Chapter 3 Fluid Mechanics

General Physics (Phys 1011)
Chapter 3: Fluid Mechanics
Gezahegn S.D.
gezahegn.sufa@dbu.edu.et
https://sites.google.com/view/gezahegnsufa/general-physics
28 Auguest, 2021
Gezahegn S.D General Physics (Phys 1011) 28 Auguest, 2021 1 / 57

Properties of Bulk Matter
Introduction
The three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.
They differ from each other due to:
X the different magnitude of the interatomic and intermolecular forces
X the extent of the random thermal motion of the atoms and
molecules of substances (which depends upon temperature)
A solid has definite shape, size and volume, but liquid possesses a
definite volume only and a gas has neither of them.

Elastic Behaviour of Solids
Definitions
Ideally, solid bodies are assumed to be rigid in which deformation is
neglected. However, in reality, solid bodies can be stretched,
compressed and bent. This means that solid bodies are not perfectly
rigid.
Deformation: the phenomenon of change in the shape of a body
under the effect of applied force
Deforming force: a force acting on a body which produces change
in its shape of body instead of its state of rest or uniform motion
of the body.

Definitions
Elasticity: the property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to
regain its original size and shape when the applied force is
removed, is known as elasticity and the deformation caused is
known as elastic deformation.
Example: Rubber Bands.

Definitions
Plasticity: the property of the inability of a body to regain its
original shape and size when the deforming forces are removed is
known as plasticity and such substances are called plastic and
the deformation caused is plastic deformation.
Example: mud

Reason for Elasticity and Plasticity

Molecular theory of elasticity: a solid is composed of a large
number of atoms arranged in a definite order. The atoms are
bonded together by interatomic or intermolecular forces and stay
in a stable equilibrium position.
Figure 1: model of spring-ball system, the balls represent atoms and springs
represent interatomic forces

Properties of Bulk Matter
Reason for Elasticity and Plasticity

When a force is applied on solids, it becomes deformed. That is
the atoms or molecules are displaced from their equilibrium
positions causing a change in the interatomic (or intermolecular)
distances and exert a restoring force just like a spring.
When the deforming force is removed, the interatomic forces tend
to drive them back to their original positions. Thus the body
regains its original shape and size.

Stress, Strain, and Young’s Modulus
Stress
When a body is subjected to a deforming force, it undergoes a
change in shape or size and a restoring force is developed in the
body. This restoring force is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to the applied force.
The extent of deformation depends upon the nature of the
material of the body and the magnitude of the deforming.
The restoring force acting per unit area of cross-section of
a deformed body is called stress.
restoring force deforming force(F)

Stress = =
area area(A)
or
F
Stress =
A
S.I Unit of stress is N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Stress, Strain, and Young’s Modulus, Cont’d
Strain
In general, the strain is the amount of deformation experienced by
the body in the direction of force applied, divided by initial
dimensions of the body.
Unit: Unitless
Depending on the kind of stress applied, strains are of three types:
Tensile Strain
Volume strain
shearing strain

Elastic Modulus
The harder you pull on something, the more it stretches; the more
you squeeze it, the more it compresses.
stress
= Elastic modulus, (Hooke’s law)
strain
The proportionality of stress and strain (under certain conditions)
is called Hooke’s law
A material having a large elastic modulus is very stiff and difficult
to deform.
the elastic modulus has the same physical unit as stress because
strain is dimensionless.

