Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

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Particle attrition due to shearing—the e$ects of stress,

strain and particle shape
J. Bridgwater∗ , R. Utsumi1 , Z. Zhang, T. Tuladhar
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3RA, UK
Received 24 January 2003; received in revised form 30 June 2003; accepted 8 July 2003

Abstract

Attrition of particles is unavoidable in many processing operations. One of the methods available for the evaluation of the phenomenon
relies upon the testing of materials in an annular shear cell in which a sample is subjected to known stress and strain. In previous work the
extent of attrition has been related by a power law relationship to the shear strain. Here the approach is evaluated over a far wider range
of parameters than has been attempted hitherto, normal stresses now ranging from 0.15 to 292 kPa, and shear strains from 0.9 to 8 × 104 .
This was performed on two types of ceramic cylinder, similar to some catalyst supports, which were manufactured under well-controlled
conditions. Despite a changing balance of the processes of fragmentation and surface abrasion due to the e$ect of stress, the data for each
material was uni;ed whatever size cut was selected to represent material that had su$ered attrition. Experiments with a range on initial
particle shapes formed by the method showed the same behaviour except when the extent of attrition was assessed at the largest sieve
cut size. The method is e$ective in describing the complexities of attrition as the pattern of breakage in an environment in which force
transmission changes in the stress chains as these vary with the changing size distribution.
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1. Introduction in devices such as moving beds are of particular signi;cance

Attrition is a tiresome but inevitable consequence of the
processing of particles. It causes loss of material and in gen-
eral degrades its quality. The ;ne material created ;nds its
way through the process and then needs to be removed, of-
ten a di?cult and expensive operation with ;ltration or other
treatment of tail @uids being necessitated. The ;nes recov-
ered then usually need to be recycled in order to avoid loss
of product and to ensure environmental acceptability. The
rate of attrition is determined both by the physical operations
being carried out and by the internal structure and external
morphology of the particles. Two main forms of attrition
from mechanical sources arise, one being due to impact at-
trition such as arises in pneumatic conveying and the second
in the motion of bodies of powder that cause internal shear
of the bulk material. The e$ects of shearing such as can arise
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: john bridgwater@cheng.cam.ac.uk (J. Bridgwater).
1 Present address: National Industrial Research Institute of Nagoya,
Hirate-cho, Kita-ku, Nagoya 462-8510, Japan.
for process attrition. The approaches are well summarised
by Couroyer, Ghadiri, Laval, Brunard, and Kolenda (2000).
Systematic work on bulk attrition caused by shear was
initiated by Paramanathan and Bridgwater (1983a, b) who
proposed the use of an annular cell. Here the stress, strain
and rate of strain are each controlled and the consequential
damage to the initial material determined by the subsequent
size analysis of the cell contents. In the equipment, a layer
some six or so particle diameters in height is placed into an
annular space and a normal stress is exerted on the mate-
rial through an upper annular ring being supplied though a
pneumatic cylinder or through weights; a version employed
in the present studies is shown in Fig. 1. Grooves in the top
and bottom rings serve to grip the particles and to largely
eliminate the e$ects of slip at the upper and lower surfaces
of the annular space. The groove spacing criteria are linked
to the initial particle size and are summarised by Ghadiri,
Ning, Kenter, and Puik (2000). To cope with a change in
particle size, it is thus necessary to change also the groove
spacing; a set of gripping rings is thus provided with each
cell. A number of such cells have been built and the equip-
ment has provided a means of evaluating the tendency of
materials to undergo attrition. Paramanathan and Bridgwater

0009-2509/$ - see front matter ? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ces.2003.07.007
4650 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

Fig. 1. Annular shear cell as used for studying attrition at low stresses. The outer diameter of the grooved ring is 160 mm and the inner diameter is 120 mm.

studied close-sized initial materials of various morphologies,
these being sodium chloride, sodium carbonate and molecu-
lar sieve beads. The mass passing a sieve a little smaller than
the initial materials was related to the time of shearing t by
Kt m . This was a formulation ;rst advanced by Gwyn (1969)
are ones characterising the attri-
for studies of attrition due to jetting in @uidised beds. K and
m are constants determined by experiment. Their ;ndings
were not dependent on rate of strain, an observation con-
;rmed in subsequent studies.
In 1991, Ouwerkerk carried out studies in which the main
purpose was to understand the relationship between the de-
formation of individual particles and the breakage observed
in tests conducted in the annular shear cell. They logically
introduce the shear strain  as a more appropriate physical
parameter to time. In the course of this work they examined
were evaluated and the
the attrition of amorphous vitreous silica spheres of diame-
, which should be equivalent to m, determined.
ter 2:2 mm. For present purposes the most important obser-
vation is that the attrition of their material is best correlated
by devising a normalised shear strain given by (=ref )2 ,
where  is the normal stress and ref is a reference stress
not linked to a speci;c physical measurement.
A procedure for developing uni;cation of attrition data
was reported by Neil and Bridgwater (1994) in studies on
urea prills, various forms of sodium chloride, molecular
sieve beads and alumina extrudates. They also evaluated the
e$ect of the normal stress on attrition and proposed that
the amount of material that had undergone attrition was
given by

