via litigation.
terminated the contract
before completion and  Reduction in party’s expenses and time.
retained another valuer to
complete on a fast track
basis. Valuer’s solicitor
wrote demanding payment
on quantum merit with
threat of joining new valuer
and stalling project. Matter
16
went to a single arbitrator as
provided by the contract.
5Vacant possession of Resolved through -No clear ADR cost  Speedy resolution of dispute
. purchased property. Dispute strategic negotiation other than the cost of
involved a banker who after careful cost- relocation which the  Reduction in party’s time and expenses
secured credit from the benefit analysis benefit far
employer (a commercial undertaken by the outweighed whatever  Cash flow and viability projection
bank in Nigeria) to purchase banker’s Estate cost that would have sustained
investment property and the surveyor who arisen.
two inherited tenants from brokered the sale.  Project time line maintained
the former owner already on Purchaser funded 50%
notice to quit. of the relocation cost  Harmonious co-existence
of the tenants  Win-win decision process
17
5.0 Summary of findings and grow. There is no certainty about the

policy implications direction of court judgment and this
Disputes in real estate business and has its associated risk in real estate
investment create situations of investment. Litigation destroys
uncertainty and constitute a distinct relationships as litigants see
type of risk. As evident from the themselves as enemies, leads to
analysis of the disputes that were harassment and intimidation when
“resolved” through litigation as one party has more economic power
compared with those channeled to than the other party. Some may even
ADR mechanism, this study lose their lives in the process of
concludes that when such disputes litigation especially in cases
are not speedily resolved and involving retirees who could not
allowed to linger at the courts, the stand their real estate investments
socio-economic impact on the made throughout their productive
investor and the real estate lives been foreclosed by a financial
investment is enormous. For instance institution. The goal of realizing real
in the cases that were analyzed under estate investment becomes very
litigation, there was a cumulative doubtful in uncertain and very risky
loss of investment and loss of return situations created by litigation
on investment estimated at over N processes.
2,000, 000, 000.00 by professional On the other hand when disputes are
estate surveyors and valuers. In resolved through alternative dispute
addition, the viability of real estate resolution (ADR) as seen from the
investment becomes jeopardized as analysis, the expenses incurred
the projection of cash flow estimates during litigation are eliminated, there
is affected as well as poor is speedy resolution of disputes
maintenance and progressively while the viability of real estate
dilapidated real estate asset due to investment is sustained when the
prolonged exposure to weather rental cash flow continues during the
elements. This may eventually lead course of the dispute resolution. The
to demolition of real estate duration of resolution is highly
investment. In addition, the predictable and certain thereby
emotional trauma suffered by the creating and sustaining investors’
property owners from continuous confidence in real estate investment
sighting of their investment being through collaborative decision
vandalized as evidence pending site process as well as preserving good
visit by the judge and injunctions relationship amongst real estate
from the courts for status quo to be investors and contracting parties and
maintained before the determination stakeholders.
of cases do not create an In order to mitigate real estate
environment for any investment to dispute risk, we call on all real estate
18
investors, stakeholders, policy Multi-level ADR clauses avail
makers, regulatory bodies in real parties more flexibility and better the
estate investment and professionals chances of dispute resolution along
especially estate surveyors and the value chain.
valuers to embrace the use of ADR Thirdly, the Lagos Multi-Door
in the resolution of the multifarious Courthouse should expand the scope
real estate disputes. of operation to cover the four
Secondly, ADR should be enshrined divisions of the Lagos High Court in
in all real estate contracts from place of the present central location
lease/tenancy agreement, property at Lagos High Court Igbosere and
management agreements, access to justice is bound to be
memorandum of improved by the adoption of ADR
sales/understanding, service level method of dispute resolution which
agreements, sales contract, valuation is more business friendly and better
contract, facility management for real estate business and
contract, real estate development etc. investment.
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23
The State, the Media: Conceptual Elucidations and the

Nigerian Context?
Adeniyi S. Basiru
Department of Political Science,
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria,
e-mail asbash72@yahoo.com
Abstract: This paper undertakes two tasks. First, it critically examines conceptual
problematique surrounding the concepts of the state and the media in literature, and
second, it empirically teases out state –media relations in Nigeria with the objective of
understanding the character of the relations. Drawing mainly from secondary data
sources, it contends that while there are conceptual ambiguities revolving around the
concepts of the state and the media, there had also been uneasiness in state-media
relations in Nigeria which cannot be divorced from the authoritarian character of the
Nigerian State. It recommends, among others, the deconstruction and decolonization of
the meddlesome Nigerian State.
Keywords: The State, the Media, decolonization, authoritarian, political communication
Introduction the media. Likewise, students of