Tensile/Compressive deformation
+ Tension or compression
occurs when two antiparallel
forces of equal magnitude act
on an object along only one of
its dimensions, in such a way
that the object does not
move.
+ The net effect of such forces
is that the rod changes its
length from L0 to a new
length L.
+ The change in length,
∆L = L − L0 , may be either
elongation or contraction.
Tensile/Compressive, Cont’d
+ Tensile stress and strain
occur when the forces are
stretching an object, causing
its elongation, and ∆L > 0.
+ Compressive stress and strain
occur when the forces are
contracting an object, causing
its shortening, and ∆L < 0.
+ Forces that act parallel to the
cross-section do not change
the length of an object.
Hence, the deforming force is
the one perpendicular to the
cross-section, F⊥ .
+ Tensile stress is defined by:
F⊥
Tensile Stress =
A
+ Tensile strain: is defined as
the fractional change in
length of an object under a
tensile stress.
∆L
Tensile Strain =
L0
+ Compressive stress and
strain are defined by the
same formulas
Figure 2: Approximate Breaking Stresses

+ Young’s modulus (Y) is the
elastic modulus when
deformation is caused by
either tensile or compressive
stress, and is defined by
tensile stress
Y =
tensile strain
F⊥ /A
=
∆L/L0
F⊥ L0
=
A ∆L
+ Young’s modulus measures
the resistance of a solid to a
change in its length.
Volume deformation
+ If an object is immersed in a
fluid (liquid or gas) at rest,
the fluid exerts a force on any
part of the object’s surface;
this force is perpendicular to
the surface.
+ The force F⊥ per unit area
that the fluid exerts on the
surface of an immersed object
is called the pressure p in the
fluid:
F⊥
pressure, p =
A
+ Pressure plays the role of
stress in a volume
Volume deformation, Cont’d

+ If the pressure on an object
changes by an amount
∆P = ∆F/A, the object
experiences a volume change
∆V . Thus, the volume
stress is
∆F
Volume stress =
A
+ Volume strain is a change
in volume relative to the
original volume:
∆V
Volume strain =
V0

+ Hooke’s law: an increase in
pressure (volume stress)
produces a proportional
volume strain (fractional
change in volume).
+ The corresponding elastic
modulus: Bulk modulus, B.
+ Hooke’s law takes the form
volume stress ∆p
B= =−
volume strain ∆V /V0
+ the minus sign is to ensure B
is always positive. An
increase in P causes a
decrease in V and vice versa.

+ Bulk modulus measures the
resistance of solids or liquids
to changes in their volume,
i.e, A material having a large
bulk modulus doesn’t
compress easily.
+ Compressibility, k - the
reciprocal of the bulk
modulus
1
k= (1)
B
+ the units of compressibility:
P a−1
Shear deformation
+ If the deforming forces act
parallel to the surface so that
shape of the body changes
without change in volume, the
stress is called shearing stress.
+ We define the shear stress as

the force Fk acting tangent to
the surface divided by the
area A on which it acts:
Fk
Shear stress =
A
Figure 3: Pushing a book side ways

Shear Stress, Strain, and Modulus

+ if the shearing strain is given + The corresponding elastic
by the angle θ (usually very modulus: shear modulus,
small), denoted by S
∆x Shear stress Fk y
Shear strain, θ = S= =
y Shear strain A ∆x
where ∆x is the horizontal
distance that the sheared face
moves and y is the height of
the object.
+ Hooke’s law: the shear strain
is proportional to the shear
stress

Shear Stress, Strain, and Modulus

+ For a given material, S is usually one-third to one-half as large as
Young’s modulus Y for tensile stress.
+ shear stress, shear strain, and shear modulus apply to solid
materials only. It is because shear refers to deforming an object
that has a definite shape

Typical Values for Elastic Moduli

Example:
A vertical steel beam in a building supports a load of 6.0 × 104 N .
(a) If the length of the beam is 4.0m and its cross-sectional area is
8.0 × 10−3 m2 , find the distance the beam is compressed along its
length.
(b) What maximum load in newtons could the steel beam support
before failing?

