UNIT-III

Classification of Storage Methods

There are many different ways to classify various storage methods. Energy harvested from solar
energy consists of two forms: electrical energy from PV panels and thermal energy from
concentrated solar power. Therefore, in this paper, only the storage methods of electrical energy
and thermal energy are reviewed. Since electricity supply is of primary concern, the focus of this
review is mainly on electricity storage.

2.1 Electricity Storage

The methods to store electricity generated by solar power can be classified by the form of storage
or usage into the following categories shown in Table 1. 5

Table 1. Classification of storing solar energy

Thermal Energy Storage:

Thermal energy is typically stored in a thermal reservoir for later usage. Thermal energy storage can also
be classified according to usage. Thermal energy harvested from a solar source can be stored via thermal
physical reaction, i.e. using the temperature difference of materials (or phase changes) to store energy. It
can also be stored via chemical reaction, i.e. creating new chemical species (solar fuels). These methods
are shown in Figure 3 and are described as:

Electrical Energy Storage Methods

Pumped Hydroelectric Storage (PHS): Pumped hydroelectric storage has the largest storage capacity that
is commercially available. The basic idea is simple: use the excess electrical energy generated at off peak
hours to pump water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir. The electrical energy is converted into
gravitational potential energy. Since the electrical energy will be supplies from the grid, it can
be generated from not only photovoltaic, but also from other kinds of renewable energy
sources. When the peak hour comes, the water then will be discharged from the higher reservoir
to the lower reservoir. The potential energy of water converts into electrical energy as normal
hydroelectric power plants do. Typically, a turbine will be used to generate electricity. The typical power
rating, i.e. the maximum power output, for a PHS system is typically about 1000 MW. There are some
small‐scale PHS systems as well. These often have a capacity range from 1 MV to 30 MV. The storage
capacity of the PHS will depend on the size of the reservoirs and the elevation difference between them.

Figure shows a diagram of a pumped hydroelectric storage system.

SOLAR WATER HEATING

Solar water heating (SWH) is the conversion of sunlight into heat for water
heating using a solar thermal collector. A variety of configurations are available at varying
cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes. SWHs are widely used for
residential and some industrial applications.
A sun-facing collector heats a working fluid that passes into a storage system for later
use. SWH are active (pumped) and passive (convection-driven). They use water only, or
both water and a working fluid. They are heated directly or via light-concentrating mirrors.
They operate independently or as hybrids with electric or gas heaters.In large-scale
installations, mirrors may concentrate sunlight onto a smaller collector.
The global solar thermal market is dominated by China, Europe, Japan and India,
although Israel was one of the first countries to mandate installation of SWH in 1980,
leading to a flourishing industry.

When a solar water heating and hot-water central heating system are used together, solar
heat will either be concentrated in a pre-heating tank that feeds into the tank heated by
the central heating, or the solar heat exchanger will replace the lower heating element
and the upper element will remain to provide for supplemental heat. However, the primary
need for central heating is at night and in winter when solar gain is lower. Therefore, solar
water heating for washing and bathing is often a better application than central heating
because supply and demand are better matched. In many climates, a solar hot water
system can provide up to 85% of domestic hot water energy. This can include domestic
non-electric concentrating solar thermal systems. In many northern European countries,
combined hot water and space heating systems (solar combisystems) are used to provide
15 to 25% of home heating energy. When combined with storage, large scale solar
heating can provide 50-97% of annual heat consumption for district heating.
Passive
Passive systems rely on heat-driven convection or heat pipes to circulate the working
fluid. Passive systems cost less and require low or no maintenance, but are less efficient.
Overheating and freezing are major concerns.
Active
Active systems use one or more pumps to circulate water and/or heating fluid. This
permits a much wider range of system configurations.
Pumped systems are more expensive to purchase and to operate. However, they operate
at higher efficiency can be more easily controlled.
Active systems have controllers with features such as interaction with a backup electric
or gas-driven water heater, calculation and logging of the energy saved, safety functions,
remote access and informative displays.
Passive direct systems