Central to the disciplines of Political Mass Communication would
Science and Mass Communication hopefully understand the raison de’
are the concepts of the state and the tat of the State in addition to their
media. However, as central as these knowledge of the media. This is even
concepts are, they elucidate more justifiable, in contemporary
theoretical prisms and interpretations era, in which efforts at bridging
which often perplex foundational interdisciplinary theoretical bridges
students of political communication. have bourgeoned (Zeleza, 2006:4).
It is against this background that this The rest of the paper is partitioned
paper attempts to theoretically link into four sections. The second
the state, the arena of politics and the section presents the ontology of the
media, the agency for information state and the media. Section three
dissemination in the society. By so examines the relationship between
doing, it is hoped that students of the State and the media in a liberal
Politics and Government in Nigeria democracy. The fourth section, in a
and elsewhere aside from being retrospective fashion, x-rays state-
armed with the theoretical weapons media relations in Nigeria. Chapter
regarding the State would also five concludes the paper.
appreciate the ontological basis of
24
Setting the Framework: (1985:105) remarks “the concept of
Deciphering the Ontology of the the state remains of the most difficult
State and the Media in the social sciences. Rich in
In this section, we attempt to lay bare meaning and beset with controversy,
the ontology of the state and the it appears to become more elusive
media by conceptualizing them. To still with every attempt to clarify it”.
start with, concepts are Therefore, as an essentially contested
fundamentally important in seeking concept (Gallie, 1962), it has been
and expressing knowledge and in accorded different meanings by
guiding inquiry. As a matter of fact, theorists of various ideological
our perceptions provide a basis for persuasions. At this juncture, it is
conceptions and once conceptions necessary to assert that despite the
have been developed, we are more difficulties in grasping the nature of
likely to see what they name. the state, its existence is felt in all
Therefore, when a researcher or facets of life (Held, 1984: Ley,
knowledge seeker perceives a new 1976:43)
pattern or a new phenomenon and For instance, Miliband (1969: 49)
gives it a name or creates a new avers “ it is not a thing as such, what
concept, many others become aware it stands for is a number of particular
of its existence. However, concepts institutions which together
must be defined in order to give constitutes its reality and which
clarity to them. As Rubin and interacts as part of what may be
Babbie (1989:12) once remark “we called state system”. In other
specify what we mean when we use words, the state is largely an abstract
particular terms for the purpose of entity concretized only by the
facilitating their contextual medley of institutions which operate
operationalization and in its name. Specially, the executive,
comprehension”. Thus, for easy the legislature, the judiciary, the
comprehension in this paper, the two bureaucracy, the army and the police
key concepts that are germane to this symbolize the state. Aside from
paper are problematized, beginning these institutions, Egwu (2006:410),
with the state and then the media. identifies other ontological features
Conceptualizing the state of the state to include: specific
personnel that occupy specific
Although, there are many organizing
positions within the state activities of
concepts in political science but the
those who may be broadly defined as
concept of the state stands out
governing elites. Aside from these
(Raphael. 1970:27; Barry, 1981:46).
institutions, Egwu (2006:410),
However, despite its exalted status, it
identifies other ontological features
remains the most problematic in the
of the state to include; the specific
field of political science as
personnel that occupy specific
practitioners have not agreed on
position within the state activities of
what constitutes the state. As Ake
25
those who may be broadly defined as managing formal diplomatic
governing elites. Indeed, Hague and relations with other states (Kegley,
Harrop (2007:13), re-echoing the 2007: 539). In a similar vein, Hague
Great German Sociologist, Max and Harrop (2007:13) see the state
Weber, argues that the state alone, “as a political community formed by
because of its uniqueness, claims not a territorial population subject to
just the capacity but the right to one government”.
employ force. By this definition, a non-territorial
Specifically, Weber, drawing population, like the Palestinians,
inspiration from Hegel, constructed a does not constitute a state. Also, a
model of a unified bureaucratic territory still under control of
edifice where the use of force is the external authority is strictly speaking
prerogative of the state. He contends not a state. A notable example is
that the state is based on a monopoly Puerto Rico, an entity affiliated to
of physical coercion which is the United States. Puerto Rico lacks
legitimized (sustained) by a belief in sovereignty which Jean Bodin (cited
the justifiability and legality of this in Hague and Harrop, 2007:16)
monopoly and as such it has the refers to as untrammeled and
capacity to enforce its power within undivided power to make law. It is a
its territory and to project the same known fact that laws made in Puerto
into the international society For Rico are subject to higher laws
Weber, “a state is a human elsewhere. Thus, theoretically
community that successfully claims speaking, a Bodiaian state is
the monopoly of the legitimate use of symbolized by a set of institutions, at
physical force within a given the centre of a geographically
territory” (cited in Geerth and Mills, bounded territory, where the state
1948:78). has a monopoly over rule-making
Instructively, the Weberian (McCauley, 2003:20). Whether these
definitional framework has become attributes are replicated in reality in
so popular and widespread that it has an entity like Nigeria is an issue for
been embraced by many traditions. another day but theoretically
For example, in the field of speaking, Nigeria like many other
international law, the basic territorial entities in Africa is a state
component of Weberianism has been (see Clapham, 2003:29; Herbst,
embedded. Article 1 of the 2004). So much for the state. Let us
Montevideo Convention of 1933 on now shift our conceptual compass
the Rights and Duties of States toward the media.
summarized the major feature of the On the Media
state thus: it must possess a To students of Mass
permanent population, a well – Communication, conceptualizing the
defined territory and a government Media may not be problematic; but
capable of ruling its citizens and to other students, it may be a great
26
problem. However, it should be media are used interchangeably with
emphasized that the concept of the the media.
media like other social science Given the foregoing, the media or
concepts is contested (see Gallie, the press, for the purpose of this
1962). To this end, it has been paper, refers to the print and
conceptualized in different ways. electronic media of mass
According to Oxford Dictionary of communication in a given
Current English (2001:560), “media” community. Thus, by the Nigeria
is derived from the Latin word media or the Nigerian press; we
“medium” which represents mean the communication media that
television, radio and newspapers as inform and educate the citizens of
the means of mass communication. Nigeria. How do the media fare in
A question is apt here: what about discharging this historic mission?
other means of mass communication, Before this question is answered, let
say traditional modes of us examine the relationship between
communication? Generally, the the state and the media in a liberal
media encompasses the channel democracy.
between the sender of a message and
the receiver. However, the receiver The State and the Media in a
of the message could be an Liberal Democracy
individual (e.g. a wife receiving a To start with, we must first
letter from the husband via a post) or emphasize that the society (liberal or
a multitude of individuals (or simply illiberal) and its politics is created,
the mass). The former depicts inter- remodeled and sustained through
personal communication while the communication. Without
latter symbolizes mass communication contend the duo of
communication. Accordingly, mass Hague and Harrop (2007:121), a
media in the opinion of Hague and society is impossible. As succinctly
Harrop (2007:121) refers to method remarked by Oloyede (2008:27)
of communication that can reach a “communication is the central fact of
large and potentially unlimited human existence and social process”
number of people simultaneously. The point being made here is that
Such methods, according to them communication is so central to social
include the radio, television, interaction. As a gregarious being,
newspapers, posters, cinema, individuals must communicate their
magazines, blogs and websites. views and feelings to others in the
Another issue that we note in society. Thus, whether an individual
literature on the media is its is a member of a school, a club, a
conflation with the press which city or a nation, they must
traditional refers to print news media communicate with other members of
(Oloyede, 2008: 68). However, the the school, the club, the city or the
modern press which encompass the nation as the case may be. However,
newsprint media and the electronic in a mass society, where the need to
27
communicate with a large number of citizens of the state. Danjibo
people is a necessity, the mass media (2010:52) itemized these rights as:
plays a major part. Within the i. The rights to life
polity, the media serve as the ii. The right to human dignity
channel of communication between iii. The right to participate in
the state and the citizens. Ojo decision making
(2008:165) identifies three important iv. Respect for the rule of law
roles of the media in society vis: v. Security of life and property
i. They inform citizens on vi. The right to vote and be
matters of public policy and voted for
politics by presenting and
vii. Freedom of speech
debating alternatives.
viii. Freedom of association
ii. They act as watch dog by
ix. Freedom of the press
uncovering political,
economic and corporate x. Freedom to live freely
corruption as well as other everywhere.
forms of abuse of power or Thus, in a liberal democracy, the
inept policies. state and its apparatuses are
iii. They help empower the governed by the constitution of the
citizens to be aware of their land. At the intra-governmental
civil and political rights and level, the executive is watched and
how to exercise these rights. monitored by the legislature and the
judiciary. This is to ensure that
Needless to say here that the afore-
individual liberties and rights are not
mentioned roles are instrumentalized
trampled upon by the executive arm
in a liberal democracy where
of government. Specifically, the
opportunities for learning about
legislature, either in a presidential or
relevant alternatives policies and
parliamentary system, watches over
their consequences are provided for
the executive. In discharging its
the citizens (Dahl, 1998:37). In a
‘oversight function’ guaranteed in
liberal democracy, the government
the constitution, it makes sure that
that acts on behalf of the state is
public policies are implemented to
chosen through free and fair
the letter by the executive and its
elections. Citizens of voting age are
bureaucracy.
entitled to vote, and to permit
effective choice, citizens can join At the extra-governmental levels, all
and form political parties. Aside the organs of governments, the
from being chosen by the citizens, its executive, the legislature, the
powers are also limited by the judiciary, the bureaucracy are
constitution of the land. The watched and monitored in the ‘public
constitution in question, guarantees space’ by the civil society, an entity
some fundamental rights to the which Diamond (1999) defines “as
the realm of organized social life that
is open, voluntary, self-generating
28
and at least partially self supporting, the people’ With this constitutional
autonomous from the state and provision, the media was expected to
bound by a legal order or set of serve as the vanguard of the truth. In
shared rules”. This is where the a nutshell, the media in a liberal
media as an institution comes in. In democracy, exhibits independence or
fact, since the advent of liberal vibrancy than in other regimes. In
democracy in the Western world, the comparative terms, a non-liberal
media has become part and parcel of authoritarian regime offers a
the democratic processes. In these contrast.
climes, the media aside from In such an environment, the truth to
expressing public opinion also be upheld by the media is not
watches over the actions of the conceived to be the product of the
government. Through the media, the great mass of people but of a few
citizens get to know about the “rational men” that must guide their
policies of the government and while fellows. In essence, truth, official or
at the same time, the government otherwise, is domiciled at the centre
feels the pulse of the citizens via the of power. Thus, the media only
media. However, it should be noted function to disseminate what the
that the media perform this linkage autocrat thinks is the truth. Besides,
roles only if they are free. Here, it no media dare to criticize him or his
must be emphasized that freedom of aides as they exist to support his
information defined by Oloyede actions and policies. Should they
(2008:53) as expression devoid of dare him, they would be subjected to
undemocratic, unreasonable or intimidation; harassment and
illogical hindrance, is crucial in unwarranted censorship (see
liberal environment. Bourgault 1998: 180). As
The point being made here is that a demonstrated below in the case of
free and independent media supports Nigeria under the military, the media
democratic growth and development establishments in an authoritarian
(Hammer, 1979). Even in emerging regime are nothing but “toothless
democracies, this ideal is recognized, bulldogs”. We would come to this
at least, in theory. In Nigeria for soon.
example, the architect of the 1979 As a way of recapitulation, the media
constitution created in chapter II in liberal society differ in character
Fundamental Objectives and from those under authoritarian
Directive Principles of the State, and conditions. In the former, they
stated the obligation of the Nigerian contest public space with the state
media in section 21 thus: “The press, while in the latter they are part of
radio, television and other agencies what Althuser (quoted in Fatile.
of mass media shall at all time be 2004:50) refers to “Ideological State
free to uphold the responsibility and Apparatuses”. Where do we place
accountability of the government to
29
the Nigerian setting? The next work within the framework provided
section addresses the question. by the state.
State – Media Relations in Nigeria The libertarian theory contends the
Having accepted the truism that the media exists independent of other
social institutions of the state and the social institutions including the state.
media are necessary for the Indeed, the state institutions,
sustenance of a society, the poser especially the judiciary, recognize
now is: what is the relationship such independence. As an
between the two? In this section, we independent entity, it upholds the
answer this question in the light of truth without fair or favour Agee et
the Nigerian experience. However, al (1982) contend that the theory
before we proceed, it is appropriate postulates a free market of ideas
to review theoretical literature on where truth and falsehood contend
state-media relations. Basically, four pressuring that truth would prevail.
theoretical perspectives or models Indeed, Oloyede (1996:3-4) has
purport to analyze state – media identified the three ingredients of
relations in society (Fatile, 2004:51). media autonomy under libertarian
Frey Siebert et al (1956) identified model of media-state relations. The
them as: the authoritarian theory, the first is the assumption of the
libertarian theory, communist theory presence of a plurality of voices on
and social responsibility theory. all public issues at all time. The
However, due to space limitations, second is the absence of state control
we will only elucidate on the first over the media in line with the
two theories, that is, the principle of laissez faire. The third is
Authoritarian and libertarian the financial independence of the
theories. media.
According Agee et al (1982) the At this juncture, we note that those
authoritarian theory posits that theoretical expositions offer robust
officials acting on behalf of the state perspectives on state – media
have a monopoly of wisdom and relations but which one fits into the
they only know the truth. In other Nigeria circumstances? Our survey
words, the media thus exists to serve of literature on the subject indicates
the state and its functionaries. This that the first perspective fits into the
theory believes that the media like all Nigerian social milieu (see
other social institutions (education, Nwankwo, 1993: Olatunji and Uyo,
religion, economy etc) must be 1996; Olukotun, 2002; Ojo, 2004). In
controlled and monitored by the specific terms, the media in Nigeria,
state. In addition, the theory argues despite their gallant strides as a
that in order to prevent state vanguard of democracy, have not
implosion, the media, and the bastion had it easy with the Nigerian state.
of free expression must be controlled
and monitored. In all, the media must
30
We recall here that the foundation not enjoyed the required
for today’s media was laid long independence. It is instructive to
before the emergence of the Nigerian note that the post-independence
state in 1914 (Usman, 2009:125). Nigeria as briefly stated earlier has
Prior to that time, the media been run by two types of regimes vis
establishments interacted with the civilian and the military. The
missionaries. Some of the leading latter before May 29, 1999 had ruled
papers of this era included: the Iwe the country for thirty-nine years.
Irohin (1859), Anglo Africa (1863), The former ruled for ten years before
Lagos Times (1880), Lagos Observer 1999 and as at today, it has ruled for
(1882), Eagles and Lagos Critics thirteen years making a total of
(1883), Lagos Weekly Record twenty three years.
(1891), Lagos Standard (1894) and In the two military eras, 1966-79 and
Nigerian Chronicles (1908). 1984 – 1999, the media were
However, with the emergence of the seriously under official siege. About
colonial state, and its contradictions, the military eras, Ojo (2008:175)
the post – 1914 media assumed a remarks “in a beleaguered state for
new role. As Fatile (2004:44) “The long”. During this eras, Generals
Nigerian press took on the role of Muhammed Buhari, Ibrahim
opposition to the government Babangida and Sani Abacha, adopted
through its activities, it encouraged various strategies to tame the media.
sense of political and nationalist Some of these included the
awareness and involvement by promulgation of decrees to muzzle
providing the medium of criticisms the media. Indeed, one of such
of the authorities”. However, the decrees, Decree No.4 of 1984
colonial authorities tried as much as entitled “Protection against False
possible to stifle the media. For Accusation”, was used to jail two
example, it was alleged that journalists – Tunde Thompson and
Governor Lugard, while censoring Nduka Irabor both of the Guardian
some print media, also courted and Newspapers for publishing the list of
funded British newspapers. With the ambassadorial nominees. Their
exit of Lugard and the formal newspaper, the Guardian was also
integration of the disparate political fined N50, 000 by the government
entities in the 1940s, the media (see Osaghale, 2004:22). The regime
became the arrowhead of of Babaginda was also accused of the
decolonization struggles in Nigeria. killing of the founding editor of the
Like the previous epochs, it was Newswatch magazine, Dele Giwa, by
harassed and intimated by the a parcel bomb in 1986; and the six-
colonial authorities. Were things month ban imposed on the
different after independence? As Newswatch magazine in 1987 after it
contended earlier, the media published the report of the political
irrespective of how one assesses as
the time of writing this paper have
31
bureau which prescribed the be a period of vicious confrontations
guidelines for return to civil rule. with the military. It marked the
The Abacha regime of 1993-1998 transformation of the magazine from
was very sensitive and conscious of a normal operation to a near
the dissent of the media against it, so clandestine one. We simply went
it made many obnoxious decrees to underground and continued our work
gravely check-mate the activities of by adopting guerrilla instincts to
the media. Among these was Decree survive’.
43 of 1993, which stipulated At this juncture, it is instructive to
stringent rules and conditions for note that while the military were
existing newspapers, the notorious for violence and brutality
establishment of the Nigerian Media against the media (Afowowe,
Councils, and the National 2012:109), the civilian regimes have
Communication Commission, all equally curtailed press freedom
directed at arm-twisting the media. despite the constitutional guarantee.
The regime also clamped down on During the first republic for example,
media houses and journalists, seized the Official Secret Act curtailed the
copies of newspapers and magazines free practice of journalism. Also,
and many journalists were killed in since the return of the civilians in
what looked like state-sponsored 1999, state institutions mostly the
killings (Olugboji, 1997). executives continued with the culture
It is instructive to note that it was of violence against the media. For
this spate of state-directed violence example, President Olusegun
against the media, most especially Obasanjo, during his reign, was
under the regime of General Abacha known to have displayed open
that led to the growth of the hostility towards the media. One
underground or guerrilla press notable example was the shutting
especially in the Lagos area and down of the Insider Weekly
beyond. During this period, many Magazine without first obtaining a
quality magazines, which the court order (see Ojo, 2008:181). In
government regarded as opposition fact, this singular act made the
papers like the Tempo, The News and Human Right Watch through his
Tell, went underground, because it Executive Director Africa Division
was the only avenue opened to them Peter Taxivambuddle to state “Even
to do their investigative journalism though military rule has ended
and publish the highly needed news Nigerians still cannot express
and information at that time (read themselves freely without fear of
Adebanwi, 2008; Olukotun, 2008). grave consequences” (see Tribune,
In this regard, Dare (2007:72), 03/12/03).
writing from the perspective of The The point being made here is that
News magazine, opines: ‘the six whether under civilian or military, it
months that followed turned out to appears that the media have been
32
treated in manner that devoid of Nigeria. Specifically, it found out
civility. It thus appears that the that irrespective of regime in
character of the state- media Nigeria, the media operate in an
relations since 1914 has not really authoritarian orbit as the character of
been transformed. The Nigerian the Nigerian state has remained the
state, in its totalistic character, has same. What is to be done? Firstly,
always seen the media and other civil there is the need to reform, amend or
society institutions as entities that if possible repeal some of the
must either be co-opted or draconian laws that continue to harm
conquered. According to Ake (1996) string the media in Nigeria. Some of
its absolute and totalistic character these laws are not only anti-media
has made its custodians to see other but also anti-democratic and anti-
social institutions as being development. Secondly, the judiciary
subservient to it. It is in this context needs to be further strengthened to
that this paper situates the perform its avowed duty of checking
relationships between the state and the excesses of state agencies.
the media in Nigeria. Thirdly, the entire Nigerian structure
Conclusion and Recommendations needs to be reconstructed by the
people via an autochthonous
The paper set out, mainly, to clear
constitution-making process. The
the conceptual underbrush associated
Nigerian state as it is presently
with the phenomena of the State and
constituted is alien to the people of
the media. Next, it examined the
Nigeria. It needs to be indigenized,
relations between the two
decolonized and democratized.
phenomena under various regimes in
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35
Complaining Behavior in the Service Context: Evidence

from Benin City
Isibor, Felix Osaiga
osaiga.isibor@uniben.edu
&
Agbonifoh, Barnabas Aigbojie
agbonifoh@yahoo.com
Department of Business Administration
Faculty of Management Sciences
University of Benin, Benin City,
Edo State, Nigeria.
Abstract: This paper explores complaining behaviour with respect to restaurant and
interstate transport services in Benin City metropolis. It examines proportion of service
customers who are dissatisfied and complained, complaint motivation and factors
influencing complaint voicing in the restaurant and interstate transport service
subsectors. Using the survey research design, responses obtained from 371 respondents
were analysed using binomial analysis, chi square and multiple regression at a 0.05
level of statistical significance. Content analysis was employed for open ended
questions. Results from the study showed that while there was no significant difference
between the proportion of customers who were satisfied and those dissatisfied with the
service offering in both subsectors, there was also no significant difference between the
proportion of dissatisfied customers who complained and those who did not. Complaint
voicing in the selected service subsectors was found not to be dependent on gender, age,
educational level, usage frequency, income level, personal confidence of customer, cost
of service or severity of service failure. Based on the findings, the authors suggest that
there is need for restaurants and interstate transport companies in Nigeria to develop
formal complaint management systems. Procedures for consumer complaints should be
simple and involve little or no documentation as customers in the subsectors studied
seem not to be favourably disposed to putting their complaints in writing.
Keywords: Complaining Behaviour, Compliant motivation, Restaurants, Interstate
Transport Companies
Introduction best of intentions, even for those