 extrudates. The most recent work developing this theme was

that of Ghadiri et al. (2000) who found that this work done
W = KN : (1)
scs
Here we shall take W to be the mass fraction attrited, i.e.
the proportion of product that falls below a certain speci-
;ed size. They identify scs as the tensile fracture stress as-
sociated with single particle crushing. They argue that the
parameters KN ,  and
tion of the material with  being linked to the dependency
on stress. All the materials tested ;tted this relationship sat-
isfactorily. In a later paper, Neil and Bridgwater (1999)
studied the attrition of soda ash and two initial sizes of
tetra-acetyl-ethylene-diamine in three pieces of equipment,
an annular shear cell, a @uidised bed and a screw pugmill.
For the last two pieces of equipment, the relationship of the
strain to time is not known but the term m of relationships
of the type ;rst given by Gwyn can be evaluated. For the
annular shear cell, the terms  and
product 
It was found, within the accuracy of the experiments, the
values of m could be deemed to be material properties that
did not vary between the various pieces of equipment.
Numerical simulations following the process of attrition
in an annular cell have been reported by both Potapov and
Campbell (1997) and by Couroyer et al. (2000). The latter
work gives only a preliminary account; they report that their
simulation slightly underestimates their observations. The
simulation of Potapov and Campbell is two-dimensional and
they ;nd that the amount of breakage is proportional to the
work done, i.e. is proportional to . This is consistent with
the approach adopted by Neil and Bridgwater for alumina
hypothesis was not borne out in a series of careful exper-
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665
Table 1
Particle size distributions of bauxilite (measured by X-ray sedimentation)
Grade of bauxilite Diameter with stated % below size (m)
5% 10% 95%
4W 1500 2.1 2.9 7.0
F 600/9 4.8 8.4 12.0
F 280/376 18.0 28.0 36.0
iments on the attrition in and annular cell of porous silica
catalyst beads of initial size 2.00 –2:36 mm. They studied
normal stresses between 25 and 200 kPa and the shear strain
lay between 2.5 and 15.3. They sieved the product into two
groups using a 1:00 mm sieve and then further sieved the
two fractions so created. The total mass proportion broken
lay between 0.01 and 0.2. They chose four sieve cuts to
specify the extent of attrition and also tested the ;t of the
data to power law correlations of Eq. (1) but took care to
evaluate which values gave the best correlation.
The present work follows along the path developed by
Ghadiri et al. (2000). It takes two well-de;ned extrudate ma-
terials made reproducibly in accord with an exact protocol.
It follows the extent of attrition as a function of both normal
stress and shear strain within an annular shear cell, for each
material considering far broader ranges of these parameters
than has been considered hitherto. It employs the correlation
procedure advanced by Ghadiri et al. in determining the pa-
rameters which provide the most favourable correlation of
data. Furthermore, the good control of the method of manu-
DL
facture is used to study also the attrition of material made by
the same protocol but of a variety of initial shapes, another
aspect of attrition that has not been studied hitherto.
2. Materials
Particles were used with a precisely known and controlled
method of manufacture which yielded known size, shape
and strength. To make the particles, three grades of white
bauxilite (alumina) powder (Universal Abrasive Ltd.). The
particle size distributions were measured by X-ray sedimen-
tation and some information is listed in Table 1. The recipe
for the ;rst material was 333 g of each of the grades of
bauxilite, 38 g of clay (Wyoming Bentonite), 38 g of potato
starch and 190 ml of water. These were mixed together in a
Hobart mixer type A200. The mixture was then pugged by
passing through a mincer attached to the mixer. This was
generally done twice to yield a paste suitable for extrusion
in a hydraulic ram extruder ;tted to a strain frame. The ex-
trudate passed out of a die of a shape that determined the
cross-section of the product. This was collected as “laces”
on trays and then cut into appropriate short lengths using
a multi-strand ;ne wire cutter similar to a domestic boiled
egg slicer.
Firing of the particles followed according to a careful
schedule to produce particles of the desired properties.
4651
Table 2
Tensile strength measured from single particle crushing, and geometric
measurements on extrudates C and E
Extrudate Crushing No. of Tensile Pellet Pellet
material speed particles strength diameter length
(mm/min) crushed (MPa) (mm) (mm)
C 2.0 20 8:99 ± 2:2 3:13 ± 0:01 3:68 ± 0:01
E 2.0 10 37:3 ± 9:4 2:97 ± 0:01 2:94 ± 0:02
Standard deviation of geometrical dimensions given for 10 samples.
The material was heated at 400◦ C=h until a temperature of
400◦ C was achieved. It was then held at that temperature
for 30 min. The temperature was then increased at a rate
of 500◦ C=h up to a temperature of 1050◦ C and was then
maintained at this value for 4 –5 h before being cooled at
a rate of 100◦ C=h to ambient conditions. This yielded a
material known as extrudate C.
For the other material, extrudate E, the procedure was
identical save that the amount of clay was increased to
100 g and the peak temperature of 1050◦ C was replaced by
1400◦ C.
The properties of the extrudates are listed in Table 2.
Particles dimensions were measured with callipers; tensile
strength was estimated from single particle crushing tests
according to the formula (Goodman, 1980):


2F
scs = ; (2)
where F is mean maximum crushing load (N), D and L is
the mean pellet diameter (mm) and length (mm).
For the experiments in which the particle shape is altered,
the sizes and shapes are illustrated in Fig. 2 and the physical
dimensions are given in Table 3. The two spherical mate-
rials were formed from cylindrical extrudate cut to lengths
which was then rolled gently between two @at plates to form
spheres.
3. Experimental method
The annular cell had an inner diameter of 120 mm and
an outer diameter of 160 mm, giving an annular width of
20 mm. In order to satisfy the gripping criteria the upper
and lower annular rings had 0:4 grooves=mm. Particles to be
tested were placed in the cell and gently levelled prior to ;t-
ting the top grooved ring. For the higher range of stress to be
achieved, pressure was exerted on the top ring plate via a
pneumatic cylinder or by the use of weights. Some tests at
a lower stress were carried out using a modi;ed loading
ring made of a lower density material (Perspex). In order
to obtain a range of even lower stresses the force exerted
on the particles was reduced by a counter-balance system as
shown in Fig. 1. After rotating the base of the cell through
the required angle, the contents of the cell were emptied out
and analysed using British Standard (BS410) sieves down
4652 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

3.2 mm

3.1 mm 6.2 mm 9.4 mm

3m
m
3m
3 mm

m
D

3 mm
m
m
3
3 mm

Fig. 2. Sample shapes made for the attrition experiments. The triangular extrudates is 3 mm long.

to a particle size of 106 m. All the experimental work was Table 3
carried out using 100 g samples with the cell rotating at a Dimensions of sample shapes made for the attrition experiments
speed of 2 rpm. Extrudate Size Bulk density
The e$ective shear strain is determined as a function of shape (mm) (kg=m3 )
angle of rotation, , de;ned as (Ghadiri et al., 2000)
Cylindrical (CY1) L × D = 3:1 × 3:2 1320
 Dc Cylindrical (CY2) L × D = 6:2 × 3:2 1260
= f; (3)
360 h Cylindrical (CY3) L × D = 9:4 × 3:2 1180
where h is the e$ective sample layer thickness 15:8 mm) Cube (CU) 3×3×3 1210
Triangular (TR) (3 × 3 × 3) × 3 1190
obtained by taking account of voidage fraction as 0.35, Dc
Quasi-sphere (SP1) 3.08
is the mean diameter of the cell (140 mm) and f is the slip Quasi-sphere (SP2) 6.5
factor taken as 1 for this work.
In these studies, the entire sample was returned to the The true density of the extrudate was 2200 kg=m3 .
shear cell once the size distribution had been determined.
Thus a number of attrition determinations were made on a
single initial sample.
and an enhancement of the amount of ;ne product, material
of intermediate size being little a$ected. For the coarsest
4. Results and discussion product, there is evidence of a change in behaviour at a
normal stress below 2:53 kPa, a matter that is considered
4.1. The pattern of breakage below.
Extrudate E (Fig. 3b) shows the same general behaviour
Examples of the particle size distribution created by for the coarsest and ;nest fractions although there is more
processing the extrudates C and E in the annular shear variability in the data for each of these size fractions. The
cell are given in Fig. 3. In each case, whatever the nor- strains necessary to achieve 5% breakage are much greater
mal stress, the size distribution is taken at a strain for than for extrudate C, consistent with the magnitudes of the
which the total breakage of is 5% by mass of the initial single particle crushing strengths. With regard to the inter-
material. The total breakage is de;ned to be that ma- mediate sizes, product in the size range 107–180 m is ob-
terial passing the coarsest sieve, here 2800 m. These served consistently to be the least common.
two diagrams express the frequency distribution of the Examination of the shape of particles of the fragments
products of attrition. The sieve sizes chosen for the pre- within the various sieve cuts shows little sign of variation
sentation are those that are most revealing of processes with stress. Thus examining the product material in the size
occurring. range 1001–2800 m, no di$erence can be discerned as the
For extrudate C (Fig. 3a), product material in the size stress is varied save that at the higher stresses the corners for
range 1001–2800 m predominates at higher stresses the fragments are sharp whereas at the lower stresses these
(10.3–290 kPa), while that in the size range 0 –106 m are slightly rounded. This is ascribed to the greater shear
predominates at lower stresses (0.15 –2:53 kPa). Material strain needed in order to achieve the overall breakage of 5%
of intermediate size is less common. Lowering the testing at the lower stresses. This behaviour is found for either of
stress sees a reduction in the proportion of coarse product the initial materials.
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665 4653

12
Stress (kPa)
Coarse: 1.0 ~ 2.8 mm
5 Fine: < 106 µmm ------------
----------
290
10
Frequency weight per cent (wt%) 24.8