An integrated collector storage (ICS) system

An integrated collector storage (ICS or Batch Heater) system uses a tank that acts as
both storage and collector. Batch heaters are thin rectilinear tanks with a glass side facing
the sun at noon. They are simple and less costly than plate and tube collectors, but they
may require bracing if installed on a roof (to support 400–700 lb (180–320 kg) lbs of
water), suffer from significant heat loss at night since the side facing the sun is largely
uninsulated and are only suitable in moderate climates.
A convection heat storage unit (CHS) system is similar to an ICS system, except the
storage tank and collector are physically separated and transfer between the two is driven
by convection. CHS systems typically use standard flat-plate type or evacuated tube
collectors. The storage tank must be located above the collectors for convection to work
properly. The main benefit of CHS systems over ICS systems is that heat loss is largely
avoided since the storage tank can be fully insulated. Since the panels are located below
the storage tank, heat loss does not cause convection, as the cold water stays at the
lowest part of the system.

Active indirect systems

Pressurized antifreeze systems use a mix of antifreeze (almost always non-toxic
propylene glycol) and water mix for HTF in order to prevent freeze damage.
Though effective at preventing freeze damage, antifreeze systems have drawbacks:

• If the HTF gets too hot the glycol degrades into acid and then provides no freeze
protection and begins to dissolve the solar loop's components.
• Systems without drainback tanks must circulate the HTF – regardless of the
temperature of the storage tank – to prevent the HTF from degrading. Excessive
temperatures in the tank cause increased scale and sediment build-up, possible
severe burns if a tempering valve is not installed, and if used for storage, possible
thermostat failure.
• The glycol/water HTF must be replaced every 3–8 years, depending on the
temperatures it has experienced.
• Some jurisdictions require more-expensive, double-walled heat exchangers even
though propylene glycol is non-toxic.
• Even though the HTF contains glycol to prevent freezing, it circulates hot water from
the storage tank into the collectors at low temperatures (e.g. below 40 °F (4 °C)),
causing substantial heat loss.
A drainback system is an active indirect system where the HTF (usually pure water)
circulates through the collector, driven by a pump. The collector piping is not pressurized
and includes an open drainback reservoir that is contained in conditioned or semi-
conditioned space. The HTF remains in the drainback reseervoir unless the pump is
operating and returns there (emptying the collector) when the pump is switched off. The
collector system, including piping, must drain via gravity into the drainback tank.
Drainback systems are not subject to freezing or overheating. The pump operates only
when appropriate for heat collection, but not to protect the HTF, increasing efficiency and
reducing pumping costs.

IMPACT OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES ON ENVIRONMENT

The environmental impact of the burning of fossil fuels has been profound and nothing short of
disastrous, and could merit a separate report itself. However a brief look into this subject is
essential at this point. The conventional fuels such as coal and to a larger extent, oil are greatly
responsible for the grim state of the Earth’s protecting envelope-the atmosphere. We are now
paying the price for uncontrolled industrialization and material progress of the past century. The
term global warming has become synonymous with the deterioration of the Earth’s
environment. Temperatures world-wide have risen significantly due to the `greenhouse effect`.
The pollutants released into the atmosphere by the emissions of vehicles, industrial wastes, etc.,
which get concentrated in the upper atmosphere, trap the heat within the envelope due to which
temperatures increase with potentially disastrous consequences. The health levels of the
population have also suffered due to degradation of the living environment. The only
conventional form of power that is renewable and also environment friendly is hydro-
electric power but huge river valley projects are running into problems due to the vast tracts of
land that are required for these projects and the imbalance they create in the ecology of the
region. In addition the question of resettlement of the displaced population is never answered
to the satisfaction of everyone concerned. The time has now come for us to consider alternatives
to existing sources of power supply that are renewable and also environment friendly thus
leading us into a secure and self-reliant future.

Buildings have been responsible for a large part of environmental degradation contributing
significantly to effects such as Ozone depletion, global warming and acid rain. An understanding
on how buildings influence the environment is essential in order to create designs are more
environment friendly at the same time looking for solutions that are energy conscious.