As noted by Zeithaml and Bitner with world-class service systems.
(2003), service failure is inevitable Due to the negative impact of service
even for the best of firms with the failure, an understanding of
36
complaints behaviour is crucial in confidence of customers, cost of
minimizing the incidence of service service and severity of service failure
failure in service organizations. determined whether dissatisfied
Since complaining gives service customers will or will not voice their
providers the opportunity to recover complaints.
dissatisfied customers, a number of Literature Review
studies (Heung and Lam 2003;
Though, the first law for service
McCole 2004; Bolfing 1989) have
productivity and quality might be:
been carried out over the years on
Do it right the first time (Lovelock
how customers express
and Wirtz, 2004), service failure
dissatisfaction and dealing with
continues to occur. According to
complaints in service settings.
Maute (2003; 10), service failures
Inspite of this fact, Michel and
are challenging events for service
Meuter (2008), explained that it is
providers, exacerbating the potentials
necessary for more studies to be
for customer defection on the one
carried out with respect to
hand while creating opportunities to
complaints and recovery across
restore satisfaction and loyalty on the
different service settings and
other.
cultures. According to them,
exploring whether customers of Service failure occurs when the
different nationalities have differing customer’s expectations of the
perspectives on failure and recovery service encounter are not met by the
would be an addition to the existing service organization. Zeithaml, Berry
literature on complaints management and Parasuraman (1991), note that
- hence this study seeks to contribute customers have three (3) levels of
to literature on complaining service expectations namely; level of
behaviour by exploring the desired service, level of adequate
perspective of customers as it relates service and level of predicted
to service failure and complaining service. A customer’s level of
behaviour in the restaurants and perceived/expected service is
interstate transport service subsectors therefore a function of the above
in Benin city. The specific objectives three (3) levels. According to
of this study are to ascertain the Zeithaml et al (1991), where actual
proportion of service customers who service does not reach the adequate,
were dissatisfied and complained. To desired or predicted level of service
find out possible reasons why expectation, a service failure is said
dissatisfied customers may not to have occurred.
complain and customers’ complaint Customers’ Response to Service
motivation/action. Lastly, we sought Failure
to ascertain whether gender, age, Over the years, a number of studies
educational level, income level, have been carried out on
usage frequency, personal dissatisfaction as a consequence of
37
service failure. Lovelock, Patterson of a multiplicity of definitions is
and Walker (2001) are of the opinion better appreciated when one
that when customers experience understands the various theories
dissatisfaction, four major courses of upon which customer complaint
action are available to them: do behavior is built. Irrespective of the
nothing, but the service provider’s theory on which it is built, Tronvoll
reputation diminishes in the eyes of (2008), explains that these
the customer and they will consider definitions either describe the
defecting if it occurs again; complain complaining customer’s state of
in some form to the service mind, a behavioral act and/or a
organization; take some kind of overt communication act. Most of these
action with a third party; defect or definitions see complaint behavior as
simply not patronize the firm again a post purchase activity based on
and tell other people thus engaging dissatisfaction and therefore outcome
in negative word-of-mouth (NWOM) oriented. Landon (1980) defined
behavior. customer complaint behavior as an
Zeithaml and Bitner (2003), expression of dissatisfaction by
capturing customers’ response to individual consumers (or on a
dissatisfaction arising from service consumer’s behalf) to a responsible
failure explained that dissatisfied party in either the distribution
customers may not always complain. channel or a complaint handling
Research actually reveals that only a agency. Stephens (2000), however
minority of dissatisfied customers explained that though complaining is
voice their complaints (Chelminski a post-purchase process; it may or
and Coulter, 2011; TARP, 1986; may not occur when customers are
TARP, 1996; Andreassen, 2001). We disappointed. In refining the various
seek to test this conclusion with existing definitions for customer
respect to service customers in Benin complaining behavior, Tronvoll
City, Nigeria. We therefore propose (2007) defined it as a process that
that: emerges if the experience is outside
H1: There is no significant the customer’s acceptance zone
difference between the proportion of during the service interaction and/or
service customer who are satisfied in the evaluation of the value-in-use.
and those who are dissatisfied. From the above, we posit that
H2: The majority of dissatisfied customer complaining behaviour is
service customers do not complain. the process by which customers
express dissatisfaction about an
Customers’ Complaint Behaviour in unfavourable service encounter.
Services
Due to the fact that customer Antecedents of Customer
complaint behavior is a complex Complaining Behaviour
construct, a number of definitions When a customer is dissatisfied,
exist as to what it is. The existence different alternatives are open to
38
him/her. According to Zaugg and upper socio-economic groups in
Jaggi (2006), the complaint response society. They tend to complain when
open to dissatisfied customers the service has a high complexity, is
include exit, voice, negative word- expensive, has favorable cost/benefit
of-mouth to family/relatives and ratio, or the problem is serious. In
silence. Tronvoll (2012; 288) addition, personal confidence levels,
explains that complaints do not values, attitudes towards
always stem from dissatisfaction and complaining, and whether or not the
dissatisfaction does not always lead failure is the provider’s fault, all
to complaining behaviour; therefore increases the complaint frequency.
dissatisfaction is not a sufficient Factors like cultural collectivism,
cause for customers to complain. individualism, social and political
involvement, and experience
Researchers have over the years
contribute to a complaint response as
therefore focused on uncovering the
well. Finally, the degree of market
underlying factors/motivators that
competition or industry structure, the
influence the propensity of
type of provider, the likelihood of
dissatisfied customers to complain.
success, the responsiveness of the
McCole (2004), lists the factors that
provider, and friendliness generate
influence consumers’ propensity to
complaint behaviour’. We seek to
complain about a less than satisfying
test the above conclusion with
service experience as; type of
respect customers in the Nigerian
product, cost and social involvement
service industry. We propose the
of purchase, level of dissatisfaction
hypothesis that:
felt, annoyance or ‘victimization’,
cost of complaining (financially and H3: Complaint voicing is not
psychologically), benefits of dependent on gender, age,
complaining, likelihood of educational level, income level,
resolution, availability of resources usage frequency, personal
(for making a complaint), access (to confidence of customer, cost of
means of registering a complaint), service or severity of service failure.
demographics, structural bonds, Methodology
power bases and social norms. Since it is practically impossible to
Tronvoll (2008) summarized study the totality of firms in the
research findings on the antecedent service industry we therefore decided
of customer complaining behavior as to focus on the hospitality sub sector
situational factors, of the Nigerian service industry. We
individual/personal factors, service specifically studied the restaurant
provider/service factors and market and interstate transportation service
factors He notes that ‘the literature sub sectors in Benin City, Edo state,
review of antecedents of Nigeria. The population of this study
complaining behavior suggest that therefore comprised of customers
typical complainers belong to the and potential customers in both
39
subsectors in Benin City, Edo State, through a dichotomous question
Nigeria. while checklist questions were used
Since it was not possible to generate to allow respondents indicate reasons
a sampling frame, we have on the for not complaining, complaint
basis of Convenience sampling action taken and complaint
chosen to work with a sample size of motivation. Open ended questions
400 respondents. The 400 were also added to enable
respondents were divided equally respondents indicate possible reasons
between the two (2) industries. that were not captured in the
Respondents were selected from checklist.
across the four (4) local government Results and Discussion
areas that make up the capital city. Of the 400 questionnaires
One hundred (100) respondents (50 distributed, 371 were collected. One
respondents for restaurants and hundred and eighty five (185) of the
another 50 for inter-state transport collected questionnaires were from
companies) were conveniently restaurant respondents while the
selected for each of the selected other one hundred and eighty six
areas to make up the total of 400 (186) were from interstate transport
respondents. Since customers cannot respondents. The demographic
complain about a service they have profile for the restaurant respondents
not used, exit questionnaires were showed that 105 (58.7%) were male
given given to selected customers at while 74 (41.3%) were female. Most
major restaurants and interstate of these respondents were in the age
transport companies across the city. group of 18 – 24 (45.6%) followed
The instrument used for data by 25 – 34 (34.4%). A total of 39
collection was the questionnaire. The respondents (21.8%) had post
first part of this questionnaire was an graduate degrees while 105
introduction; the second part focused respondents (58.7%) had one form of
on key demographic and socio- tertiary education or the other. The
economic characteristics of the monthly income of a majority of
respondents. While the third part of these respondents (78.3%) was
the questionnaire raised questions within the N10, 000 to N100, 000
relating to attitude towards ranges.
complaining, reasons for not For the interstate transport subsector,
complaining, complaint action taken 103 (57.9%) of the respondents were
and complaint motivation. male while 75 (42.1%) were female.
Attitude towards complaining was Most of the respondents in this
measured on a likert scale of category were within the age of 25 –
5(strongly agree) to 1(strongly 34 years (43.1%) followed by 18 –
disagree). Proportion of customers 24 years (37%). 41 respondents
who complained was ascertained (23.4%) had post graduate degrees
while 113 respondents (64.6%) of
40
this group had a form of tertiary there is no significant difference
education. The majority of between the proportion of service
respondents in this group (71.5%) customer who are satisfied and those
also have a monthly income of who are dissatisfied in the restaurant
within the N10, 000 to N100, 000 service subsector.
ranges. Of the 186 respondents in the
Proportion of Dissatisfied and transport subsector, 13 did not
Complaining Customers indicate whether they were satisfied
Of a total of 185 restaurant or dissatisfied. Table 1 show that 81
respondents, 14 had no response to (46.82%) respondents were
whether they were dissatisfied with dissatisfied. The binomial test result
the service offered. Table 1 shows as shown in Table 1 indicates that
that in the restaurant subsector, 85 this proportion is not significantly
(49.70%) respondents were different from the test proportion.
dissatisfied. A two tailed binomial Hence as in the restaurant sub-sector,
test at 0.05 per cent significance (see the proportion of satisfied customers
table 1) shows that this proportion is same as the proportion of
was not significantly different from dissatisfied customers. We therefore
the test proportion (0.50). Hence, it also accept the first hypothesis with
can be concluded that half of our respect to the interstate transport
respondents were dissatisfied. We subsector.
therefore accept the hypothesis that
Table 1: Binomial Test for Proportion of Dissatisfied Respondents

N for Observed Observed Prop. Asymp. Sig. Asymp. Sig. (2-
N for Interstate Prop. For For Transport (2-tailed) for tailed) for
Restaurant Transport Restaurant Respondents Test Restaurant Transport
Category Respondents Respondents Respondents Prop. Respondents Respondents
Dissatisfied 85 81 49.70 46.82 .50 1.000 .447
Satisfied 86 92 50.29 53.18
Total 171 173 1.00
Source: Authors’ Fieldwork
Of the respondents who were dissatisfied, 35 (41.2%) complained

dissatisfied, two (2) respondents (1 while 49 (58.3%) did not. A two
in each subsector) did not indicate tailed binomial (see table 2) test at
whether they complained or not. 0.05 per cent level of statistical
Table 2 shows that of the 85 significance shows that none of these
restaurant respondents who were proportions were significantly
41
different from the test proportion of customer who indicated they were
(0.50). Hence half of the proportions dissatisfied complained.
Table 2: Binomial Test for Proportion of Dissatisfied Respondents who

complained
Asymp. Sig.
Observed Observed Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) for
Category
N for N for Prop. For Prop. For (2-tailed) for Transport
Restaurant Transport Restaurant Transport Test Restaurant Respondents

Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents Prop. Respondents
Complained 35 38 41.6 47.5 .50 .156 .738
Did not Complain 49 42 58.3 52.5
No Response 1 1
Total 85 81 1.00 1.00

With respect to the restaurant sub- proportion (0.50). Hence as in the

sector, we therefore reject the null restaurant sub sector, we reject the
hypothesis that majority of second null hypothesis that the
dissatisfied customers do not majority of dissatisfied customers do
complain and conclude that the not complain. Rather the proportion
proportion of dissatisfied customers of dissatisfied customers, who
who complained is same as the complained in the interstate transport
proportion of dissatisfied customers subsector, is same as the proportion
who did not complain. of dissatisfied customers who did not
For the interstate transport sector, complain.
Table 1 indicates that of the 81 Reasons for not complaining
transport respondents who were Reasons given by respondents in
dissatisfied, 38 (46.9%) complained both service subsectors for not
while 42 (51.9%) did not. The complaining are presented in Table
binomial two-tailed test reveals that 3.
neither of these proportions was
significantly different from the test
42
Table 3: Reasons given by Respondents for not complaining
S/N Reasons Frequency

1 No time to complain ( I was in a hurry) 15
2 I didn’t see the need to complain 11
3 I felt my suggestions will not be used 10
4 The restaurant/transport company had no place for me to lay my 8
complaint
5 I decided not to use the service provider again 6
6 I don’t like argument /complaining 5
7. I don’t want to be blamed for someone losing their job 3
8. Other customers said service failure is usual with the 2
restaurant/transport company
9. I felt management should know what the problems with the 1
organisations were.
10. The employees were hostile 1
11. I didn’t want to be insulted 1
From the Table 3, reasons given by 5. Other Customers Opinion –

respondents for not complaining can other customer said service
be categorised into six. They are as failure was usual with the
follows; organization.
1. Time Factor – I was in a 6. Decision to switch – I
hurry decided not to use the service
2. Non-availability of complaint provider again.
management system – no Determinants of Whether
place to complain. Dissatisfied Customers will
3. Ignorance/Fear on the part of Complain
the customer – I did not see Since sex is a nominal variable, chi
the need to complain, I felt square was used to test for
my suggestions will not be dependence between sex and
used, I don’t like complaining behaviour. For other
argument/complaining, I variables (age, educational level,
don’t want to be blamed for income level, usage frequency,
someone losing their job, I personal confidence of customer,
felt management should cost of service and severity of
know what the problem was service failure) on ratio scale,
and I didn’t want to be multiple regression was used to test
insulted. their impact on complaint voicing.
4. Employee factor – the
employees were hostile.
43
Complaint Voicing In the Restaurant responses was used in the chi square
Sub-Sector computation. Chi square test at 0.05
Table 4 shows that though thirty five per cent level of statistical
(35) restaurant respondents indicated significance reveals that complaint
that they complained, two (2) of such voicing is not dependent on gender –
respondents did not indicate their sex since the chi square value (0.021) is
hence only a total of thirty three (33) less than its tabulated value (3.841).
Table 4: Chi Square test for dependence between gender and complaint voicing
CATEGORY COMPLAINED Chi-Square Df Sig.
Value Value
RESTAURANT Total .021 1 .885
SUBSECTOR Yes No
SEX Male 19 29 48
Female 14 20 34
TOTAL 33 49 82
INTERSTATE Total 2.265 1 .132

TRANSPORT SECTOR Yes No
SEX Male 20 29 49
Female 18 13 31
TOTAL 38 42 80
Multiple regression analysis was respect to the restaurant sub-sector,

then performed to ascertain the joint we accept the third null hypothesis
impact of the other variables on that complaint voicing is not
complaint voicing (see Tables 5). dependent on gender, age,
The R squared value of 0.05327 educational level, income level,
implies that all seven independent usage frequency, personal
variables jointly explain about 5% confidence of customers, cost of
variation in complaint voicing. On service or severity of service failure.
the basis of the P-value obtained, it is Complaint Voicing in the Interstate
obvious that at a 0.05 per cent level Transport Sub-Sector
of statistical significance, none of
For the interstate transport
these variables are statistically
respondents, chi square test also
significant (since the p-values are all
reveals that gender has no
greater than 0.05) in explaining
implications for complaint voicing
complaint voicing in the restaurant
since the chi square value (2.265) is
subsector. The ‘t stat’ values for the
lesser than the tabulated value
selected variables also confirm this
(3.841) - see Table 4.
result since they are all less than an
absolute value of 2. Hence, with
44
Table 5: Multiple Regression Analysis for selected determinants of Complaint
Voicing
F Significant F.
Coefficients t-stat P-value R Square
Restaurant Subsector
Intercept 1.3048 4.9042 0.0000 1.4228 0.1987 0.053

Age -0.1290 -1.5698 0.1183
Education -0.0913 -1.0306 0.3041
Income 0.0866 1.9327 0.0549
Usage Frequency 0.0021 1.3038 0.1940
Cost of Service 0.0722 1.1984 0.2324
Severity of Failure 0.0352 0.5452 0.5863
Personal Confidence -0.1152 -1.8765 0.0622
Interstate Transport Subsector

0.3425 0.9334 0.0133
Intercept 0.1917 1.5652 0.1193
Age 0.0136 0.4114 0.6813

Education 0.0060 0.1864 0.8524
Income -0.0099 -0.6098 0.5428
Usage frequency 0.0000 0.0077 0.9938

Cost of Service -0.0304 -1.2540 0.2115
Severity of Failure 0.0129 0.6052 0.5458
Personal Confidence 0.0089 0.4963 0.6203