2.53
4

Attrited weight %
8

3 6

2 4
0.15
0.28
0.56
1 1.22 2

) a
2.53

kP
5.32

s(
10.30
0 0

es
24.8

S tr
290 0 5 10 15 20 25
06 80 (a)
-1 -1 25 0 0
Breakage (%)
0 7 - 4 100 80
10 81 - -2 5
1 2 6 1 Stress (kPa)
4 00 Coarse: 1.0 ~ 2.8 mm 290
(a) Sieve aperture (µm) Fine: < 106 µm -- ----------
24.8
4
2.53

Attrited weight %
3

5
2
Frequency weight per cent (wt%)

4
1

3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 (b) Breakage (%)
0.15
1.26
1 2.53
5.32
Fig. 4. (a) Relation between breakage and attrition weight per cent.
a)

10.30 Extrudate C. (b) Relationship between breakage and attrition weight per
kP

24.8
s(

0
75 cent. Extrudate E.
es

150
Str

290
06 80
-1 -1 25 0
0 -4 00 00
10
7
1 81
6
- 1 - 28 Size analysis of the material within the smallest sieve
42 00 1
1 fraction of extrudate C showed that the distribution
(b) Sieve aperture (µm) of material reverted to that of the bauxilite powders
from which the extrudate had been made in the ;rst
Fig. 3. (a) The e$ect of stress on attrition product size distribution for place.
5% breakage. Extrudate C. (b) The e$ect of stress on attrition product
size distribution for 5% breakage. Extrudate E.
4.2. In4uence of normal stress on attrition product size

Consider, by way of illustration, the observations on ex-

trudate C at normal stresses of 290, 24.8, 2.53 and 0:28 kPa
Fig. 4 shows the consequences of changing the overall (Fig. 5). This is shown for a number of the sieve sizes
breakage of the extrudates on the product made in the size used to de;ne the extent of attrition. This allows deduc-
range 1001–2800 m and 0 –106 m. This is reported for tions to be made about the selection of size, below which
normal stresses of 290, 24.8 and 2:53 kPa for both extru- a material may be said to form an attrition product. The
dates C and E. In all instances an approximately linear re- relationship between the percentage of material that has
lationship is found. For extrudate E this passes through the undergone attrition is shown as a function of shear strain
origin but this is not so for C. For extrudate C the initial rate imposed. The presentations are given in a manner so that the
is enhanced and then settles to a linear dependency. This e$ectiveness of applying a least-squares procedure to the
applies for both the size fractions examined and is seen at equation
all three normal stresses. For both extrudates there is a con-
W = Km (4)
sistent pattern, whatever the breakage, between the normal
stress and the relative amount of ;ne product and coarse can be evaluated readily.
product. Thus the proportion of coarse product increases Table 4 shows the results of the ;tting procedure, lines for
and the proportion of ;ne product diminishes as the normal which are not shown in the diagram in order to avoid clutter.
stress is increased. However, the process of bodily frag- The regression coe?cients, with one exception, lie in the
mentation was maintained throughout, even at the lowest range of 0.91–1.00, the results at a normal stress of 2:53 kPa
stresses. being the most successful followed by those at 24:8 kPa.
4654 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

100 100
Alumina extrudate C-type Alumina extrudate C-type
Stress: 290 kPa Stress: 24.8 kPa

Attrited weight %
10
Attrited weight %

10

Particle size (µm)

Particle size (µm)
1 1 < 106
< 106 < 180
< 180 < 425
< 425 < 1000
< 1000
< 2800
< 2800

0.1 0.1
10 100 1000 10 100 1000 10000
(a) Shear strain, Γ, (-) (b) Shear strain, Γ, (-)

100 10
Alumina extrudate C-type Alumina extrudate C-type
Stress: 2.53 kPa Stress: 0.28 kPa
Attrited weight %

Attrited weight %
10

1
Particle size (µm) Particle size (µm)
< 106
1 < 180 < 106
< 425 < 180
< 1000 < 425
< 2800 < 1000
< 2800

0.1 0.1
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
(c) Shear strain, Γ, (-) Shear strain, Γ, (-)
(d)

Fig. 5. The shear cell attrition data at normal stresses of 290, 24.8, 2.53 and 0:28 kPa. Extrudate C.

The least successful ;tting occurs at the highest stress of Table 4

290 kPa with the largest sieve cut used namely 2800 m. In@uence of normal stress on the attrition parameters (Eq. (3)) (extru-
The reason for this evident in that the proportion broken has date C)
nearly attained a proportion of unity for a shear strain of less Normal Particle K m Regression
than 100. Whatever particle size is selected at this stress, Stress size (Dimensionless) coe?cient, R2
a convex upwards character is found for the plots. This is (kPa) (m) (Dimensionless)
absent at intermediate stresses but is again apparent at the
290 106 1.65 0.53 0.92
lowest stress 0:28 kPa. Cell behaviour at low stresses is less 180 1.87 0.57 0.93
certain. It is possible that this may arise due to a limitation 425 2.27 0.66 0.94
in the cell design with the load simply being taken by a few, 1000 2.62 0.66 0.94
possibly just three, force chains with these collapsing rather 2800 8.73 0.48 0.85
than imparting damage to the particles.
24.8 106 0.24 0.60 0.91
In Fig. 6 are the complementary results for extrudates
180 0.30 0.60 0.95
E. As may be anticipated from the single particle crushing 425 0.15 0.81 1.00
strengths, attrition is much lower for this stronger material. 1000 0.27 0.75 1.00
Thus at a normal stress of 290 kPa, with a dimensionless 2800 0.44 0.74 0.99
shear strain of 10, material C shows an order of magnitude
greater breakage than material E. The di$erence is not so 2.53 106 0.11 0.53 0.99
quite so great at the intermediate stresses but is enhanced at 180 0.12 0.55 1.0
425 0.16 0.53 0.99
the lowest stress. Linearity is satisfactory at normal stresses
1000 0.22 0.51 0.99
of 290 and 24:8 kPa but a concave downward relationship 2800 0.35 0.50 1.00
is found at the two lower stresses.
It is not clear if the competing e$ects of curvature have 0.28 106 0.18 0.44 0.91
an origin in the physics of attrition for the materials or 180 0.24 0.41 0.93
arise from a limitation in the e$ectiveness of the cell at 425 0.29 0.40 0.93
1000 0.33 0.39 0.94
the lower stresses. The results when using extrudate E
2800 0.40 0.40 0.93
certainly show more scatter (Fig. 3a and b). Until this
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665 4655

100 100
Alumina extrudate E-type Alumina extrudate E-type
Load 290 kPa Particle size (µm) Particle size (µm)
Load 24.8 kPa
< 106 < 106
< 180 < 180
< 425 < 425
< 1000 < 1000

Attrited weight %
10
Attrited weight %

10 < 2800 < 2800

1
1

0.1
0.1
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
(a) 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 (b) Shear strain, Γ , (-)
Shear strain, Γ , (-)

100 100
Alumina extrudate E-type
Alumina extrudate E-type Particle size (µm) Particle size (µm)
Load 2.53 kPa Load 0.28 kPa
< 106
< 106
< 180
< 180
< 425
< 425
< 1000
< 1000

Attrited weight %
10 < 2800
Attrited weight %

10 < 2800

1 1

0.1 0.1
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
(c)
Shear strain, Γ , (-) (d) Shear strain, Γ , (-)

Fig. 6. The shear cell attrition data at normal stresses of 290, 24.8, 2.53 and 0:28 kPa. Extrudate E.