Solution:
(a) Find the amount of compression in the beam
Given F⊥
Compressive Stress =
A
L0 = 4.0m ∆L
Compressive Strain =
−3 2 L0
A = 8.0 × 10 m
Y = 2.0 × 1011 P a Young’s modulus
F⊥ = 6.0 × 104 N Compressive stress
Y =
Compressive strain
Required
F⊥ ∆L
Thus, =Y
∆L = ? A L0
F⊥ L0
∆L = = 1.5 × 10−4 m
YA
Solution:
(b) Find the maximum load that the beam can support.
Given
F⊥
= 5.0 × 105 N/m2
A
Required
Fmax =?
Fmax = A × 5.0 × 105 N/m2

= 8.0 × 10−3 m2 × 5.0 × 105 N/m2
= 4.0 × 106 N

Example
A solid brass sphere is initially surrounded by air, and the air pressure
exerted on it is 1.0 × 105 N/m2 (normal atmospheric pressure). The
sphere is lowered into the ocean to a depth where the pressure is
2.0 × 107 N/m2 . The volume of the sphere in air is 0.50m3 . By how
much does this volume change once the sphere is submerged?

Soulion
Given
volume stress ∆p
B= =−
V0 = 0.50m3 volume strain ∆V /V0
p0 = 1.0 × 105 N/m2
p = 2.0 × 107 N/m2 V0 ∆p
∆V =
B = 6.0 × 1010 N/m2 B
V0 (p − p0 )
=
B
Required = −1.6 × 10−4 m3
∆V =? The negative sign indicates that

the volume of the sphere
decreases.
Density and Pressure in Static Fluids
Characteristics of Fluids
+ Liquids deform easily when stressed and do not spring back to
their original shape once a force is removed.

Density(ρ)
+ it determines whether an object sinks or floats in a fluid.
+ it is defined as the mass of an object per unit volume
m
ρ=
V
+ SI unit: kilogram per meter cubed (kg/m3 )
Specific Gravity
+ is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water at
4.0◦ C, 1000kg/m−3
Density of material
Specific Gravity =
Density of water
+ dimensionless quantity
Pressure (p)
+ is the normal force F per unit area A over which the force is
applied, or
F⊥
p=
A
+ SI unit pascal, 1P a = 1N/m2

Variation of Pressure with Depth

+ Consider the container in fig.
mg ρV g ρAhg
p= = =
A A A
+ Therefore, the pressure due to
the weight of a fluid.
p = ρgh
+ Fluid pressure increases with
increase in the depth of the
fluid.

+ Atmospheric Pressure
is the pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere exerted on
the surface of the Earth.
it decreases with increase in altitude as a result of decrease in
the density of the air
+ Gauge pressure: is the difference in pressure between a system and
the surrounding atmosphere.
pguage = psystem − patmosphere
+ Absolute Pressure
is thus the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure:
pabsolute = pguage − patmosphere

Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle states that
pressure applied to a confined
fluid in a container is transmitted
equally to all regions of the fluid
and to the walls of the container.
P1 = P2
or
F1 F2
=
A1 A2
+ Applications to Pascal’s
Principle: Hydraulic brakes,
Figure 4: hydraulic lift
Car lifts
Example
In a hydrochloric piston of radius 5cm and 50cm for the small and
large pistons respectively. Find the weight of a car that can be elevated
if the force exerted by the compressed air is 100N.

Given
r1 = 0.005m
r2 = 0.05m
F1 = 100N
Required
F2 =?
Pascal’s Principle:
F1 F2
=
A1 A2
A2 πr22
F2 = F1 = 2 F1 = 10000N
A1 πr1
Buoyant Force and Archimedes’s Principle

+ Buoyant Force: An upward
force exerted by a fluid that
opposes the weight of an
immersed object.
+ Archimedes’s Principle: The

buoyant force exerted on a
body immersed in a fluid is
equal to the weight of the
fluid the body displaces.

Buoyant Force and Archimedes’s Principle
FB = mfluid g = ρfluid Vfluid g
where
FB is the magnitude of the
buoyant force,
mfluid is the mass of the
displaced fluid.
Vfluid volume of the displaced
fluid.

Archimedes’s Principle: Totally Submerged Object

+ Vdisp = Vobj .
+ The downward gravitational
force is
Fg = mg = ρobj gVobj
+ The net force is
FB − Fg = (ρf luid − ρobj )gVobj
+ If ρobj < ρf luid , the
unsupported object
accelerates upward.
+ If ρobj = ρf luid , the object
remains in equilibrium.