Multiple regression analysis as seen Benin city, complaint voicing is not

from the P- values (see Table 5) dependent on gender, age,
indicates that none of the selected educational level, income level,
variable had significant implications usage frequency, personal
for whether a dissatisfied customer confidence of customers, cost of
in the transport sector will/will not service or severity of service failure.
voice his/her complaint at a 0.05 In conclusion, with respect to the
level of statistical significance. The service industry, we conclude that
R squared value of 0.013 reveals that complaint voicing is not dependent
in the transport sub-sector, these on any of the selected independent
variables only jointly account for variables.
about 1.3% variation in complaint Customer Complaint Motivation/
voicing. Action
Hence as with the restaurant service From the check list of possible
subsector, we also conclude that for complaint motivation that was
the interstate transport sub-sector in presented to our respondents, the
45
most preferred motivation for restaurant and interstate transport sub
complaining was need for ‘corrective sectors. It indicates that customers
action’, followed by need for ‘an who complained ranked “complained
explanation’, then ‘apology’. The to an employee” of the organisation
need to ‘register my protest’, and they patronize as their first option.
‘compensation’ ranked 4th and 5th “Complained to a friend or relative”
respectively in both sectors. In and “told a fellow customer” were
addition to the five (5) complaint ranked second and third respectively
motivations given, respondents in both service sub sectors.
added that the need for “refund” also Hence, customers in these sectors
motivated them to complain. have a tendency to become
Customers may not always complain “terrorists”- spread negative reports
to the organisation; they have other about the service provider. That the
ways of expressing their complaints. “decided not to use the service
A check list of possible complaint provider again” option was ranked
actions was presented to fourth in both sectors points to the
respondents. Table 6 shows fact that switching could be high
respondents ranking of their amongst dissatisfied customers in
complaint actions in both the both sectors.
Table 6: Customer Complaint Action

RESTAURANT SUB-SECTOR INTERSTATE
TRANSPORT SUB-
SECTOR
S/N TYPE OF Frequency For Ranking Frequency For Ranking
COMPLAINT Restaurant according Interstate according
ACTION Respondents Restaurant Transport Transport
Respondents Respondents Respondents
1 Complained to an 80 1st 72 1st
Employee
2 Told a Fellow 53 3rd 66 3rd
customer
3 Complained to a 63 2nd 69 2nd
friend or relative
4 Filled a complaint 12 5th 17 5th
card
5 Wrote a letter to the 6 7th 6 6th
Manager
6 Wrote a letter to 5 8th 5 7th
Head quarters
7 Sued the Service 7 6th 4 8th
provider
8 Decided not to use 50 4th 38 4th
the Service Provider
again
9 Took no action 7 6th - 9th
46
The ranking of “filled a complaint TARP 1986 and TARP 1996). TARP
card”, “wrote a letter to the 1986 observed that only one in
manager” and “wrote a letter to twenty dissatisfied customers voiced
Headquarters” indicates that their complaint. In 1996, TARP
customers in this sector are not reported that seventy per cent (70%)
favourably disposed to putting their of dissatisfied customers in the
complaint in writing. Customers in United States did not complain. In
the service subsectors studied, seem Norway, Andreassen (2001) reported
not to also be comfortable with suing that sixty eight per cent of
the service providers since it was dissatisfied customers did not
ranked third to the last and second to complain. In this study we observed
the last in both sectors. That the that about fifty eight per cent (58%)
“took no action” option was ranked of dissatisfied customers in the
least in transport sub sector and restaurant sub-sector did not
second to last in restaurant subs complain while in the interstate
sector implies that customers who transport sector about fifty three per
choose to complain often took one cent (53%) of dissatisfied customers
form of action or the other. did not complain. When these results
Other complaint actions that some are compared with previous findings
respondents indicated they took in America and Norway, it seems to
include ‘complaining directly to the indicate that though the number of
owner of the business’, ‘threatening dissatisfied customers that complain
to report a worker to his/her boss’ is still not significantly different
and ‘calling the office line from 0.50, it is rising – i.e more and
displayed’. more dissatisfied customers are
complaining when compared to the
Discussion of Findings proportion of dissatisfied customers
The result of this study shows that who complained in previous studies.
there is no significance difference
between the proportion of customers Some of the reasons given by
who were satisfied and those who respondents in this study for not
were dissatisfied. It also showed that complaining are the same as those
there was no significant difference stated by Tronvoll (2008) – lack of
between the proportion of time and not knowing where and
dissatisfied customer who how to complain. Other additional
complained and those who did not reasons given by respondents for not
complain. This means that about half complaining include: decision to
of the customers were dissatisfied switch service provider, report by
and half of those dissatisfied actually other customers that service failure is
complained. This is unlike the usual with the provider, employee
findings of other studies (Andreassen hostility and feeling that
2001, Chelminski and Coulter 2011,
47
management already knew what the service customer will or will not
problem was. voice his/her complaint are time
Tronvoll (2008) summarizing the factor and the availability of a
findings in service literature lists complaining point. Our
demographics as a major investigations revealed that most
determinant of whether a dissatisfied restaurants and interstate transport
customer will or will not complain. companies in the city did not have a
In this study, we found out that designated complaining point. Hence
demographics may not always demographics, situational and market
explain complaint voicing. factors will have little or no impact
Complaint voicing was found not to on complaint voicing where the
be dependent on gender, age, organisations had no complaint
educational level, usage frequency management system.
and income level. Another individual As in Heung and Lam (2003), this
factor that was tested in this work study found that customer complaint
was personality. We observed that motive includes seeking corrective
personal confidence of the customer action, seeking an explanation,
was also not a determinant of seeking an apology and seeking
whether a dissatisfied customer compensation. We found in addition
would or would not complain in both to the above that when customers
service sub-sectors. complain they seek for refund or
This study also revealed that may merely want to register their
contrary to Tronvoll (2008), protest. We observed that the
situational factors may not always complaint motive that majority of
determine complaint voicing. Two respondents who said they
situational items (cost of service and complained in both sub-sectors
severity of service failure) were sought was ‘corrective action’ and
tested in this study. We observed that then ‘an apology’.
complaint voicing was not dependent In this study it was also observed
on both variables. When regressed that service customers in Benin City
against complaint voicing at a 0.05 are not favourably disposed to
level of statistical significance, cost putting their complaints in writing or
of service had a P – value of 0.2324 suing service provider. This may be
in the restaurant sector and 0.2115 in due to the fact that customers believe
the interstate transport sector while letters or cards filled are not read by
severity of service failure had a P – management. Suing is also not
value of 0.5863 and 0.5458 in the favoured by respondents possibly
restaurant and interstate transport dues to the cost involved and the fact
sub-sectors respectively. As that court cases take very long to
indicated by respondents in this prosecute. When dissatisfied, they
study, the major factors that seems to prefer to complain directly to an
account for whether a dissatisfied employee, a friend/relative or a
48
fellow customer. Other complaint steps/procedures involved in laying a
actions that were taken by complaint must be minimal. The
respondents in this study include availability of toll free lines will help
‘complaining directly to the owner of ensure that even where a customer
the business’, ‘threatening to report a left in a hurry he/she can
worker to his/her boss’ and ‘calling subsequently reach the provider to
the office line displayed’. lay complaints. We therefore
Conclusion and Recommendation encourage service providers to have
Implications for Service toll free lines and display these
Organisations numbers conspicuously throughout
Though the proportion of dissatisfied the organisation. We also
customers who complained in this recommend that the complaint
study was on the high side when procedure involves little or no
compared with those of previous writing and that employees are
studies in America and Norway, available to put the complaints in
many restaurants and interstate writing where necessary.
transport companies’ customers still The fact that respondents indicated
do not complain when dissatisfied. that the first option they considered
Service providers in the two in complaining was to an employee
subsectors must therefore do provides organisations with
everything possible to encourage opportunities for service recovery.
dissatisfied customers to complain Employees (especially those at the
since complaints serve as feedback frontline) must therefore be trained
opportunities. Some respondents in complaint handling and applicants
explained that they did not complain with interpersonal skills should be
because the firms in question did not given priority during the recruitment
designate a complaining point. This and selection process of service
point to the fact that many firms in organisations.
the subsectors studied have not There is also a need for consumers to
begun seeing complaints as ‘gifts’ be taught that complaints are
that should be sought for and necessary ingredients if any
welcomed from dissatisfied organization will improve. We
customers since they are means of recommend that consumer awareness
improving the organization’s and enlightenment campaigns be
performance. We recommend that carried out on the importance of
restaurants and interstate transport complaints by service organizations
companies without a formal to customers in their premises. This
complaint management system can be done through rallies and
develop one. While developing this displaying of messages encouraging
system, service providers must take customers to complain.
cognizance of the fact that customers
are usually in a hurry hence Recommendations for future
research
49
Though the conclusions of this study Finally, there is a need to empirically
was generalised to the service ascertain why factors listed in
industry, there is need for more service literature as determinants of
service sub sectors to be studied in complaint voicing were not
other to ascertain if the conclusions significant determinant of complaint
of this study are also valid for them. voicing in this study.
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51
Automated Teller Machine Service Quality and Customer