1 200
β 1 35
Alumina extrudate E-type β
R2
2
KN R
30
KN
2

2
Fitting parameter β and R

Fitting parameter β and R

25

20
KN

0.5 100

KN
0.5
15

10

0 0 0 0
0 1 2 0 1 2
(a) φ (-) (a) φ (-)

1.0 1
Alumina extrudate E-type
Fitting parameter, R , (-)
Fitting parameter, R , (-)

2
2

0.5 0.5
Particle size (µm) Particle size (µm)
< 106
< 106
< 180
< 180
< 425
<425
< 1000
<1000
< 2800
<2800

0.0 0
0.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
(b) φ (-) (b) φ (-)

Fig. 7. (a) Relationship between the parameter KN ,

and the relation Fig. 8. (a) Relationship between the parameter KN ,
and the relation
coe?cient R2 for particle size ¡ 2800 m. Extrudate C. (b) The best coe?cient R2 for particle size ¡ 2800 m. Extrudate E. (b) The best
;tting value of
with di$erent size fractions of the attrition products. ;tting value of
with di$erent size fractions of the attrition products.
Extrudate C. Extrudate E.
4656 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

Table 5
Fitting of the parameters KN ,  and
for di$erent size cuts of attrition products (alumina extrudates C and E)

Size of Extrudate C Extrudate C

attrition
products (m) KN 

R2 KN 

R2

¡ 100 4.29 0.34 1.30 0.44 0.792 0.89 0.48 1.10 0.53 0.872
¡ 180 5.63 0.37 1.30 0.48 0.852 1.12 0.47 1.10 0.52 0.877
¡ 425 10.3 0.43 1.15 0.49 0.857 1.62 0.47 1.10 0.52 0.891
¡ 1000 14.8 0.46 1.10 0.51 0.882 3.16 0.46 1.05 0.48 0.902
¡ 2800 40.1 0.53 0.90 0.48 0.918 9.87 0.55 0.90 0.50 0.879

100
Particle size < 106 µm 10
Particle size < 106 µm

10
Attrited weight %

Attrited weight %
1

Stress (kPa)
Stress (kPa)
1 0.15 0.28 0.55
0.1 0.15 0.28
1.22 2.53 5.32 0.562 1.12
2.53 5.32
10.3 24.8 150 10.3 24.8
290 75 150
290
0.1 0.01
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
(a) (σ /σ scs )Γ 1.30 (a)
(σ /σ scs )Γ 1.10
100
Particle size < 1000 µm 10
Particle size < 1000 µm
Attrited weight %

10
Attrited weight %

Stress (kPa) Stress (kPa)

1 0.15 0.28 0.15 0.28

0.55 1.22 0.1 0.562 1.12
2.53 5.32 2.53 5.32
10.3 24.8 10.3 24.8
150 290 75 150
290
0.1 0.01
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
(b) (σ /σ scs )Γ
1.10
(b) (σ /σ scs )Γ 1.05

100 10
Particle size < 2800 µm Particle size < 2800 µm
Attrited weight %

10 1
Attrited weight %

Stress (kPa) Stress (kPa)

0.15 0.28
0.15 0.28 0.1 0.562 1.12
1
0.55 1.22 2.53 5.32
2.53 5.32 10.3 24.8
10.3 24.8 75 150
290
150 290
0.01
0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
(σ /σ scs )Γ
0.90
(c) (σ /σ scs)Γ 0.90 (c)
Fig. 9. Normalisation of the shear cell data selecting sizes to describe Fig. 10. Normalisation of the shear cell data selecting sizes to describe
attrition as follows: (a) 106 m, (b) 1000 m and (c) 2800 m. Extru- attrition as follows: (a) 106 m, (b) 1000 m and (c) 2800 m. Extru-
date C. date E.

matter can be resolved, use of data from the cell at stresses to permit a proper resolution of the matter; use of DEM
below 25 kPa needs to be regarded with some caution. There simulation code probably o$ers the best hope. To pro-
is, however, no other experimental method yet available vide the experimental data to aid such a development,
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665 4657

Table 6 100
Fitting of the parameters KN ,  and
for di$erent size cuts of attrition Particle size < 90 µm

products (extrudate C of various shapes)

Size of attrition Extrudates of all shapes 10

Attrited weight %
products (m)
KN 

R2

¡ 90 8.4 0.86 1.1 0.95 0.954 Stress (kPa) Shapes

¡ 300 10.8 0.86 1.1 0.95 0.953 1 Red

pink
150
290
CY1

¡ 500 16.4 0.94 1.0 0.94 0.955 Black 390 CY2

Grey 490
¡ 1000 30.9 1.01 0.9 0.91 0.911 CY3

¡ 1400 33.4 1.00 0.9 0.90 0.937 CU

¡ 1700 36.8 0.99 0.9 0.89 0.935 0.1

¡ 2000 41.0 0.98 0.9 0.88 0.940 (a) 0.01 0.1
(σ/σscs)Γ
1.1 1 10

¡ 2350 48.3 0.85 0.9 0.77 0.931

¡ 2800 58.6 0.84 0.9 0.76 0.802 100
Particle size < 1000 µm

Table 7
Values of KN ,  and
at maximum R2 for ¡ 1000 m size cuts of 10

Attrited weight %
attrition products for di$erent shapes

R2
Shapes
Extrudate shape KN 

Stress (kPa)
CY1
Red 150
1 Pink 290 CY2
Cylindrical (CY1) 26.7 1.08 0.9 0.97 0.982 Black 390 CY3
Grey 490
Cylindrical (CY2) 44.9 1.16 0.8 0.93 0.965
CU
SP1
Cylindrical (CY3) 18.3 0.91 1.0 0.91 0.952 SP2
TR
Cube (CU) 49.7 0.99 0.8 0.79 0.957 0.1
Triangular (TR) 34.9 0.84 0.9 0.76 0.953 0.01 0.1 1 10
(b) (σ/σscs)Γ
0.9
Quasi sphere (SP1) 71.4 1.30 0.8 1.04 0.980
Quasi sphere (SP2) 131.0 1.68 0.7 1.18 0.963
100
Particle size < 2800 µm

the numerical information is provided in the Appendix,

Tables 8 and 9.
Attrited weight %

10

4.3. Inter-relating results at all product sizes and stresses

Stress (kPa) Shapes
Red 150 CY1
Pink 290
1 Black 390
CY2

The procedure proposed by Ghadiri is now followed. The Grey 490 CY3
CU
data contained in Fig. 5 is assessed as a whole. To do this, SP1

a value of
is selected and the best ;t of all the data at all SP2

0.1
stresses is determined for this value of
and the correla- 0.01 0.1 1 10
tion coe?cient found. The parameters KN and  are varied (c) (σ/σscs)Γ
0.9