Example
Calculate the resulting force, if a steel ball of radius 6 cm is immersed
in water.

Example
Calculate the resulting force, if a steel ball of radius 6 cm is immersed
in water.
Solution
Radius of steel ball = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Volume of steel ball,
4 4
V = πr3 = π0.063 = 9.05 × 10−4 m3 (2)
3 3
Density of water, ρ = 1000kg.m−3
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8ms−2
From Archimedes principle formula,
FB = ρ × g × V = (1000)(9.8)(9.05 × 10−4 ) = 8.87N

Archimedes’s Principle: Floating Object
+ The density of the object is less than the density of the fluid.
+ The object is in static equilibrium.
+ The object is only partially submerged.
+ The upward buoyant force is balanced by the downward force of
gravity.
+ Volume of the fluid displaced corresponds to the volume of the
object beneath the fluid level.

Example
Calculate the buoyant force, if a floating body is 95% submerged in
water.

Example
Calculate the buoyant force, if a floating body is 95% submerged in
water.
Solution
From Archimedes principle formula,
FB = ρwater × g × Vwater
ρobject × g × Vobject = ρwater × g × Vwater
Vwater
ρobject = ρwater
Vobject
Since 95% of the body is immersed, Vwater = 0.95 × Vobject
0.95 × Vobject
ρobject = ρwater = 950kg.m−3
Vobject
Fluid Dynamics
Types of Fluid Flow: Laminar / Streamline flow

+ Steady flow
+ Each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path- no loss of energy
due to internal friction in the fluid.
+ The paths of the different particles never cross each other.
+ Every given fluid particle arriving at a given point has the same
velocity and pressure.

Fluid Dynamics
Types of Fluid Flow: Turbulent flow

+ An irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions.
+ Turbulent flow occurs when the particles go above some critical
speed.
+ results in loss of energy due to internal friction between
neighboring layers of the fluid, called viscosity

Fluid Dynamics
Types of Fluid Flow: Ideal Fluid Flow

+ The fluid is non-viscous: internal friction is neglected
+ The flow is steady: all particles passing through a point have
the same velocity.
+ The fluid is incompressible: the density of the incompressible
fluid remains constant.
+ The flow is irrotational: the fluid has no angular momentum
about any point.

Fluid Dynamics
Equation of Continuity
Consider a fluid moving through a pipe of non-uniform size
+ It assumes conservation of
mass for an ideal fluid flowing
in a tube.
+ It states: "the amount of fluid
flowing through a cross
section of the tube in a given
time interval must be the
same for all cross sections"
+ The mass that crosses A1 in some time interval is the same as the
mass that crosses A2 in that same time interval.
m1 = m2
Fluid Dynamics
+ The fluid is incompressible, so
ρ is a constant, thus
m1 = ρV1 and m2 = ρV2
ρV1 = ρV2
ρA1 ∆x1 = ρA2 ∆x2
ρA1 v1 ∆t = ρA2 v2 ∆t
+ Therefore, the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points
along a tube is constant for an incompressible fluid
A1 v1 = A2 v2 = constant
This is called the equation of continuity for fluids.

Fluid Dynamics
+ The product Av, which has the dimensions of volume per unit
time, is called the flow rate (Q),
V
Q= = Av = constant
t
+ the equation of continuity can be re-written as
Q1 = Q2
+ Hence, if the cross sectional area is decreased, and then the flow
rate increases, i.e, the speed increases.
+ The speed is low where the tube is wide

Fluid Dynamics
Example
A liquid flows through a pipe with a diameter of 10cm at a velocity of
9cm/s. If the diameter of the pipe then decreases to 6cm, what is the
new velocity of the liquid?
Solution
initial cross-sectional area, A1 = πr12 = 25πcm2
final area of the pipe, A2 = πr22 = 9πcm2
from the equation of continuity, A1 v1 = A2 v2
Thus,
(25πcm2 )(9cm/s) = (9πcm2 )v2
Therefore, v2 = 25cm/s