Satisfaction in the Nigeria Banking Sector
J.T. Akinmayowa, Ph.D
Professor, Department of Business Administration,
Faculty of Management Sciences,
University of Benin, Benin City.
(+234) 7086431658
&
*D.O. Ogbeide, MSc
Department of Business Administration,
Faculty of Management Sciences,
University of Benin, Benin City.
Darlington.ogbeide@uniben.edu
(+234) 8027111613
*All correspondence should be directed to the second author
Abstract: Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) are becoming prominent in banking
operations in Nigeria, with many banks adopting this technology in order to provide the
growing population of customers with fast, accessible, reliable and quality services.
The study investigates dimensions of ATM service quality and its effect on customer
satisfaction. Questionnaire was developed and used to collect information from the
study sample. The structured questionnaire was administered to three hundred and fifty
(350) respondents of which three hundred and three (303) were found usable, giving
87% response rate. Data collected were analyzed using SPSS 20.5. Regression results
indicate that convenience, efficient operation, security and privacy, reliability and
responsiveness are significant dimensions of ATM service quality and that ATM service
quality has a significant positive relationship with customer satisfaction. Findings from
this study are relevant in improving ATM service quality by banks’ management to
stimulate broad-based customers’ satisfaction. It is therefore recommended that banks
need to constantly up-date and differentiate their ATM service quality dimensions to
ensure continuous satisfaction and retention of customers.
Keywords: Automated teller machine, banking, customer satisfaction, service quality.
Introduction customers’ perception of quality
The changing business environment poses unique challenge. Excellence
offers challenges and opportunities in quality has become an imperative
to organizations. The changing for organizational sustainability
52
(Lewis, Orledge & Mitchell, 1994). services. Work has been made easier,
The developments of technologies and more interesting, the competitive
have enabled organizations to edge of banks, relationship with
provide superior services for customers, and the solution of basic
customers’ satisfaction (Surjadjaja, operational and planning problems
Ghosh & Antony, 2003). has been improved (Olatokun
In the banking sector, the number of &Igbinedion, 2009). A survey
customers preferring to use self- conducted by Intermarc Consulting
service delivery systems is on the Limited (2007) revealed that among
increase. This is because effective the many services provided by banks
self-service delivery systems and non-financial institutions, ATM
guarantees quality excellence and services stood as the most popular.
superior performance and provide Apart from ATM services provided
increased autonomy to the customers by banks, the report also showed that
in executing the transactions awareness for other banking services
(Lovelock, 2000). Banks are rendered by Nigerian banks is mostly
increasing their technology-based limited to the traditional banking
service options to remain services. However, among the more
competitive. The ATM is an modern banking services such as
innovative service delivery mode electronic banking, internet banking,
that offers diversified financial point of sales (pos) transactions,
services like cash withdrawal, funds money transfer, ATMs emerged as
transfer, cash deposits, payment for the most popular. ATM awareness
utility and credit card bills, cheque also ranked higher than awareness
book requests, and other financial level about current accounts and
enquiries. Researchers have stated slightly below savings account
that users’ satisfaction is an essential (Omankhanlen, 2007).
determinant of success of the In Nigeria, the deployment of ATM
technology-based delivery channels by banks and its use by bank
(Wu & Wang, 2007; Tong, 2009.). customers are just gaining ground
ATMs in Nigeria and have burgeoned in recent times.
Nigeria has witnessed rapid growth This has happened especially after
in the introduction and diffusion of the recent consolidation of banks,
Information and Communication which has made it possible for more
Technologies (ICT) in its banking banks to afford to deploy ATMs or at
sector. Agboola (2006) found that least become part of shared networks
the use of ICT in Nigerian banks has (Fasan, 2007). The increased
produced largely positive outcomes deployment of ATMs in the banking
such as improved customer services, sector has made the issue of
more accurate records, ensuring technology relevance important. At
convenience in business time, present, the use of ATM has been
prompt and fair attention and faster widely promoted. Some banks have
53
resorted to penalizing the customer 2003). Keeping in view the
as it were, for not possessing an significance of service quality as a
ATM card, by debiting the account means of competitive advantage and
of such a customer for withdrawing organizational sustainability, the
below a certain amount across the banks are pursuing multidimensional
counter. Thus, the banks would approaches to improve service
appear to be aggressively promoting quality to attract and retain
the use of ATM cards, credit cards, customers (Khan, 2010).
debit cards, and smart cards. Thus According to Castleberry and
the banks would appear to be moving Resurreccion (1989), the physical
away from the marketing ethos that location of banks’ delivery channels
“the customer is the king” to the now influence perception of customers
familiar pattern of handling “the about quality. Consistent delivery of
customer with iron hand”. Currently, services, physical dimensions and
the ATM facilities in Nigeria are staff interaction with customers,
used generally for cash withdrawal, trustworthy processes and
payment of utility and credit cards procedures, positively affect delivery
bills, and purchase of recharge card of services quality (Sureshchandar,
for mobile phones, balance inquiry, Rajendran & Anantharaman, 2002).
change of personal identification Pleasant customer interaction with
number and transfer of funds facility. staff significantly affects customers’
Objective of the Study perception of quality (Yavas, Bilgin
To examine the essential dimensions & Shemwell, 1997). In response to
of ATM service quality and analyze this requirement, banks have
its effect on customers’ satisfaction initiated flawless delivery processes
in the banking sector of Nigeria. to reduce delivery timings to
improve service quality.
Literature Review
There are a number of issues on the ATM Service Quality
value of service quality to In Nigeria, the use of Automatic
organizations. For example, the Teller Machine (ATM) has become
literature provides relationship more common and popular than it
between service quality and firms’ ever was (Fasan, 2007). The
performance based on a number of technological innovation has
variables: improved productivity, transformed the banking business.
increased market share, enhanced Banks are aggressively adopting this
customers’ attraction and loyalty, mode. The advantages of using ATM
improved staff morale, and sustained have given new impetus in
profitability (Al-Hawari &Ward, dimensions of service quality and
2006). Research has found that banks are offering new choices to
service quality in banks is critical for customers. For example, Cabas
satisfaction and retention of (2001) noted investment
customers (Jabnoun & Al-Tamimi, opportunities, reduction in costs,
54
satisfaction of customers and (Lovelock, 2000). Yavas,
competitiveness as motives to install Benkenstein & Stuhldreier (2004)
and add new ATM to the existing argued that customers’ focused ATM
network. And Moutinho (1992) delivery system that fulfills their
established that ATM facility needs and maximize operational
resulted in speed of transactions and performance are essential
saved time for customers. dimensions of bank ATMs to
Indeed, research indicates different achieve and sustain competitive
dimensions of ATM service quality. advantage.
Lovelock (2000) identified secure Similarly, Dilijonas, Krikšciunien,
and convenient location, adequate Sakalauskas & Simutis (2009)
number of ATM, user-friendly examined the essential aspects of
system, and functionality of ATM as ATM service quality in Baltic States
essential dimensions of ATM service of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
quality. Davies, Moutinho & Curry They identified essential resources
(1996) examined the factors that (adequate number of ATMs,
influence customers’ satisfaction convenient and secure location and
about ATM service quality. These user-friendly system); important
factors include costs involved in the dimensions of operation of ATM
use of ATM, and efficient (maximum speed, minimum errors,
functioning of ATM. Joseph and high uptime, cash backup); and
Stone (2003) examined the United value-based aspects (quality service
States customers’ perception of at reasonable cost, and maximum
ATM quality and found that user- offering to cover maximum needs of
friendly, convenient locations, secure customers) as vital facets. Based on
positions, and the numbers of ATM prior studies, Al-Hawari &Ward
provided by the banks are essential (2006) compiled a list of five major
dimensions of ATM service quality. items about ATM service quality that
In a case study of Botswana, include convenient and secured
Mobarek (2007) established speed of locations, functions of ATM,
operation, and waiting time as the adequate number of machines and
important predictors of ATM service user-friendliness of the systems and
quality. procedures. An empirical study
Researchers have divergent views found that these items constitute
about the use and effectiveness of important aspects of ATM service
ATMs. Stemper (1990) stressed the quality.
positive dimension of ATMs based On the satisfaction level of ATM
on freedom of transaction. Effective card holders of a leading bank
service delivery in ATM system (HBSC) in Bangladesh, Islam,
guarantees quality excellence and Kumar & Biswas (2005) found
superior performance and provide significant relationship of ATM
autonomy to the customers service quality with customers’
55
satisfaction. The study identified that (Polatoglu & Ekin, 2001; Liao &
location, personnel response, quality Cheung, 2002). Rugimbana and
of currency notes, promptness of Iversen (1994) studied the perceived
card delivery and performance of attributes of ATM service quality
ATM were positively and and their marketing implication.
significantly related to customer’ They found that convenience,
satisfaction. The security, frequent reliability, and ease of use are
breakdown of machine, and important aspects, whereas
insufficient number of ATM were complexity and unreliability (risk)
major contributors to customers’ were causes of dissatisfaction.
dissatisfaction. In another study in Leblanc (1990) in a study of ATM
Bangladesh, Shamsdouha, users in Canada, established that
Chowdhury & Ahsan (2005) found major reasons for using ATM were
that 24 hours service, accuracy, and accessibility, freedom to do banking
convenient locations were the main at all times, and to avoid waiting
predictors of customer satisfaction. lines. The study also found the users’
The study also indicated lack of apprehension about the risk
privacy in executing the transaction, associated with its use and
fear of safety and complexity of the complexity of the machine in
machine were the major cause of executing the transactions.
concern for the customers. Moutinho (1992) examined the
Joseph and Stone (2003), through relationship of the dimensions of
focus group study in the United usage rate and performance
States, found that easy access to expectation with customers’
location, user-friendly ATM, and prolonged satisfaction with ATM
security are important factors that services. The results indicated that
influence majority of bank usage rate had a negative association
customers’ perception of ATM with customer perceived prolonged
service quality. Patrı´cio, Fisk & satisfaction whereas performance
Cunha (2003) undertook a qualitative expectations found to have positive
study of a Portuguese bank regarding and significant predictor of
customers’ use of multi-channel customers’ prolonged satisfaction.
offerings. The study identified Moutinho and Brownlie (1989)
accessibility and speed of operation found that accessibility and location
as strong predictors of customers’ of ATM significantly affect users’
satisfaction, whereas security satisfaction. The research found that
dimension and technical failures customers were willing to accept
were main causes of dissatisfaction. new offerings through ATMs.
Previous researchers have found that Waiting in queue to use the ATM
reliability feature of ATM is was the major cause of
essential to consumers’ use of dissatisfaction among the users.
electronic channels of banking
56
Literature provides support to the display of cognitive and attitudinal
idea that pleasant experience of behaviour (Bowen & Chen, 2001).
automated services provides Athanassopoulos (2000) found
enhanced value to the customers and strong empirical evidence of
attracted them to undertake improved innovation, convenience, price, and
business with their banks (Wan, Luk, service quality as vital dimensions of
& Chow, 2005). Simultaneously, the customers’ satisfaction. An
researchers have concluded that understanding of customers’
technology-based services are likely expectations enables organizations to
to give sense of incompetence to offer customer-focused services and
customers, isolate them, and increase reduce attrition of customers.
passiveness (Reichhield & Schefter, Literature offers significant evidence
2000; Grabner-Krauter & Kalusha, of the association between
2003). In addition, the pattern of satisfaction of customers and
adoption of technology and its use superior financial performance,
may differ across organizations and customer loyalty, and market share
cultures (Lockett & Litter, 1997). (Beerli, Martin & Quintana, 2004;
Howcroft (1991) noted that Wood, 2008; Olu, 2010; Oghojafor,
dissatisfaction among customers is Ladipo, Ighomereho & Odunewu,
associated with frequent 2014).
interruptions and breakdown of Researchers contend that service
ATMs. Intense competition and quality has a direct link with
technology-based new services are customer satisfaction (Parasuraman,
shaping customers loyalty. These Zeithaml & Berry, 1988; Olu, 2010).
have resulted into switching of banks Strong evidence exists in the
by customers based on competitive literature about customers’
services (Lewis & Bingham, 1991). satisfaction from ATM services
Athanassopoulos (2000) found that (Leblanc, 1990). Literature finds a
location of ATM, increasing number large number of studies that
of ATMs, and diversified service highlight the satisfaction of
offering are associated with customers with ATMs (Moutinho &
switching of banks. Brownlie, 1989, Wan et al., 2005;
Marketers identified customers’ Mobarek, 2007; Komal & Singh,
satisfaction through behavioural, 2009).
cognitive, and attitudinal response to Research Model
the service provider. These Based on the direction of most of the
dimensions manifest in repeated use studies, the research model of this
of services, tolerance with regard to study is shown below
price, word of mouth promotion and
57
Convenience
H1
Efficient
Operation
H
2
H3 ATM Service H6
Security & Customer
Quality Satisfaction
Privacy
H4
Reliability
H5
Responsive
ness
Research Hypotheses Hypothesis 2: Efficient operation of

Based on the research model, the ATMs has a significant positive
following hypotheses were tested: relationship with ATM service
Hypothesis 1: Convenience of ATMs quality.
has a significant positive relationship Hypothesis 3: Security and privacy
with ATM service quality. of using ATMs has a significant
58
positive relationship with ATM alpha for individual variable of
service quality. convenience (0.764); efficient
Hypothesis 4: Reliability of ATMs operation (0.760); security and
has a significant positive relationship privacy (0.710); reliability (0.714);
with ATM service quality. responsiveness (0.858); ATM service
Hypothesis 5: Responsiveness of quality (0.800) and customer
using ATMs has a significant satisfaction (0.762). When
positive relationship with ATM Cronbach’s alpha is greater than 0.7,
service quality. it is considered acceptable and it
Hypothesis 6: ATM service quality shows the questionnaire has a
has a significant positive relationship relative high internal reliability.
with customer satisfaction. When Cronbach alpha is less than
0.7, it is considered not acceptable
Methodology and the items in the questionnaire did
A correlational research design was not significantly contribute to the
used for this study. Convenience reliability and therefore eliminated
sampling technique was used to for parsimony purpose. The results
collect the data from a sample of 350 were found to be within the
bank customers who hold ATM acceptable range of 0.7.
cards. A questionnaire was used to
collect the data. The survey Data Analysis
questionnaire measured five Statistical Package for Social
dimensions of ATM service quality Sciences (SPSS) version 20.5 was
and its effect on customer used to compute and analyze the
satisfaction. The dimensions are data. The statistical tests used in the
convenience, efficient operation, analysis of data included descriptive
security and privacy, reliability and statistics, testing of multicollinearity
responsiveness. Nominal scale was and normality of data, reliability
used to collect personal information analysis, correlation analysis, factor
about respondents. Five point Likert analysis and regression analysis.
scale ranging from five (strongly The following regression equations
agree) to one (strongly disagree) was is fitted to estimate the essential
used to measure the response on all dimensions of ATM service quality
dimensions of ATM service quality and analyze its effect on customers’
and customer satisfaction. satisfaction is given below:
A sample of 50 customers was used Y=a+b1X1+b2X2+b3X3+b4X4+b5X5+
in the pilot testing to validate the e ……………………………………
instrument. The results of pilot (1)
testing exhibited adequacy as Where Y = ATM Service Quality, a
suggested by Nunnaly (1978). The = Constant, b1......b5 = Beta
Cronbach’s alphas ranged from coefficient, X1 = Convenience, X2 =
0.710 to 0.880 for different variables. Efficient operation, X3 = Security
The results indicated Cronbach’s
59
& Privacy, X4 = Reliability, X5 = variables of convenience (0.850);
Responsiveness, e = error term. efficient operation (0.808); security
Y = a + b1X1+ e and privacy (0.848); reliability
………………………………………………………… (0.791); responsiveness (0.766);
…………………………………………… (2) ATM service quality (0.798); and
Where Y = Customer satisfaction, a customer satisfaction (0.794). When
= Constant, b1 = Beta coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha is greater than 0.7,
X1=ATM Service Quality it is considered acceptable and it
e = error term. shows the questionnaire has a
relative high internal reliability.
Reliability and Validity Test When Cronbach alpha is less than
Reliability and validity tests are 0.7, it is considered not acceptable
important to standardize the and the items in the questionnaire did
measurement scales, and to not significantly contribute to the
demonstrate whether they truly reliability and therefore eliminated
measure what they are supposed to for parsimony purpose. The results
measure. Cronbach’s alpha for were found to be within the
instrument (45 items) was 0.880. The acceptable range of 0.7.
Cronbach’s alpha for individual
Table 1: Results of reliability and validity of data

Constructs Number of items Cronbach’s Alpha
Convenience 10 0.850
Efficient operation 10 0.848
Security and privacy 7 0.808
Reliability 5 0.791
Responsiveness 5 0.766
ATM Service quality 5 0.798
Customer satisfaction 3 0.794
Results and Analysis 125); and (>seven years, 71).The