in this process and the values corresponding to the best ;t

Fig. 11. Normalisation of the shear cell data for all particle shapes
for the selected value of
thus arise. A sequence of values
selecting sizes to describe attrition as follows: (a) 90 m, (b) 1000 m
of
is considered and the related values of the two param- and (c) 2800 m.
eters KN and  corresponding to the associated best ;ts are
again found along with the correlation coe?cient. This is
illustrated for material less than 2800 m in Fig. 7a. From A similar method was followed for extrudate E, this be-
this the values of KN and  corresponding to the maximum ing illustrated in Fig. 8 and the ;ndings again being listed in
value of the correlation coe?cient are 40.1 and 0.53, respec- Tables 5 and 6. KN again increases with the size considered;
tively, thus arising when
is 0.9. Since the plots such as its value is about one ;fth that obtained with extrudates C.
that given in Fig. 6a have a broad maximum, not very de-  has a mean value of 0.47 if the size is less than 1000 m
pendent on the precise value of
selected, intervals of 0.05 with
constant at 1.1. When the size selected is 2800 m,
in
were used. When the other product sizes are consid-  is 0.55 with
= 0:9, very much as for extrudates C. Here
ered (Fig. 7b), it is found that there is slight dependence of we see that the implicit restriction imposed by Ghadiri and
the size to evaluate attrition upon the maximum value of
co-workers namely that
lies between 0 and 1 is no longer
for which the most satisfactory correlation is obtained. The tenable. The values for the correlation coe?cient obtained
results of this analysis are listed in Table 5. KN increases in this data analysis are lower than those encountered pre-
with the size considered;  has a mean value of 0.40 if the viously but the ranges of stress and strain employed and the
size is less than 1000 m with 1:1 ¡
¡ 1:3. degree of attrition achieved are all substantially greater.
4658 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

The consequence of taking the values of

, KN and  so The role of initial particle shape is viewed in more detail
derived and showing these to the original data are to be found
in Fig. 9a–c, with illustrations for product sizes of 2800,
, KN and  are given in Table 7. A value of
1000 and 106 m. When the same procedure is followed for
of around 0.9 is found except for the larger spheres of
extrudate E, the results of the comparison with the original
data are shown in Fig. 10a–c. All data are included with
both that with good and poor linearity as seen in Figs. 5
and 6. The method in general shows there to be an e$ective
correlation for a given material at a given sieve selected
to denote attrition. For a material, the gradient is shown to
be little a$ected by the sieve size selected or by the choice
of material. Di$erences in KN show up as di$erences in
intercept.
The product 
for extrudates C has a mean value of behaviour require further work. The product
depends
0.48, varying little with the size selected and extrudates E
has a mean value of 0.51 which is again fairly constant.
Thus the dependence on strain, given by 
, has little di$erences, the initial shape of the material does not have
dependence on  but there is a dependence linked to the
values of . The material used by Ghadiri et al. (2000),
porous silica spheres, shows a variation both in 
and These are results for all particle shapes taken together as
. It may be caused by shape, though evidence to follow
suggests it is unlikely. It is more probably be linked to the
microstructure of the material and its detailed mechanics of
breakage.
The ;ndings for the two materials expressed in Figs. 9
and 10 are similar but the results as expressed in di-
mensionless form are not identical. The behaviour is
probably too complex to be fully correlated in such a
manner even if it were possible to be con;dent that a
characteristic stress to describe failure can be given by
Eq. (3). The scaling with  as found by Benbow and
Bridgwater (1987) is likely to have been e$ective only
because of their limited range of stresses, 14 –450 kPa,
employed. However, use of a parameter related to the be-
haviour on failure is necessary rather than simply selecting
a wholly arbitrary datum stress ref as ;rst suggested by
Ouwerkerk (1991). Incidentally no evidence was found to
support the use of normalised shear strain (=ref )2 as
proposed by him.
4.4. Particle shape
Experiments were performed with the particles of dif-
ferent shape made from material C that are listed in Ta-
ble 3, these however being conducted over a more modest
range of normal stresses, 150, 290, 390 and 490 kPa. The
same procedures were followed and the values of
, KN to any arbitrary size to denote attrition. At high stresses
and  are given in Table 7. Comparison of the data with
the most satisfactory values of
, KN and  is given in full breakage necessarily imposed a limit which caused the
Fig. 11. For all particle shapes taken together, it is immedi-
ately evident that the ;ndings were generally of a very simi-
lar character, except when analysed for the largest sieve cut
of 2800 m. However, a number of initial materials have
a dimension that di$ers signi;cantly from 2800 m. The
complete set of information is provided in the appendix,
Tables 8–10.
for data at 1000 m at all the stresses (Fig. 12). The linked
values of
diameter 6:5 mm. Values of  range from 0.84 to 1.16 except
for the two spherical materials, that for the larger sphere
being 1.68. Values of KN for these two materials are again
high. Not only is the shape of these two di$erent, the ;nal
stage of manufacture relies upon rolling between two plates
which is likely to in@uence the structure of the particle. The
value of KN for the three cylindrical materials show that it is
lowest for the largest size of initial material and largest for
the intermediate size of initial material; the origins of this

little on the shape and particle size selected for breakage.
Thus the work shows that, although there are some minor
a great e$ect on the parameters describing attrition of the
extrudates.
it was immediately evident from the results that the ;nd-
ings were generally of very similar character, except for the
largest sieve cut of 2800 m.
5. Conclusions
It was found that the product materials were of the same
shape whatever stress was used for testing. This may be
linked to the occurrence of stress chains within the ma-
terial, the conditions necessary to carry out a single mi-
croscopic breakage even being occurring less frequently at
lower stresses due to the smaller number of the chains in
which the breakage conditions are reached. However for a
given overall degree of breakage, there is a rounding of cor-
ners due to a local abrasion at lower stresses where a greater
strain is needed to achieve that breakage. The transmission
of stress through chains may also provide the key at some
future time to understanding how it is that the empirical for-
mulation originally used by Gywn for jet in @uidised beds,
and methods derived from it, has been so successful in char-
acterising attrition in systems in which particulate beds are
subject to strain.
The power law relationship between breakage and strain
employed at all the stresses using a number of di$erent sieve
sizes to denote the proportion su$ering attrition generally
gave a uni;ed description of the attrition data, applicable
where the extent of breakage was high shown the limit of
relationship to cease to be e$ective. Failure also arose at low
stresses with the two materials showing opposite curvatures
but where its origin lies in the physics of attrition or spells
a limitation in the e$ectiveness of the cell requires further
study.
The initial particle shape had little in@uence on the
attrition of extrudates made in the form of cylinders of
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665 4659

Fig. 12. Normalisation for di$erent shapes for particle size ¡ 1000 m.

various lengths, spheres, cubes or were of triangular cross- are united in a remarkably simple manner. It is argued that
section. this is linked to the attrition process being largely controlled
These studies demonstrate that the mechanics of attrition, by stress chains. The most useful next stage in the subject to
when evaluated over a wide range of stresses and strains, test this hypothesis is likely to rely on the use of DEM code.
4660 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

Notation  rotation angle, degrees, ◦

 normal stress, Pa
D mean pellet diameter, m ref reference stress, Pa
Dc mean diameter of the cell, m scs tensile fracture associated with single particle
f slip factor, dimensionless crushing, Pa
F mean crushing load, N
parameter describing the relative in@uence of
h e$ective sample layer thickness, m normal stress and attrition time on material
K; KN proportionality constant in the rate formulation degradation, dimensionless
L mean pellet length, m
m exponent in Gwyn formulation, dimensionless Acknowledgements
R2 regression coe?cient
t time of shearing, s The experimental work was made possible by a research
W mass fraction su$ering attrition, dimensionless grant by IFPRI to the ;rst investigator while at the University
of Birmingham.
Greek letters
Appendix.
 logarithmic rate term of material degradation ,
Neil and Bridgwater’s formula, dimensionless Results obtained from shear cell are given in
 shear strain dimensionless Tables 8–10.