Ozone depletion:
The earth is protected by a layer of ozone gas at high level in the atmosphere, or stratosphere,
which filters almost all of the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and stops it from
reaching the earth’s surface. Use of synthetic compound chlorofluorocarbon (C F C) is the
principal chemical leading to ozone depletion. When C F C’s are discharged to the atmosphere,
they react with sunlight to produce chlorine. Chlorine destroys ozone by means of a chemical
reaction, which turns ozone into oxygen. C F C’s are stable compounds and therefore once
released into the atmosphere, they remain there for a long time. By this process the ozone layer
is becoming less efficient in screening ultraviolet light. The effect of increased levels of ultraviolet
light at the earth’s surface could include a higher incidence of skin cancers, cataracts and possibly
an adverse impact on human immunity. Furthermore, ozone depletion may reduce crop yields.

C F C’s are used in a number of building components including some forms of insulation, air-
conditioning, refrigeration and fire fighting systems as well as some packaging foams, aerosol
sprays and soft furnishings. Avoiding the use of C F C’s buildings would therefore go a long way
in combating the issue of ozone depletion. Unfortunately, substitute chemicals have not been
developed in all cases. Therefore efforts should be made to meet the insulation, air-conditioning
and so no by other means which include natural cooling, passive design features, etc., at the same
time efforts should be made to prevent the leakage of these gases into the atmosphere by use
of leak detectors and efficient maintenance. However, efforts in this field have already produced
encouraging results such as the development of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (H C F C), but the
ultimate substitutes are likely to be hydrofluorocarbons which are significantly less damaging to
the ozone layer than C F C’s. But it should be kept in mind that both H C F C’s and H F C’s are still
greenhouse gases albeit to a lesser extent compared to C F C’s. at the same time it is possible
that some of these chemicals may be less efficient and more toxic than the C F C’s that they
replace. Therefore, development of design solutions to problems of maintenance of comfort
levels, lighting, etc. are necessary to really reduce the consumption of these compounds in the
quest for cleaner and greener buildings.

Global warming:

The Earth’s atmosphere contains a number of protective greenhouse gases in the lower
atmosphere or troposphere. These include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and C F C’s.
These gases allow light to reach the Earth’s surface but absorb some infrared radiation. This
phenomenon is referred to as the greenhouse effect because, like in a greenhouse, sunlight
passes in and it becomes warmer inside than out. Similarly the greenhouse gases produce a
higher temperature at the Earth’s surface which is essential to support animal and plant life;
without greenhouse gases the Earth would be cold enough to freeze the oceans.

The blanket of greenhouse gases is now becoming thicker due to man’s industrial activities. A
number of factors such as emission of carbon dioxide when fossil fuels are burnt, release of C F
C’s into the atmosphere and methane produced by, amongst other things, intensive agriculture,
contribute to the troposphere becoming denser with the accumulation of greenhouse gases. A
thicker layer absorbs larger amounts of infrared radiation thus increasing the temperature on the
Earth’s surface. This is known as the global warming effect. Although there is now a general
consensus that global warming is taking place, the amount of global warming that is going to take
place and the time-scale of the process are still a matter of debate. There is also speculation as
to the effect of sustained global warming on the environment which include partial melting of
the polar ice caps and thermal expansion of the oceans with the loss of low-lying land to the
associated flooding. Also, a change in the climate would lead to shift in deserts and fertile areas.
It is also anticipated that changes in climate will not be limited to rise in global temperatures but
would also lead to unsettled weather with a greater range of temperatures and rainfall rates.

Of the main greenhouse gases being emitted, carbon dioxide and C F C’s are most directly related
to the use in buildings. Most electricity generation relies upon the burning of fossil fuels, which
is the main cause for the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Therefore, reduced and
more efficient use of electricity in our buildings will surely help in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. In the long-term it will be essential to invest in the development of alternate,
renewable energy systems which are more environment friendly. At the same time, Building
Regulations should be tightened to encourage energy conservation and the use of alternate
energy systems. C F C’s, in addition to depleting the ozone layer also contributes to the
greenhouse effect by as much as 25%, according to some estimates. Therefore the use of C F C’s
should be avoided and care must be taken to prevent the leakage of C F C’s by improving
operating and maintenance procedures.

Acid rain:
The acidity of rainfall is a result of a number of natural occurrences, such as growth of plants and
animals, and man-made sources, such as the burning of fossil fuels. The gases responsible for
acidification include sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons; sulphur dioxide being
the most significant contributor. Hydrocarbons and oxides of sulphur and nitrogen fall near their
source as dry deposits causing harm to building materials like stone and metal, as also trees,
crops and human health. High concentrations of these oxides lead to the production of sulphuric
and nitric acids due to the action of sunlight. These dissolve in the clouds and fall as acid rain,
many thousands of kilometres from the source. These wet deposits increase the acidity of soil
and water courses, thus releasing toxic metals from their compounds to poison plants and
animals.