Only 303 respondents returned the majority of respondents (64.5%)
completed questionnaires showing a used ATM services for more than
response rate of 87%. There were five years. ATM service quality
167 males (55.1%) and 136 females dimension of convenience drew
(44.9%) respectively. Both these maximum response with regard to
groups include students (109) of agreement (Mean = 4.011, Standard
institutions of higher education, Deviation = 0.457), followed by
professionals (110) and business reliability (Mean = 3.66, Standard
people (84). The period of use of Deviation = 0.661); responsiveness
ATM services was (> one year, 45); (Mean = 3.56Standard Deviation =
(> three years, 62); (> five years, 0.779); efficient operation (Mean =
60
3.54, Standard Deviation = 0.605); test and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
and security and privacy (Mean = determine the level of adequacy of
3.48, Standard Deviation = 0.608) factor analysis. The KMO measure
respectively. The ATM service of sampling adequacy reflects score
quality (Mean = 3.65, Standard of (0.757), which is well above the
Deviation= 0.691) and customer recommended 0.50 level
satisfaction (Mean = 3.76, Standard (Malhotra,2004)and the Bartlett’s
Deviation = 0.696) reflected test of sphericity is significant at (p<
agreement as well. The results, based 0.001) levels. Factors with Eigen
on mean score and standard value greater than one were retained.
deviation, reflect respondents’ The factor loadings below 0.40 are
general agreement to the dimensions not shown. The extraction method
of the model. used was principal axis factoring
with Varimax rotation. The five
Test of Normality of Data
factors identified (convenience;
Tolerance test and Variance Inflation
efficient operation; security and
Factor (VIF) was undertaken to
privacy, reliability, responsiveness)
determine multicollinearity. These
explain 65.2% of total variance.
tests reflect that the variables used in
the study are free from Correlation Analysis
multicollinearity and preclude the To determine the relationship
need to eliminate any variable. The between variables, correlation
results indicate that Tolerance levels analysis was done. Table 2 indicates
(< or equal to 0.01) and VIF values that convenience, efficient operation,
(below ten) are within acceptable security and privacy, reliability and
range. The Durbin Watson values for responsiveness have positive
all variables are also within limits relationship with ATM service
(between 1.5 and 2.5) and exhibit no quality. In addition, the results also
problem of auto correlation between revealed that ATM service quality
variables. has positive relationship with
customer satisfaction. Results reflect
Factor Analysis
that the correlation between variables
Factor analysis facilitates reduction
is significant (p< 0.01).
of data. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
61
Table 2: Correlation Matrix
Variables Convenien Efficient Security Reliability Respons ATM
ce operation & privacy iveness services Sat
quality
Convenience 1
Efficient operation 0.507* 1
Security &privacy 0.394* 0.551* 1
Reliability 0.216* 0.356* 0.392* 1
Responsiveness 0.282* 0.360* 0.442* 0.400* 1
ATM Service quality 0.482* 0.546* 0.404* 0.450* 0.414* 1
Satisfaction 0.428* 0.585* 0.452* 0.401* 0.412* 0.701 1
Note:*correlation is significant at 0.01 level (two-tailed)
Regression Analysis
Table 3: Results of Regression Analysis
Items Coefficient t-value P-value
ATM Service Quality (R2 = 0.452)
(Constant) 0.111
H1 –Convenience 0.353 7.828 0.000*
H2-Efficient operation 0.261 5.718 0.000*
H3-Security & privacy 0.192 2.102 0.000*
H4–Reliability 0.138 3.556 0.000*
H5–Responsiveness 0.122 2.696 0.000*
F-statistic 71.106
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000*
Customer satisfaction (R2= 0.501)
(Constant) 1.025
H6-ATM service 0.720 21.718 0.000*
quality
F-statistic 397.795
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000*
*P<0.01, N=303
The results of regression equation accounted for 45.2% (R2 = 0.452) of
based on five independent variables variance in dependent variable of
(convenience, efficient operation, ATM service quality. Convenience,
security and privacy, reliability, and with the largest beta coefficient of (0
responsiveness) indicate positive and .353) is the most significant
statistically significant relationship independent variable followed by
(F = 71.106; P < 0.01) with efficient operation (Beta = 0.261);
dependent variable of ATM service reliability (Beta = 0.138);
quality. The independent variables responsiveness (Beta = 0.122); and
62
security and privacy (Beta = 0.192) revealed that convenience of ATM
respectively. Consequently, the has a significant positive relationship
regression equation for this analysis with ATM service quality. The
is given as: customers prefer flexibility to meet
ATM Service Quality = 0.111 + their financial needs at all times,
0.353(Convenience) + which affect their perception of the
0.261(Efficient operation) + ATM service quality. Technology
0.192(Security & privacy) + can be intimidating to most
0.138(Reliability) + customers and therefore one expects
0.122(Responsiveness) that ATMs should be designed to
The results of regression equation of simplify the transactional process for
independent variable of ATM service customers. Ease of use is one
quality and dependent variables of concept that has been used as part of
customer satisfaction is positive and convenience dimension. This study
statistically significant (F = 397.795; used the concept to mean the degree
p<0.01). The regression equation to which ATMs systems offer a
with R2= 0.501 explains 50.1% hassle free transaction for the
variance in customer satisfaction. customer. While networked banking
Consequently, the regression allows customers to obtain their
equation for this analysis is given as: monies from any branch at a bank,
Customer satisfaction = 1.025 + the ATMs provide customers access
0.720(ATM Service Quality). to their monies outside the banking
hall at convenience times. Most
Discussion of findings ATMs are located in bank branches,
The main purpose of this study was or off sites such as in shopping malls
to identify the significant dimensions and college campuses. Sometimes,
that shape customers’ perception of the bank’s ATM card is compatible
ATM service quality and the effect with other banks ATM platforms and
of ATM service quality on this makes it possible for customer to
customers’ satisfaction in the Nigeria withdraw money from other ATMs
banking sector. The study examined at a small fee. Convenience also
and explained how convenience, involves “an all-day all-night”
efficient operation, security and availability of the service to the
privacy, reliability, and customers. If the ATMs are
responsiveness positively and conveniently located, the
significantly affect customers’ inconvenience in moving long
perception of ATM service quality, distances in order to carry out
and how the ATM service quality transactions will be minimized.
influences the customers’ The second dimension of ATM
satisfaction. service quality, efficient operation,
The convenience dimension refers to relates to efficient and speedy
ease of use and accessibility of the operation of ATM. Efficiency in
service at all times. The study
63
operations optimizes the resources accounts, they want ATM that are
for the customers. The study user friendly, ATMs that are fast,
indicates that efficient and faster ATMs that do not run out of cash,
delivery of ATMs has positive and ATMs that are not out of order and
significant effect on customers’ no long queues at ATMs.
perception of quality. Customers Responsiveness was found to have a
accord priority to user-friendliness of positive and significant effect on
ATM. The findings support the ATM service quality. The
studies of White & Nteli (2004), Al- responsiveness aspect of ATM
Hawari and Ward (2006) and service quality relates to the ability
Dilijonas et al. (2009). of the bank staff to provide the
The dimension of security and agreed services timely, accurately,
privacy refers to perceived low-risk dependably, and promptly.
with use of ATM. The security Responsiveness measures the extent
environment in Nigeria and the to which the banks put in place
frequent vulnerabilities of ATM measures to recover services when
users have enhanced the risk ATM services are negatively
associated with the use of this confirmed, and to response quickly
delivery channel. The findings of the to requests and suggestions and
study revealed that the customers’ provide assistance to customers in
expectation of security and privacy case of problems. The study revealed
in the use of ATM is essential in that staff response to customers’
shaping customers’ perception of ATM related needs influence their
service quality. The concern of perception about service quality.
customers about security and With ATMs, response or recovery
privacy, while using this service, is a quality deals with the banks’ ability
major cause of their dissatisfaction to handle customer complaints
(Madu & Madu, 2002). arising as a result of transactional
The feature of reliability describes failures as well as compensating
the ability to perform the required customers against losses incurred
service accurately and dependably at such as monies illegally withdrawn
all times. The findings of the study out of their accounts. A quick
revealed that reliability of ATMs response to requests is likely to
positively and significantly increase perceived convenience and
contributes toward customers’ diminish uncertainty and is important
perception of quality and therefore way for the banks to show that they
positively relates to customers’ use are customer oriented and act
of ATM services. ATM users want benevolently towards customers.
to receive the right quantity and right The research results reflect a positive
quality of service at all times, as and statistically strong relationship
promised by the banks. In addition, between ATM service quality and
they prefer accurate billing of their customers satisfaction. This implies
64
that as ATM service quality and facilitate customers to participate
increases, so also will be the in improving the service encounter
satisfaction of the customers of the with ATM and make it a memorable
banks providing the ATM services. and pleasant experience. The banks
This association concurs with the should focus not only on the
findings of prior studies in ATM satisfaction of ATM users, but also
service quality context (Wan et al., aim at delighting them to ensure their
2005; Mobarek, 2007; Komal & retention.
Singh, 2009; Khan, 2010). Banks should capitalize on the
Recommendations spread of communication technology
and the theory of innovations
The rapid increase in number of
(Marshall & Heslop, 1988). Banks
automated delivery channels and
should develop strategies to motivate
customers’ preference to use ATM
non- users through awareness,
are placing pressure on banks to
education, extending personalized
respond aggressively to meet the
services, and demonstrating the
customers’ needs. The study
functions of ATMs.
provides necessary input to the bank
management to increase customers’ It is evident that convenience,
satisfaction through improving ATM efficient operation, security and
service quality. The focus should not privacy, reliability and
be on ATM service quality responsiveness are not the only
dimensions only. This aspect should characteristics that influence
be augmented and integrated with customers’ satisfaction. The other
other aspects of the service quality of factors that contribute to customer
banks for satisfaction of customers. satisfaction include trust, value, and
Despite extensive use of ATMs, the image of the bank, (Ranaweera &
absence of direct interaction with Prabhu, 2003). Bank management
bank staff has increase dcustomers’ should monitor the environment and
apprehensions about the perceived identify the trends through marketing
risk (Grabner-Krauter & Kalusha, intelligence. They need to constantly
2003). To reduce the customers up-date and differentiate their ATM
concerns about perceived risk service quality dimensions to ensure
because of security and privacy continuous satisfaction and retention
concerns, the bank should improve of customers, and optimize their
the quality of interaction with the limited resources.
customers to alleviate these Quick response to customers’ needs
apprehensions with a view to and queries about the ATM related
improve ATM service quality services are important to improve the
(Merrilees, 2002).To further improve service standards of ATM. This
the service quality, ATM service would facilitate customers to
should be able to provide enhanced participate in improvement of service
interactivity, diversified offerings, quality, learn and perform, and have
65
a pleasant experience through two- specific time in present. Additional
way communication. Bank should study should be done on longitudinal
make a commitment to redress the basis to address the interactive and
service failures of ATMs. Solomon, technological dimensions of ATM
Surprenant, Czepiel and Gutman service quality that affect the
(1985) argued that role players dissatisfaction level of customers.
should provide compatibility Age has a significant effect on the
between expectation and perception pattern of use of technology-based
during service encounter. services. Generally the youth prefer
Limitations and Further Research to use innovative and technology-
The study has some limitations. The based delivery channel like ATM
study has used convenience sample. that offer multiple benefits and
In Nigeria environment, the banks autonomy of executing the
are not willing to share information transaction (Wan et al., 2005). The
about the number of customers who old age people are generally shy of
hold ATM, their adoption and usage use of ATM because of perceived
rate of ATM and their volume of risk of failure, complexity, security,
transactions because of privacy and lack of personalized service
policies. Efforts should be made to (Moutinho, 1992). Future research
investigate the study using a random should explore the association
sample to enhance its between age and attitude and
generalizability. Survey design has determine its effects on the ATM
been used in the study. A mix of service quality and customers’
interviews and qualitative data satisfaction.
gathering techniques could be used The price is an essential aspect that
to make the results more affects the customers’ perception of
comprehensive. Future research ATM service quality (Surjadjaja et
could focus on diversifying the al. 2003; Iqbal, Verma & Baran,
sample across different ethnic 2003). The fee charge relates to the
groups, income, and education. perception of non-competitiveness
This research focused on and injustice and may lead to the
determinants of ATM service quality switching of the service provider
and its effect on customer banks (Colgate &Hedge, 2001). The
satisfaction. However, the research prevailing economic conditions in
did not study the association between Nigeria have made the people more
customer satisfaction and retention prices sensitive. This aspect needs
of customers. Further research may further exploration as essential
well explore the relationship between dimension affecting ATM service
these two constructs. The formation quality and customers’ satisfaction.
of satisfaction process takes place
overtime (Andreasen, 1977). The
conclusions of the study relates to a
66
Conclusion privacy as well as reliability of
The rapid diffusion of ICT in the ATMs. Banks should also augment
banking sector provides a platform to and diversify their offerings through
use innovative technologies to ATM and use this medium to build a
enhance operational efficiency and strong and sustained relationship
quality of service to attain and retain with customers. This study as well as
customers. The rapid growth in use other studies in the area of human
of ATMs in Nigeria offers endeavour is not exhausative given
opportunities to banks to use the dynamic nature of banking
customers’ passion for this services which are feasible and the
innovative service for strategic changing behavioural norms which
advantage. The banks should the services will deliver. These are
proactively monitor customers’ cannons on which future studies will
preferences with regard to use of this be anchored if the advancement of
delivery channel for effective empirical studies in customer
response. Bank should focus on satisfaction could be sustained.
important aspects of security and
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72
Stress Among Academic Staff in a Nigerian University

By
Jeremiah T. Akinmayowa, PhD
Professor in the Department of Business Administration,
Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Benin,
Benin City, Nigeria.
&
*Paul A. Kadiri, M.Sc. (Corresponding Author)
Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Business Administration,
Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Benin,
Benin City, Nigeria.
alasa.kadiri@uniben.edu
Abstract: This study investigated the factors associated with stress among academic
staff in a Nigerian university. Also, it ascertains if there is significant difference
between stress and selected socio-dynamic variables of academics staff. Data was
collected from 313 randomly selected academic staff from a research population of
1442. Data was analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings
revealed that all tested variables: academic workload, student-related issues, research
and career development, interpersonal relationship and administrative-related issues
were significantly associated with stress among academic staff. The results also showed
that there is no significant difference in the level of stress among academic staff with
respect to gender, age, teaching experience and academic rank. However, significant
difference was observed in the level of stress among academic staff with respect to
marital status. The study recommended among others that the university authority
should establish an Employee Assistance Programme (EAP) to provide professional
services and assistance to academic staff suffering stress-related problems.
Key words: Academic Staff, Public Universities, Stress.
1. Introduction 2005; Khurshid, Butt & Malik,
Empirical studies have shown that 2011). According to Gyllensten and
work-related stress is increasingly Palmer (2005) an astonishing 13.4
becoming a source of concern among million working days was found to
organizations and employees around be lost to stress-related illness,
the globe (Gyllensten & Palmer, depression, or anxiety every year in
73
Britain. Work stress does not only university lecturers in Nigeria
negatively influence the productivity grapple daily with overcrowded
and creativity of workers, but also classrooms, outdated laboratory
their overall health, well-being and facilities for research activities and
morale. According to Akinmayowa teaching, poor working condition
(2009) stress is not only detrimental amongst others. The slogan in
to the individual’s immediate Nigerian universities ‘publish or
emotional stability and behaviour, perish syndrome’ is a stressor. The
but also for his or her long-term intense pressure piled on lecturers
psychological wellbeing. Excessive (especially the younger ones) to
stress at work could result in increase publish as many papers as possible in
human errors and accidents, as well the shortest time possible for
as negatively affect employees’ promotion purposes is no longer
productivity and their overall news. Others commonly cited
effectiveness on the job sources of stress in Nigerian public
(Akinmayowa, 2009; Armstrong, universities include strenuous
2006). promotion criteria/guidelines, heavy
Several factors have been found to academic workload and frustration in
contribute to the level of stress the efforts taken for articles to be
among university academics to published in local journals. These
include: home-work interface, role sources of stress as Ofoegbu and
ambiguity and performance pressure Nwadiani (2006) pointed out, were
(Ahsan, Abdullah, Fie & Alam, influencing negatively how academic
2009); academic workload, student- staff functions in public universities
related issues and role conflicts in Nigeria.
(Akbar & Akhter, 2011). Also, Studies have investigated factors
research and publications associated with stress among
(Abouserie, 1996; Blix, Cruise, academic staff in universities in
Mitchell, & Blix, 1994), strike and different parts of the globe, including
school interruption, delay and Nigeria. Thabo (2010) examined the
irregular payment of salary and lack factors associated with work stress
of instructional facilities (Ofoegbu & among university employees in
Nwadiani, 2006) are significant Botswana. Their results indicated
sources of stress among university that work stress was associated with
teachers. Yet, research, career several aspects of the work
development, interpersonal environment such as overload,
relationships are problematic clarity of responsibilities and
(Archibong, Bassey & Effiom, physical working conditions. Akbar
2010). Turning to Nigeria, the work and Akhter (2011) investigated the
lives of lecturers in public factors that significantly contribute
universities is not an easy one to stress among faculty members in
(Archibong, et al., 2010). Indeed, both public and private business
schools of Punjab in Pakistan. They
74
found that workload, student-related According to Salami (2011:112)
issues and role conflicts were these models “are the most widely
significant factors that contribute to accepted frameworks for conducting
stress in faculty members; while research on job-stress and burnout.”
inadequate organizational resources PE Fit theory and transactional
and organizational structural & model of stress is based on the
procedural characteristics do not premise that stress does not arise
contribute significantly to stress in from a person or the work
faculty members. Despite these environment separately, but rather
findings, very little is still known from the interrelationship between
about the factors that significantly stressors in the work environment,
impact on the level of stress among the individual’s perception of the
academic staff in public universities work situation and his or her
in Nigeria to the best of our subjective responses (Cooper, Dewe
knowledge. & O’Driscoll, 2001). Thus, the
2. Objective of the Study individual would adjudge the work
The objective of this study therefore situation to be stressful when he or
is to: she perceives an incompatibility or a
i. investigate the factors lack of fit with the work
associated with stress among environment. In our research model,
academic staff; and the stressors in Box A are job
ii. ascertain if there is demands that could contribute
significant difference significantly to the level of stress
between stress and selected experienced by an academics as
socio-dynamic variables of mediated by his or her socio-
academic staff. dynamic variables in BOX B. The
individual would appraise the work
3. Review of Literature situation to be stressful when he or
3.1 Theoretical Framework she perceives a lack of fit or
The study adopts person-fit incompatibility with the work
environment (PE) theory and the environment.
transactional model of work stress.
75
BOX B
Socio-dynamic
Variables
Gender
Marital Status Age
Teaching Experience
BOX A Academic Rank
Stressors
Academic Workload BOX C
Student-Related Issues
Research and Career Stress
Development
Interpersonal Relationship
Administrative-Related Issues
Figure 1: Diagrammatic Representation of the Research Model