Table 8
Size analysis of the attrition products for alumina extrudate C

Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain  (dimensionless)
¡ 106 ¡ 180 ¡ 425 ¡ 1000 ¡ 2800

0.15 360 27.9 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9

0.15 720 55.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
0.15 1440 111 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1
0.15 2880 223 2.1 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1
0.15 5760 446 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.7 4.0
0.15 11520 892 3.3 3.9 4.1 4.3 5.0
0.15 23040 1780 3.7 4.4 4.8 5.1 5.9
0.15 46080 3570 3.9 4.9 5.3 6.0 6.9
0.28 360 27.9 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.28 720 55.8 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0.28 1440 111 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.7
0.28 2880 223 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.7
0.28 5760 446 3.0 3.2 3.9 4.1 4.2
0.28 11520 892 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.8 5.1
0.28 23040 1780 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.9 6.0
0.28 46080 3570 5.0 5.4 5.9 6.1 6.9
0.55 360 27.9 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.9
0.55 720 55.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6
0.55 1440 111 1.4 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.6
0.55 2880 223 2.2 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.6
0.55 5760 446 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.6
0.55 11520 892 3.8 4.1 4.9 5.1 5.8
0.55 23040 1785 4.1 4.9 5.4 6.0 6.6
0.55 46080 3570 5.4 6.1 6.5 7.1 8.1
1.22 360 27.9 1.1 1.2
1.22 720 55.8 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.9 2.2
1.22 1440 111 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.8 3.0
1.22 2880 223 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.2 3.8
1.22 5760 446 2.6 3.2 3.6 4.1 4.9
1.22 11520 892 2.9 4.0 4.4 5.3 6.1
1.22 23040 1785 3.0 4.9 5.4 7.0 8.2
1.22 46080 3570 3.8 6.4 7.1 9.0 11.0
2.53 360 27.9 1.1 1.7
2.53 720 55.8 1.1 1.3 1.8 2.7
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665 4661

Table 8 (continued)

Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain  (dimensionless)
¡ 106 ¡ 180 ¡ 425 ¡ 1000 ¡ 2800

2.53 1440 111 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.7 4.0

2.53 2880 223 2.0 2.2 2.9 3.3 5.1
2.53 5760 446 2.8 3.2 4.0 5.0 7.8
2.53 11520 892 3.6 4.6 5.2 6.4 9.6
2.53 23040 1785 5.6 7.2 8.2 10.0 15.0
2.53 46080 3570 8.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 21.0
5.32 360 27.9 1.3 2.2
5.32 720 55.8 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.8
5.32 1440 111 2.0 2.2 2.8 3.8 5.1
5.32 2880 223 2.3 3.1 4.0 5.1 7.8
5.32 5760 446 2.2 5.2 6.1 7.8 11.0
5.32 11520 892 6.0 8.0 9.7 12.0 16.0
5.32 23040 1785 6.6 11.0 13.0 17.0 21.0
5.32 46080 3570 10.5 14.0 21.0 22.0 32.0
10.3 360 27.9 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.8 2.8
10.3 720 55.8 1.3 2.0 2.2 3.1 4.8
10.3 1440 111 2.6 3.2 3.9 5.0 7.0
10.3 2880 223 3.9 5.2 6.8 8.0 11.0
10.3 5760 446 5.4 8.0 10.0 11.0 16.0
10.3 11520 892 7.0 11.0 16.0 18.0 23.0
10.3 23040 1785 13.0 18.0 23.0 27.0 41.0
10.3 46080 3570 29.0 43.0 50.0 83.0
24.8 360 27.9 1.1 1.7 2.0 3.1 5.1
24.8 720 55.8 2.6 3.3 4.2 5.7 9.0
24.8 1440 111 4.3 6.0 7.2 9.3 13.0
24.8 2880 223 6.0 10.0 12.0 15.0 26.0
24.8 5760 446 9.2 13.0 21.0 24.0 48.0
24.8 11520 892 10.5 18.0 38.0 44.0 74.0
24.8 23040 1785 12.0 20.5 59.0 71.0 100.0
150 360 27.9 3.7 5.6 8.0 10.5 20.0
150 720 55.8 9.8 12.0 17.0 21.0 41.0
150 1440 111 16.0 22.0 31.0 40.0 63.0
150 2880 223 20.0 29.0 59.0 77.0 99.0
290 23 1.7 0.9 1.1 1.6 2.2 4.8
290 45 3.5 2.1 2.3 3.5 5.0 10.5
290 90 7.0 2.9 3.8 5.0 8.0 18.0
290 180 13.9 7.0 9.0 10.5 13.0 31.0
290 360 27.9 8.5 11.0 18.0 21.0 37.0
290 360 27.9 10.2 10.5 11.5 30.0 60.0
290 720 55.8 16.0 21.0 36.0 42.0 70.0
290 720 55.8 16.0 22.0 21.0 48.0 75.0
290 1440 111 22.0 31.0 59.0 70.0 99.0
290 1440 111 20.0 28.0 40.0 75.0 98.0
290 2880 223 26.0 36.0 70.0 82.0 100.0

Table 9
Size analysis of the attrition products for alumina extrudate E

Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain  (dimensionless)
¡ 106 ¡ 180 ¡ 425 ¡ 1000 ¡ 2800

0.15 360 27.9 0.11 0.13

0.15 720 55.8 0.10 0.12 0.14
0.15 1440 111 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.16
0.15 2880 223 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.17 0.19
0.15 5760 446 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.20 0.21
0.15 11520 892 0.11 0.13 0.18 0.31 0.33
0.15 11520 892 0.11 0.13 0.18 0.31 0.33
0.15 21240 1645 0.13 0.17 0.25 0.42 0.49
4662 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

Table 9
Size analysis of the attrition products for alumina extrudate E

Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain  (dimensionless)
¡ 106 ¡ 180 ¡ 425 ¡ 1000 ¡ 2800