Fluid Dynamics
Bernoulli’s Equation
Consider an ideal fluid moving through a pipe whose cross sectional
area and height changes.
+ Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the pressure P, the
kinetic energy per unit volume, 1/2ρv 2 , and the potential energy
per unit volume, ρgy, has the same value at all points along a
streamline.
1
P + ρv 2 + ρgy = constant
2
Where
p: static pressure
ρ: density of the fluid
v: velocity of the fluid
h: height of the fluid from a reference

Fluid Dynamics
Bernoulli’s Equation
+ Consider two points 1 and 2 inside the tube through which the
liquid flows.
+ Bernoulli’s Equation
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgy1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgy2
2 2
Fluid Dynamics
Example
A horizontal pipe has a constriction in it, as shown in the figure. At
point 1 the diameter is 6.0cm, while at point 2 it is only 2.0cm. At
point 1, v1 = 2.0m/s and P1 = 180kP a. Calculate v2 and P2 .

Fluid Dynamics
Solution
Using Bernoulli’s equation with h1 = h2 , we have
1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
1
P2 = P1 + ρ(v12 − v22 )
2
From the equation of continuity
A1 πr12
v2 = v1 = v1 2 = 18m/s
A2 πr2
Substituting then gives

P2 = 20kpa

Fluid Dynamics
Example
A horizontal pipe of diameter d1 = 10cm carrying water has a
constriction of diameter d2 = 4cm. If P1 = 105 P a and P2 = 8 × 104 P a,
what is the flow rate?
Solution
Bernoulli’s equation with equal heights gives
1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
From the equation of continuity
A1 v 1 = A2 v 2

Fluid Dynamics
Solution
Substituting, we get
1 2 1 v 1 A1 2

P1 + ρv1 = P2 + ρ
2 2 A2
" 2 #
1 2 A1
P1 − P2 = ρv1 −1
2 A2
s
2(P1 − P2 )/ρ
v1 =
(A1 /A2 )2 − 1
and the flow rate is

s s
2(P1 − P2 )/ρ π 2(P1 − P2 )/ρ
Q 1 = A1 v 1 = = = 8.1 × 10−3 m3 /s
1/A22 − 1/A21 4 4
1/d2 − 1/d14

Chapter 3 Fluid Mechanics

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Chapter 3 Fluid Mechanics

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General Physics (Phys 1011)

Chapter 3: Fluid Mechanics

Gezahegn S.D General Physics (Phys 1011) 28 Auguest, 2021 1 / 57

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Reason for Elasticity and Plasticity

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Reason for Elasticity and Plasticity

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restoring force deforming force(F)

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Figure 2: Approximate Breaking Stresses

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Volume deformation, Cont’d

Volume deformation, Cont’d

Volume deformation, Cont’d

+ We define the shear stress as

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Shear Stress, Strain, and Modulus

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Shear Stress, Strain, and Modulus

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Typical Values for Elastic Moduli

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Fmax = A × 5.0 × 105 N/m2

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∆V =? The negative sign indicates that

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

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pguage = psystem − patmosphere

pabsolute = pguage − patmosphere

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Buoyant Force and Archimedes’s Principle

+ Archimedes’s Principle: The

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Buoyant Force and Archimedes’s Principle

FB = mfluid g = ρfluid Vfluid g

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Archimedes’s Principle: Totally Submerged Object

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FB = ρ × g × V = (1000)(9.8)(9.05 × 10−4 ) = 8.87N

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Since 95% of the body is immersed, Vwater = 0.95 × Vobject

Types of Fluid Flow: Laminar / Streamline flow

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Types of Fluid Flow: Turbulent flow

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Types of Fluid Flow: Ideal Fluid Flow

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This is called the equation of continuity for fluids.

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