Source: The Authors’ Construction
3.2 Stress and Socio-Dynamic counterparts. However, Ofoegbu and

Variables Nwadiani (2006) found no
3.2.1 Stress and Gender significant difference in the level of
A review of literature shows that stress experienced by both male and
stress and gender are related (Safaria, female lecturers.
Othman & Wahab, 2012). While H1: There is no significant
some studies found significant difference in the level of stress
relationship between stress and experienced by academic staff with
gender, others however failed to respect to gender
establish any relationship between 3.2.2 Stress and Marital Status
them. For instance, studies by Blix et Marital status has been found to play
al. (1994), Boyd and Wylie (1994), an important role in the experience
and Okebukola and Jegede (1989) of stress among university lecturers.
found that female lecturers In a study carried out to investigate
experienced more stress on the job stress in selected universities in the
than their male counterparts. In Southern part of Nigeria, Omoniyi
contrast, Borg and Riding (1991), and Ogunsanmi (2012) found the
Aftab and Khatoon (2012) found that level of stress between married and
male teachers reported more stress single lecturers to differ
than their female counterparts. Study significantly; with lecturers that are
by Mondal, Shrestha and Bhaila single experiencing more stress than
(2011) revealed that male academics their married counterparts. This is
experience more psychological and inconsistent with Khurshid, et al.
physical stress than their female (2011) with the findings that married
76
academic staff experience more level of stress they might experience.
stress than their single counterparts. This is in contrast to their older
Van Zyl and Pietersen (1999) posit colleagues who might have fully
that married female academics are adapted to the system over the years.
more likely to report more stress due Furthermore, Dua (1994) posited that
to the fact that they have to perform older academics would likely
the dual roles of both a professional experience less stress as compared to
career woman and that of a the younger ones due to the fact that
supportive house wife they might consider themselves to
simultaneously. Ofoegbu and have reached the pinnacle of their
Nwadiani (2006) however found no career. This belief might tempt them
significant difference in the level of to believe that there is very little or
stress between married and single nothing left to achieve in the system.
academics in public universities in However, Paulse (2004) found that
Nigeria. younger academics would
H2: There is no significant experience less stress than their older
difference in the level of stress ones due to the absent of family
experienced by academic staff with responsibilities. Study by Sager
respect to marital status (1990) found that the ability to cope
3.2.3 Stress and Age with stress would increase with age.
Studies revealed that conflicting This finding is consistent with Akbar
findings exist on stress between and Akter (2011) who found that as
younger and older academics in the age of an academic staff
universities. While some studies increases, he or she tend to
found that younger academics experience less stress. This is
experience more stress than their consistent with Theorell and Karasek
older counterparts and vice versa; (1996) who found a positive
others however failed to establish relationship between the ages of
any relationship in the level of stress university teachers and their level of
between younger and older stress. In contrast, Khurshid et al.
university academics (Dua, 1994; (2011) reported an inverse
Paulse, 2004). In justifying why relationship between the age of
younger academics might experience lecturers and the level of work stress
more stress than their older they experience.
counterparts, Ofoegbu and Nwadiani H3: There is no significant
(2006) stated that although the difference in the level of stress
younger ones often enter into the experienced by academic staff with
academic environment with high respect to age
hopes, expectations and dreams, their 3.2.4 Stress and Teaching
expectations are suddenly dashed Experience
when faced with the realities of the Studies show that teaching
job, thereby resulting in a significant experience may contribute
77
significantly to the level of stress reasons could account for less stress
among academic staff in universities. among individuals with higher job
In particular, empirical evidence ranks than those with lower job
seems to suggest that academic staff ranks. The fact that individuals with
with less teaching experience would higher job ranks have better pay
report more stress than those with packages, allowances and the
more teaching experience possibility of delegating tedious
(Abouserie, 1996; Akbar & Akter, tasks to subordinates, may justify
2011; Ofoegbu & Nwadiani, 2006; why they might experience less
Okebukola & Jegede, 1989; stress as compared with employees
Winefield & Jarret, 2001; Safaria, et with lower job ranks. Safaria et al.
al., 2012). Ofoegbu & Nwadiani (2012) opine that employees who
(2006) further opine that lecturers feel poorly remunerated (which may
with more teaching experience might be due to their job rank in the
have adapted to the system over time organization) were likely to be more
which might explain why they tend prone to work stress. Turning to the
to experience less stress as compared university environment, academics
to the younger ones who are with higher academic ranks are more
relatively new in the system. likely to experience less job pressure,
Moreover, academics with more as well as work-related stress than
teaching experience might consider those with lower academic ranks.
themselves to have reached the The reason being that academics
pinnacle of their career (Dua, 1994). with higher rank may leverage on the
In contrary, study by Hanif (2004) power their position bestow on them
found that academics with more by delegating responsibilities (i.e.
teaching experience would report course advising, invigilating of
more stress than those with less examinations, marking of
teaching experience. examination scripts and
H4: There is no significant undergraduate project supervisions)
difference in the level of stress they perceived to be tedious to junior
experienced by academic staff with colleagues. In support of this,
respect to teaching experience Kirkcaldy and Furnham (1999)
3.2.5 Stress and Academic Rank found that as employees’ progresses
Academic rank has been found to be toward higher job ranks, they tend to
a key factor that mediate the resort to delegating responsibilities
experience of stress in university among their subordinates in order to
academics (Safaria et al., 2012). cope with work-related stress.
Study by Dua (1994) found that H5: There is no significant
individuals employed at ranks are difference in the level of stress
likely to be less susceptible to the experienced by academic staff with
experience of stress than those respect to academic rank
employed at lower job ranks. Several
78
4. Methods of Research (strata) with heterogeneity between
This study adopted the descriptive the subsets. This happens to be the
survey research design. This design case with a study of this nature
was adopted due to was fact that it where the population is made of
affords the researchers the benefit of academic staff that can easily be
gaining an in-depth knowledge and stratified on the basis of
understanding of the subject matter faculty/college of medical sciences
of this research study. Respondents or academic rank.
were drawn from the ten faculties The questionnaire was used to gather
(i.e. Agriculture, Arts, Education, data for the study. The instrument
Engineering, Law, Life Sciences, items were adapted from previous
Management Sciences, Pharmacy, studies of Archibong et al. (2010)
Physical Sciences and Social and Ofoegbu and Nwadiani (2006)
Sciences) and college of medical after an extensive review of
sciences (i.e. Basic Medical literature. The initial items in the
Sciences, Dentistry and Medicine) in research instrument were validated
the University of Benin, Benin City, by four (4) senior academics in the
Edo State, Nigeria. The University of Faculty of Management Sciences,
Benin was selected due to the fact University of Benin. Its reliability
that it is one of the oldest and largest was pilot-tested with thirty (30)
public universities in the country. academic staff that were not part of
Thus, it is our belief that our research the study sample using cronbach’s
findings would to a large extent alpha method. A reliability co-
reflect the nature of stress in other efficient of 0.85 was obtained for the
public universities in the country. research instrument which was
The population of the study considered satisfactory and relevant
comprised one thousand four to our study objectives.
hundred and forty two (1,442)
academic staff as obtained from Section A of the questionnaire
Records and Statistics Units in the focused on the socio-dynamic
Registrar’s Office, University of variables of respondents: gender,
Benin, on 8 January, 2013. Since the marital status, age, teaching
population is known, a sample size experience and academic rank.
of 313 was determined using Yaro Section B contains twenty six (26)
Yamani’s statistical formula. questions which were categorized
Stratified sampling was used to under five broad stressors i.e.
select respondents that participated Academic Workload (AW), Student
in the study from the faculties and Related Issues (SI), Research and
college of medical sciences. Career Development (RC),
Agbonifoh and Yomere (1999) opine Interpersonal Relationship (IR) and
that stratified sampling method is Administrative-Related Issues (AI).
ideal when the study population is Respondents were asked to rate how
made up of homogenous subsets stressful they find each item based
79
on a 5- point Likert scale: 1= no single, 2.3% (5) widowed and 1.3%
stressful, 2= low stress, 3= average (3) divorced or separated. Turning to
stress, 4= high stress, 5= very high their age, 8.0% (18) were 24 years or
stress. Questionnaires were less, 20.4% (46) were between 25-30
administered and retrieved from years, 40.4% (91) were between 31
respondents within four weeks by the and 45 years, 23.2% (52) were
researchers with the help of some between 46 and 55 years and 8.0%
trained research assistants. (18) were between 56 years and
Data analysis was done using both above.
descriptive statistics (i.e. simple On academic rank, 2.7% (6) were
percentages, means, standard Professors, 7.1% (16) were Associate
deviation and multiple regression Professors, 13.7% (31) were Senior
techniques) and inferential statistics Lecturers, 14.2% (32) were Lecturer
(i.e. independent t-test and one way I, 17.6% (40) were Lecturer II,
ANOVA). The research hypotheses 26.1% (59) were Assistant Lecturers
were tested at 0.05 level of and 18.6% (42) were Graduate
significance. Where statistically Assistants. In teaching experience,
significant F ratio was obtained in 55.1% (124) had between 5 years or
any of the tested hypothesis and the less, 15.5% (35) had between 6 and
null hypothesis was rejected, 10 years experience, 14.7% (33) had
Scheffe’s post hoc test was done in between 11 and 15 years experience,
order to ascertain which pairs of 14.7% (33) had been on the job for
mean differs. Data generated were 16 years or more.
analyzed with the aid of Statistical 5.2 Hypotheses Testing
Package for the Social Sciences In this section, inferential statistical
(SPSS) version 19.0. tools (i.e. independent t-test and one-
5. Results and Discussion way ANOVA) were used to analyze
5.1 Demographic Profile of the research hypotheses at 0.05 level
Respondents of significance. Where statistically
Out of the three hundred and thirteen significant F ratio was obtained in
questionnaires (313) that were any of the tested hypothesis and the
administered to respondents, two null hypothesis is rejected, Scheffe’s
hundred and twenty six (226) post hoc test was done in order to
questionnaires were retrieved and ascertain which pair of means
found usable giving a percentage differs.
response rate of 72.2%. A look at the H1: There is no significant
demographic profile of respondents difference in the level of stress
shows that 66.8% (151) were males experienced by academic staff with
and 33.2% (75) were females. 62.5% respect to gender.
(140) were married, 33.9% (76) were
80
Table 1: Independent t-test: Stress by Gender

Gender N Mean SD T value Sig. Decision
Male 151 2.75 0.54
0.70 0.485 Not Significant
Female 75 2.70 0.66
Total 226
Table 2 shows that significant stress experienced by both male and

difference does not exists in the level female lecturers. The result however
of stress between male and female contradicts that of Akbar and Akhter
respondents (F=0.70, p-value>0.05). (2011) who found significant
Thus, the null hypothesis which difference in the level of stress
states that there is no significant between male and female lecturers;
difference in the level of stress with female lecturers experiencing
experienced by academic staff with more stress than their male
respect to gender is accepted. This counterparts.
finding supports that of Winefield H2: There is no significant
and Jarret (2001), and Ofoegbu and difference in the level of stress
Nwadiani (2006) who found no experienced by academic staff with
significant difference in the level of respect to marital status
Table 2: ANOVA: Stress by Marital Status
Sum of Mean
Marital Status Squares Df Square F Sig. Decision
Between Groups 3.143 3 1.048 3.321 0.021* Significant
Within Groups 69.389 220 0.315
Total 72.532 223
*Significant at 0.05, 2-tailed
Table 2 shows that significant staff with respect to marital status is

difference existed in the level of rejected. This finding is consistent
stress among respondents based on with Omoniyi and Ogunsanmi
marital status (F=3.321, p- (2012) who found that the level of
value<0.05). Therefore, the null stress between married and single
hypothesis which states that there is academic staff differ significantly.
no significant difference in the level However, our result does not support
of stress experienced by academic Ofoegbu and Nwadiani (2006) who
81
found no significant difference in the academic staff with respect to
level of stress among lecturers in marital status, Scheffe’s post hoc test
Nigerian universities based on was done in order to ascertain which
marital status. pair of means differ. Table 3 shows
Since the tested hypothesis in Table Scheffe’s post hoc test with respect
2 indicated that significant difference to marital status.
existed in the level of stress among
Table 3: Scheffe’s Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons Test with respect to