0.15 21600 1673 0.13 0.18 0.24 0.41 0.48

0.15 41040 3180 0.17 0.21 0.32 0.59 0.69
0.15 43200 3340 0.18 0.21 0.32 0.60 0.70
0.15 86400 6690 0.21 0.29 0.42 0.80 0.91
0.15 90000 6970 0.20 0.28 0.41 0.79 0.90
0.15 180000 13900 0.28 0.36 0.56 1.05 1.20
0.15 360000 27800 0.40 0.52 0.85 1.50 2.00
0.15 720000 55700 0.90 1.10 1.80 2.80 3.70
0.15 1000080 77400 1.10 1.50 2.10 3.60 5.10
0.28 11520 892 0.12 0.18 0.20
0.28 38160 2950 0.15 0.20 0.29 0.53 0.70
0.28 76320 5910 0.21 0.27 0.40 0.71 0.86
0.28 152640 11800 0.31 0.40 0.60 1.10 1.40
0.28 305280 23600 0.52 0.71 1.05 1.80 2.30
0.28 610560 47300 1.10 1.40 2.05 3.10 4.20
0.28 915840 70900 1.80 2.20 3.10 4.80 8.00
0.562 11520 892 0.11 0.15 0.32 0.50
0.562 19080 1470 0.13 0.17 0.26 0.49 0.61
0.562 38160 2950 0.21 0.27 0.39 0.71 0.92
0.562 76320 5910 0.29 0.39 0.57 1.00 1.30
0.562 152640 11800 0.44 0.60 0.87 1.40 2.10
0.562 305280 23600 0.89 1.10 1.50 2.30 3.40
0.562 610560 47300 1.80 2.10 3.10 4.10 6.10
1.12 1800 139 0.11 0.13 0.20 0.31 0.35
1.12 3600 278 0.13 0.17 0.23 0.40 0.43
1.12 7200 557 0.17 0.21 0.30 0.51 0.57
1.12 14400 1110 0.20 0.25 0.38 0.60 0.65
1.12 28800 2230 0.24 0.31 0.42 0.71 0.78
1.12 57600 4460 0.33 0.42 0.61 1.00 1.10
1.12 120600 9340 0.52 0.64 0.91 1.20 1.50
1.12 230400 17800 0.80 1.00 1.30 2.00 2.10
1.12 460800 35700 1.70 2.10 2.70 3.80 4.40
1.12 600120 46500 2.10 2.50 3.20 4.60 6.20
1.26 1800 139 0.11 0.16 0.28 0.31
1.26 3600 278 0.12 0.17 0.24 0.41 0.50
1.26 7200 557 0.17 0.22 0.34 0.56 0.62
1.26 14400 1110 0.21 0.39 0.42 0.69 0.72
1.26 28800 2230 0.25 0.33 0.50 0.80 1.00
1.26 57600 4460 0.34 0.47 0.70 1.10 1.40
1.26 120600 9340 0.63 0.81 1.10 1.60 2.20
1.26 230400 17850 1.10 1.30 1.90 2.70 3.90
1.26 414000 32000 2.05 2.40 3.10 4.30 6.50
2.53 900 69.7 0.13 0.17 0.22 0.40 0.48
2.53 1800 139 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.51 0.69
2.53 3600 278 0.19 0.25 0.38 0.70 1.00
2.53 7200 557 0.25 0.32 0.50 0.90 1.30
2.53 14400 1110 0.30 0.53 0.81 1.30 2.20
2.53 28800 2230 0.76 1.00 1.50 2.60 5.10
2.53 57600 4460 1.80 2.30 3.40 5.80
5.32 360 27.9 0.11 0.19 0.27
5.32 720 55.8 0.11 0.17 0.30 0.41
5.32 1440 111 0.13 0.17 0.22 0.41 0.63
5.32 2880 223 0.17 0.21 0.31 0.51 0.90
5.32 5760 446 0.25 0.35 0.51 0.91 1.30
5.32 11520 892 0.40 0.51 0.80 1.20 2.05
5.32 23040 1780 0.79 1.00 1.40 2.30 4.00
5.32 46080 3570 1.80 2.10 3.10 4.80 7.90
10.3 360 27.9 0.11 0.12 0.16 0.31 0.39
10.3 720 55.8 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.45 0.50
10.3 1440 111 0.20 0.25 0.37 0.64 0.80
10.3 2880 223 0.28 0.37 0.51 0.91 1.20
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665 4663

Table 9 (continued)

Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain  (dimensionless)
¡ 106 ¡ 180 ¡ 425 ¡ 1000 ¡ 2800

10.3 5760 446 0.41 0.55 0.80 1.30 2.00

10.3 11520 892 0.71 0.91 1.30 2.00 3.00
10.3 23040 1780 1.30 1.80 2.40 3.70 6.00
24.8 360 27.9 0.15 0.19 0.26 0.50 0.73
24.8 720 55.8 0.22 0.30 0.40 0.77 1.10
24.8 1440 111 0.33 0.42 0.61 1.10 1.50
24.8 2880 223 0.50 0.64 0.93 1.50 2.10
24.8 5760 446 0.81 1.10 1.60 2.50 3.20
24.8 11520 892 1.70 2.10 3.10 4.30 6.20
75 180 13.9 0.11 0.16 0.22 0.48 0.92
75 360 27.9 0.21 0.28 0.41 0.82 1.80
75 720 55.8 0.38 0.50 0.80 1.40 3.10
75 1440 111 0.80 1.10 1.80 3.10 6.80
150 15 1.2 0.20 0.42
150 90 7.0 0.13 0.24 0.45 1.20
150 180 13.9 0.13 0.22 0.42 0.92 2.20
150 360 27.9 0.26 0.40 0.76 1.70 5.00
290 12 0.9 0.19 0.50
290 30 2.3 0.11 0.15 0.20 0.36 1.10
290 45 3.5 0.16 0.20 0.30 0.54 1.60
290 90 7.0 0.30 0.38 0.58 1.10 3.00
290 180 13.9 0.58 0.80 1.20 2.20 6.20

Table 10
Size analysis of the attrition products for alumina extrudate C for all di$erent shapes

Shape Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain 
¡ 90 ¡ 300 ¡ 500 ¡ 1000 ¡ 1400 ¡ 1700 ¡ 2000 ¡ 2350 ¡ 2800

CY1 490 30 4.6 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.3 5.0 6.0 7.0 9.0 17.0
490 45 6.9 4.8 6.0 7.0 9.0 12.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
490 90 13.9 9.1 12.0 14.0 21.0 27.0 30.0 33.0 40.0 48.0
490 180 27.8 16.0 21.0 26.0 35.0 41.0 43.0 48.0 52.0 64.0
490 540 83.3 46.0 59.0 65.0 72.0 80.0 82.0 85.0 90.0 92.0

CY1 390 30 4.6 1.9 2.5 2.8 3.6 4.2 4.7 5.4 6.5 10.0
390 45 6.9 4.0 4.7 5.2 7.1 8.7 10.0 11.0 14.0 23.0
390 90 13.9 7.5 9.5 10.5 14.0 18.0 21.0 24.0 31.0 40.0
390 180 27.8 12.0 18.0 20.0 28.0 33.0 38.0 42.0 46.0 54.0
390 540 83.3 42.0 48.0 51.0 60.0 72.0 79.0 83.0 89.0 93.0
390 900 138 52.0 66.0 72.0 83.0 87.0 90.0 92.0 94.0 98.0

CY1 290 30 4.6 1.3 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.0 3.6 6.4
290 45 6.9 3.0 4.0 4.4 5.4 6.3 8.1 15.0
290 90 13.9 5.2 7.7 8.2 11.0 12.0 15.0 21.0
290 180 27.8 10.0 13.0 18.0 21.0 23.0 30.0 47.0
290 540 83.3 32.0 41.0 46.0 51.0 54.0 62.0 82.0

CY1 150 30 4.6 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 3.1

150 45 6.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.0 3.4 5.8
150 90 13.9 2.6 3.1 3.4 4.1 4.7 5.0 6.0 10.0
150 180 27.8 5.2 6.1 6.8 8.3 9.2 10.0 11.0 21.0
150 540 83.3 14.0 18.0 22.0 27.0 31.0 34.0 40.0 53.0

CY2 490 30 4.4 4.0 5.0 6.2 7.3 8.8 13.0

490 45 6.6 7.5 10.0 11.0 14.0 17.0 18.0
490 90 13.2 14.0 21.0 27.0 30.0 35.0 43.0
490 180 26.5 27.0 34.0 40.0 43.0 48.0 62.0
490 540 79.5 60.0 70.0 74.0 79.0 82.0 90.0
4664 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665

Table 10
Size analysis of the attrition products for alumina extrudate C for all di$erent shapes

Shape Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain 
¡ 90 ¡ 300 ¡ 500 ¡ 1000 ¡ 1400 ¡ 1700 ¡ 2000 ¡ 2350 ¡ 2800