Marital Status
Mean
Difference
(I) Marital Status (J) Marital Status (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Decision
Married Single -0.24716 0.08002 0.025* Significant
Widowed 0.03710 0.25560 0.999 Not Significant
Divorced/Separated -0.22444 0.32770 0.926 Not Significant
Single Married 0.24716 0.08002 0.025* Significant
Divorced/Separated 0.02272 0.33058 1.000 Not Significant
Widowed Married -0.03710 0.25560 0.999 Not Significant
Single -0.28426 0.25929 0.753 Not Significant
Divorced/Separated -0.26154 0.41014 0.939 Not Significant
Divorced/Separated Married 0.22444 0.32770 0.926 Not Significant
Single -0.02272 0.33058 1.000 Not Significant
*The mean difference is significant at 0.05 level.
Table 3 depicts Scheffe’s post hoc (p value<0.05). The mean difference

analysis with respect to marital between single and married
status. Results clearly indicated that respondents which is ±.24716 is
statistical difference existed between significant at 0.05 level (Table 3)
single and married respondents only
.
Table 4: Marital Status: Mean and Standard Deviation

Marital Status N Mean SD
Married 140 2.66 0.57
Single 76 2.91 0.53
Widowed 5 2.62 0.95
Divorced/Separated 3 2.88 0.07
82
Table 4 depicts the mean and experience more stress than their
standard deviation scores of unmarried counterparts, but
respondents with respect to marital inconsistent with Khurshid et al.
status. Results indicated that single (2011) and Akbar and Akhter (2011)
respondents experienced higher level who found that academic staff that
of stress (Mean=2.91, SD=0.53) than are married were more stressed than
their married counterparts those that are not married.
(Mean=2.66, SD=0.57). This finding H3: There is no significant
is consistent with Omoniyi and difference in the level of stress
Ogunsanmi (2012) who found that experienced by academic staff with
academic staff that are single respect to age
Table 5: ANOVA: Stress by Age

Sum of Mean
Age Squares Df Square F Sig. Decision
Between Groups 2.672 4 0.668 2.008 0.094 Not Significant
Total 75.846 224
Table 5 shows that there is no found significant difference in the

significant difference in the level of level of stress among academic staff
stress among respondents on the based on age. Furthermore, Akbar
basis of age (F=2.008; p>0.05). and Akhter (2011) found that as the
Therefore, the null hypothesis which age of an academic staff increases,
states that there is no significant the level of work stress he or she
difference in the level of stress experiences tends to decrease.
among academic staff with respect to H4: There is no significant
age is accepted. This finding difference in the level of stress
confirms that of Dua (1994) and experienced by academic staff with
Paulse (2004) but is inconsistent respect to teaching experience
with Akbar and Akhter (2011) who
83
Table 6: ANOVA: Stress by Teaching Experience
Teaching
Experience Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Decision
Not
Between Groups 1.207 3 0.402 1.218 0.304 Significant
Total 74.196 224
The results in table 6 indicated that as discussed earlier under review of

significant difference does not exist literature seems to suggest that
in the level of stress among university teachers with less teaching
respondents based on teaching experience tend to have more work
experience (F=1.218; p>0.05). stress than those that have been in
Therefore, the null hypothesis which the system for a longer time for some
states that there is no significant reasons (Abouserie, 1996; Akbar &
difference in the level of stress Akter, 2011; Ofoegbu & Nwadiani,
experienced by academic staff with 2006; Okebukola & Jegede, 1989;
respect to teaching experience is Winefield & Jarret, 2001; Safaria, et
accepted. This finding is somewhat al., 2012).
inconsistent with previous studies H5: There is no significant
which found significant difference in difference in the level of stress
the level of stress among academic experienced by academic staff with
staff on the basis of teaching respect to academic rank
experience. These previous studies
Table 7: ANOVA: Stress by Academic Rank

Sum of Decision
Academic Rank
Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups Not
2.782 6 0.464 1.386 0.221
Significant
Total 76.027 225
Table 7 shows that significant experienced by academic staff with

difference does not exists in the level respect to academic rank is accepted.
of stress among respondents based This finding is inconsistent with
on academic rank (F=1.386; p>0.05). Safaria, et al., (2012) who found that
Therefore, the null hypothesis which the employment status of academic
states that there is no significant staff have an effect on the level of
difference in the level of stress stress they experience at work.
84
5.3 Factors Associated with Stress among Academic Staff
Table 8: Analysis of Regression Results

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Beta
B Std. Error T Sig.
Model (β)
(Constant) 0.088 0.018 4.918 0.000*
Academic Workload (AW) 0.217 0.008 0.262 27.798 0.000*
Student-Related Issues (SI) 0.104 0.006 0.143 17.621 0.000*
Research and Career
Development (RC) 0.338 0.005 0.513 64.780 0.000*
(IR) 0.215 0.008 0.246 25.727 0.000*
Administrative-Related
Issues (AI) 0.101 0.006 0.140 15.859 0.000*
R = 0.996 Durbin-Watson
statistics = 2.121
R-squared = 0.991
Adjusted R-squared= 0.991
F-Statistics = 4.983E3
Prob. (F-Statistics) = 0.000
a. Dependent variable: Stress

* Significant at the 0.05 (2-tailed)
Source: Field Survey, 2013
Table 8 presents the regression explaining stress among respondents.

results for factors associated with The F-Statistics of 4.983E3 is
stress among respondents. The significant at p<0.05 for the model.
Adjusted R-squared of 0.991 shows This entails that there is a statistical
that the explanatory variables explain significant relationship between the
99.1% of changes in the dependent independent variables (i.e. academic
variable. The explanatory power workload, student-related issues,
remains at 99.1% (Adjusted R- research and career development,
squared). This implies that the interpersonal relationship,
variables chosen are strong in administrative-related) and the
85
dependent variable (i.e. stress) as a gender, age, teaching experience and
group. The Dublin-Watson statistics academic rank. However, academic
of 2.121 indicates that there is no staff differ in the level of stress they
serial correlation among the experienced with respect to marital
variables selected. Furthermore, status. Further, the difference in
results in Table 8 show that stress level existed between married
academic workload (β=0.262, and single academic staff only; with
t=27.798, ρ < 0.000), student-related single academic staff experiencing
issues (β=0.143, t=17.621, ρ < more stress than their married
0.000), research and career counterparts.
development (β=0.513, t=64.780, ρ < Based on the study’s findings, it
0.000), interpersonal relationship could be concluded that academic
(β=0.246, t=25.727, ρ < 0.000) and staff may continue to experience
administrative-related issues significant level of stress from the
(β=0.140, t=15.859, ρ <0.000) have identified sources if appropriate
significant positive relationship with actions are not taken to address this
stress among respondents. This problem. Therefore, we recommend
finding which implies that academic that certain measures should be put
staff experience significant level of in place to mitigate these sources of
stress from academic workload, stress among academic staff the
student-related issues, research and institution and by extension other
career development, interpersonal institutions of learning in the
relationship and administrative- country. In this respect, we would
related issues supports previous strongly recommend that the
studies of Akbar and Akter (2011), university authority should intensify
Archibong et al. (2010), Thabo efforts to provide a more conducive,
(2006), Winefield and Jarret (2001). work friendly environment, as well
6. Summary of Research Findings, as ensure that all facilities needed by
Recommendations and Conclusion academic staff to carry out their tasks
The study identified factors that are in the most efficient and effective
associated with stress among way are adequately provided for. We
academic staff in the University of would also recommend that a well
Benin. Our results clearly show that articulated policy should be
academic workload, student-related developed by the university authority
issues, research and career towards tackling, as well as
development, interpersonal addressing all stress-related issues
relationship, administrative-related among academic staff. There is also
issues contribute significantly to the the need for an enabling environment
level of stress experienced by to be created for academic staff so
academic staff. The results also show that they could proceed on their
that academic staff do not differ in annual leave as at when due. Stress
their level of stress with respect to management seminars and
86
programmes should be organized the immediate and the wider
regularly among academic staff. environment where it is based. There
These seminars and programmes are institutions, organisations and
should be geared towards continually NGOs in the society that could help
updating academic staff on the most in dealing with stress in the main
recent preventive measures and campuses in this regard. Universities
coping strategies that they could should interact with them, especially
adopt to reduce work stress. Further, governmental agencies who may be
academic staff should be given more formulating stress-induced policies
reasonable workload to manage. In to look inward, consider the human
addition, government should make factors because the wellbeing of
more funds available to public university teachers is intricately
universities for research and career linked with the wellbeing of the
development purposes, society where they work. In
infrastructural development and conclusion, there is the need for
human capital development amongst recommendations made with regard
others. Finally, the university to reducing the level of stress among
authority should consider academic staff in universities and
establishing an Employee Assistance Nigerian universities in particular to
Programme (EAP) to provide be carried out “with consistency,
professional services and assistance comprehensiveness and effective
to academic staff suffering stress- ways so the goal for reducing
related problems. stressful workplace situation can be
Indeed, no university exists in achieved in satisfaction and optimal
isolation. For the university to be level” (Safaria et al., 2012:259).
relevant, it must integrate itself with
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APPENDIX I
Section A
1. Gender: Male [ ], Female [ ].
2. Marital Status: Married [ ] Single [ ], Divorced/Separated [ ],
Widowed [ ].
3. Age: 24yrs and below [ ], 25-30yrs [ ], 31-45yrs [ ],46-55yrs [ ], 56yrs
and above [ ].
4. Teaching Experience: 5yrs and below [ ], 6-10yrs [ ], 11-15 yrs [ ], 16yrs and
above [ ].
5. Academic Rank: Professor [ ], Associate Professor [ ], Senior Lecturer [ ],
Lecturer I [ ], Lecturer II [ ], Assistant Lecturer [ ], Graduate Assistant [ ].
89
Section B
Please indicate the extent to which you find these aspects of your work stressful
using the scale below:
No Stress Low Stress Average stress High Stress Very High Stress
(NS) (LS) (AS) (HS) (VHS)
1 2 3 4 5
Please tick or circle as appropriate

S/N VARIABLES NS LS AS HS VHS
Academic Workload
6 Work demands
7 Delivery of lecture
8 Invigilation of examination
9 Preparation of examination results
State of lecturers office
10 accommodation/facilities
11 Setting of examination questions
Student-Related Issues
12 Student population/density
13 Student project/thesis supervision
14 Students’ classroom behaviour
Research and Career Development
15 Advancement/promotion criteria
Linkage to avenues of professional
16 development
Sourcing of funds for career
17 development
Having the required publication for
18 promotion
Obtaining research/conference
19 incentives
20 Sourcing for research funds/grants
21 Access to relevant literature
22 Publication of finished articles
Linkage to other professionals in my
23 research discipline
24 Relationship with colleagues
25 Relationship with non teaching staff
26 Relationship with students
Relationship with Head of
27 Department
90
Relationship with university
28 management
Administrative-Related Issues
Leadership behaviour of university
29 executives
Administrative behaviour of
30 Departmental Heads
Participation in institutional
31 administration
91

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Covenant Journal of Business and Social Sciences (CJBSS) Vol.6, No. 1, June, 2014.

Covenant Journal of Business & Social

A Publication of the College of Business and Social Sciences,

© 2011, Covenant University Journals.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

It is a condition of publication in this journal that

Upon the acceptance of articles to be published in this

ISSN - Print: 2006 – 0300

Published by Covenant University Journals,

Mitigating Risk Impact of Disputes on Real Estate

The State, the Media: Conceptual Elucidations and the

Complaining Behavior in the Service Context: Evidence

Automated Teller Machine Service Quality and Customer

Stress Among Academic Staff in a Nigerian University

Mitigating Risk Impact of Disputes on Real Estate Business

Abstract: The occurrence of disputes in various forms of human interactions has

1. Introduction management procedure, an efficient

Babawale (2013) posit that of income, capital return and psychic

investment the greater the potential Investopedia (2014) defines risk as

relatively simple risk management as court congestion, inordinate delay,

surveyed compared to Ghana (43), Alternative dispute resolution (ADR)

make a binding award. Arbitration resolution via the five recognized

Table 2 Summary of content analysis of selected ADR Cases.

2Landlord-Tenant dispute Resolved after 4 -Free as services at  Speedy resolution of dispute.

5.0 Summary of findings and grow. There is no certainty about the

References silent revolution in legal

The State, the Media: Conceptual Elucidations and the

Introduction the media. Likewise, students of

References Barry, N.P. (1983) An Introduction

Complaining Behavior in the Service Context: Evidence

Introduction best of intentions, even for those

Table 1: Binomial Test for Proportion of Dissatisfied Respondents

Dissatisfied 85 81 49.70 46.82 .50 1.000 .447

Satisfied 86 92 50.29 53.18

Total 171 173 1.00

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork

Of the respondents who were dissatisfied, 35 (41.2%) complained

Table 2: Binomial Test for Proportion of Dissatisfied Respondents who

Restaurant Transport Restaurant Transport Test Restaurant Respondents

Complained 35 38 41.6 47.5 .50 .156 .738

Did not Complain 49 42 58.3 52.5

Total 85 81 1.00 1.00

With respect to the restaurant sub- proportion (0.50). Hence as in the

S/N Reasons Frequency

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork

From the Table 3, reasons given by 5. Other Customers Opinion –

INTERSTATE Total 2.265 1 .132

Multiple regression analysis was respect to the restaurant sub-sector,

Intercept 1.3048 4.9042 0.0000 1.4228 0.1987 0.053

Personal Confidence -0.1152 -1.8765 0.0622

Interstate Transport Subsector

Age 0.0136 0.4114 0.6813

Income -0.0099 -0.6098 0.5428

Usage frequency 0.0000 0.0077 0.9938

Severity of Failure 0.0129 0.6052 0.5458

Personal Confidence 0.0089 0.4963 0.6203

Multiple regression analysis as seen Benin city, complaint voicing is not

Table 6: Customer Complaint Action

Automated Teller Machine Service Quality and Customer

Research Hypotheses Hypothesis 2: Efficient operation of

Table 1: Results of reliability and validity of data

Results and Analysis 125); and (>seven years, 71).The

References financial performance and the