CY2 390 30 4.4 1.9 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.9 8.5
390 45 6.6 3.3 4.3 4.8 6.5 8.0 9.0 10.0 18.0
390 90 13.2 6.2 8.2 9.2 12.0 14.0 17.0 19.0 32.0
390 180 26.5 12.0 17.0 20.0 26.0 31.0 34.0 38.0 49.0
390 540 79.5 42.0 51.0 57.0 63.0 70.0 74.0 80.0 90.0

CY2 290 30 4.4 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.3 3.0 3.3 4.1 6.0
290 45 6.6 2.8 3.7 4.1 5.0 6.2 7.7 9.0 13.0
290 90 13.2 5.1 7.0 8.0 9.5 11.0 14.0 16.0 26.0
290 180 26.5 8.9 11.0 13.0 19.0 22.0 27.0 31.0 43.0
290 540 79.5 32.0 42.0 46.0 53.0 60.0 68.0 72.0 90.0

CY2 150 30 4.4 1.2 1.5 1.9 4.1

150 45 6.6 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.8 3.2 3.9 4.2 7.0
150 90 13.2 4.1 4.3 4.7 6.1 7.0 8.2 9.0 13.0
150 180 26.5 4.8 6.2 7.2 9.0 10.0 11.0 13.0 22.0
150 540 79.5 14.0 21.0 23.0 30.0 33.0 38.0 42.0 53.0

CY3 490 30 4.1 2.1 2.6 3.2 4.0 4.9 5.5 6.9 10.5
490 45 6.2 4.6 5.6 6.2 8.1 9.6 10.5 13.0 22.0
490 90 12.4 8.0 10.0 11.0 14.0 18.0 20.0 24.0 36.0
490 180 24.8 11.0 15.0 18.0 23.0 28.0 31.0 35.0 45.0
490 540 74.4 43.0 53.0 60.0 70.0 73.0 79.0 83.0 92.0

CY3 390 30 4.1 1.3 1.8 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.0 6.7
390 45 6.2 2.9 3.6 4.0 5.1 6.0 7.0 8.0 13.0
390 90 12.4 5.9 7.3 8.0 10.5 11.5 14.0 16.0 26.0
390 180 24.8 9.0 11.0 13.0 19.0 21.0 24.0 29.0 41.0
390 540 74.4 28.0 36.0 40.0 46.0 49.0 53.0 59.0 73.0

CY3 290 30 4.1 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2 4.9
290 45 6.2 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.9 5.7 6.6 7.9 11.0
290 90 12.4 4.4 5.4 6.2 8.6 9.9 11.0 12.0 21.0
290 180 24.8 7.3 9.2 10.5 14.0 18.0 20.5 23.0 36.0
290 540 74.4 20.5 28.0 30.5 37.0 41.0 44.0 46.0 63.0

CY3 150 30 4.1 1.0 1.1 1.4 2.0 2.4 4.0

150 45 6.2 3.0 3.4 4.0 5.2 5.8 9.0
150 90 12.4 3.5 4.3 5.1 6.5 7.3 8.5 9.2 14.0
150 180 24.8 5.0 5.3 7.1 9.1 10.5 12.0 14.0 22.0
150 540 74.4 15.0 20.0 22.0 30.0 33.0 38.0 41.0 54.0

CU 490 30 4.2 3.3 4.2 4.9 5.8 8.0 8.9 9.3 11.0 20.0
490 50 7.1 5.6 8.0 9.3 13.0 15.0 18.0 21.0 28.0 40.0
490 90 12.7 10.5 14.0 18.0 27.0 30.0 34.0 39.0 42.0 52.0
490 180 25.4 21.0 30.0 33.0 43.0 48.0 51.0 56.0 61.0 78.0
490 360 50.9 38.0 47.0 52.0 64.0 70.0 73.0 80.0 83.0 92.0

CU 390 30 4.2 1.9 2.6 3.1 5.0 5.4 5.9 6.3 7.4 10.5
390 50 7.1 4.0 5.2 6.4 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 15.0 28.0
390 90 12.7 7.5 10.0 11.0 18.0 21.0 24.0 27.0 31.0 43.0
390 180 25.4 13.0 19.0 22.0 31.0 34.0 39.0 41.0 46.0 60.0
390 360 50.9 23.0 30.0 34.0 43.0 47.0 49.0 53.0 62.0 80.0

CU 290 30 4.2 2.4 2.9 3.2 4.3 4.6 5.0 5.3 5.9 8.2
290 45 6.4 4.3 5.3 6.1 8.6 9.1 9.9 10.5 11.0 19.0
290 90 12.7 7.0 8.6 9.7 13.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 36.0
290 180 25.4 10.5 13.0 17.0 24.0 28.0 30.0 33.0 39.0 50.0
290 360 50.9 18.0 24.0 28.0 37.0 41.0 43.0 47.0 52.0 71.0
 J. Bridgwater et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 58 (2003) 4649 – 4665 4665

Table 10 (continued)

Shape Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited wt% for particle size (m)
 (kPa) angle (◦ ) strain 
¡ 90 ¡ 300 ¡ 500 ¡ 1000 ¡ 1400 ¡ 1700 ¡ 2000 ¡ 2350 ¡ 2800

CU 150 30 4.2 1.1 1.5 1.8 3.1 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.8
150 45 6.4 2.2 2.9 3.3 4.9 5.1 5.7 6.2 8.7
150 90 12.7 4.0 4.8 5.2 8.0 9.0 9.9 11.0 19.0
150 180 25.4 5.8 7.3 8.6 11.0 14.0 15.0 18.0 30.0
150 360 50.9 9.0 10.5 12.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 29.0 43.0

Shape Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited Shape Stress, Rotation Shear Cumulative attrited
 angle strain  wt% for particle  angle strain  wt% for particle
(kPa) (◦ ) (dimensionless) size (m) (kPa) (◦ ) (dimensionless) size (m)

¡ 1000 ¡ 2800 ¡ 1000 ¡ 2800

TR 390 30 4.2 5.8 SP1 390 30 2.7 2.1 21.0

390 45 6.3 11.0 390 50 4.5 7.0 40.0
390 90 12.5 21.0 390 120 10.8 14.0 51.0
390 180 25.0 32.0 390 210 18.9 28.0 70.0
390 360 50.0 45.0 390 360 32.4 47.0
TR 290 30 4.2 4.2 SP1 150 30 2.7 1.1 9.5
290 45 6.3 9.0 150 50 4.5 2.1 18.0
290 90 12.5 14.0 150 120 10.8 4.0 30.0
290 180 25.0 22.0 150 210 18.9 7.0 41.0
290 360 50.0 34.0 150 360 32.4 13.0 51.0
TR 150 30 4.2 2.9 SP2 390 30 2.7 3.1 5.2
150 45 6.3 6.2 390 50 4.5 5.2 10.0
150 90 12.5 9.2 390 120 10.8 13.0 30.0
150 180 25.0 12.0 390 210 18.9 30.0 50.0
150 360 50.0 21.0 390 360 32.4 42.0 70.0
SP1 490 50 4.5 8.0 42.0 SP2 290 30 2.7 1.2 3.0
490 120 10.8 20.0 60.0 290 50 4.5 2.3 5.0
490 210 18.9 38.0 80.0 290 120 10.8 4.9 11.0
490 360 32.4 60.0 92.0 290 210 18.9 10.5 24.0
290 360 32.4 20.0 41.0
SP2 150 50 4.5 2.0
150 120 10.8 2.0 4.6
150 210 18.9 4.6 9.9
150 360 32.4 8.6 20.0
150 720 64.8 20.0 40.0

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