Most sulphur dioxide emissions arise from the burning of fossil fuels in power stations, therefore
maximising energy efficiency of individual buildings and lesser dependence on power from fossil
fuels will help to reduce acid rain by reducing demand for power.

APPLICATION OF SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY

SOLAR THERMAL POWER GENERATION
SOLAR DISTILLATION
“Solar distillation” is a technology for producing potable water from brackish and
underground water of low-quality at low cost. It can reduce water-scarcity problems
together with other water purification technologies. Solar distillation is analogous to
natural hydrological cycle. It uses an apparatus called a solar still in which water is
evaporated using solar energy, a form of renewable energy, and collected as distillate
after condensation of the vapor. It effectively produces distilled water after removal of
impurities. The major advantage of this is the use of solar energy instead of electrical
energy generated from conventional fuels. This helps in producing potable water without
degrading our environment. Over time, researchers have studied several designs of solar
stills to evaluate its performance for different climatic, operational, and design
parameters.
 SOLAR SPACE HEATING

1. A solar space –heating system can consist of a passive system, an active

system, or a combination of both. Passive systems are typically less costly and
less complex than active systems. However, when retrofitting a building, active
systems might be the only option for obtaining solar energy
2. Passive Solar Space Heating • Passive Solar Space Heating takes advantage of
warmth from the sun through design features, such as large south-facing
windows, and materials in the floors or walls that absorb warmth during the day
and release that warmth at night when it is needed most.
3. Passive solar design systems usually have one of the three designs:•
4. Direct Gain stores and slowly releases heat energy collected from the sun
shining directly into the building and warming materials such as tile or concrete .
5. Indirect Gain uses materials that hold, store, and release heat; the material is
located between the sun and living space.
6. Isolated Gain collects solar energy remote from the location of the primary living
area.

DIRECT GAIN
 INDIRECT GAIN

ISOLATED GAIN

7. Active Solar Space Heating • Active solar space heating systems consist of
collectors that collect and absorb solar radiation combined with electric fans or
pumps to transfer and distribute that solar heat. • Active systems also generally
have an energy storage system to provide heat when the sun is not shining.
8. The two basic types of active solar space-heating systems use either liquid or air
as the heat-transfer medium in their solar energy collectors • Liquid-based
systems heat water and air-based systems heat air in the collector. • Both of
these systems collect and absorb solar radiation, then transfer the solar heat
directly to the interior space or to a storage system, from which the heat is
distributed.
9. An auxiliary or backup system provides heat when storage is discharged. • Liquid
systems are more often used when storage is included.
 Solar Space Cooling •

10. In the chiller , refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is absorbed by a solution
mixture in the absorber • This solution is then pumped to the generator • There
the refrigerant re-vaporizes using a waste steam heat source .The refrigerant –
depleted solution then returns to the absorber via a throttling device. • The two
most common refrigerant/absorbent mixture used in absorption chillers are water/
lithium bromide and ammonia / water
11. Systems use a low-temperature liquid refrigerant that absorbs heat from the
water to be cooled and converts to a vapor ( in the evaporator section ). • This
used for space cooling • The refrigerant vapor is then compressed to a higher
pressure by a compressor or generator and converted back into a liquid by
rejecting heat to the external surrounding in the condenser section.
12. Next, it is expanded to a low-pressure mixture of liquid and vapor (in the
expander valve), which boils in the evaporator section, absorbing heat and
producing the cooling effect. • Then the cycle is repeated. • Heat provided in the
system is by solar collector in the form of hot water.

SOLAR POND
SOLAR GREENHOUSE

Solar greenhouse an option for renewable and sustainable farming

Greenhouses provide a suitable environment for the intensive production of

various crops. They are designed to provide control as well as to maintain solar
radiation, temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide levels in the aerial
environment. CO2 enrichment decreases the oxygen inhibition of
photosynthesis and increases the net photosynthesis in plants. This is the basis
for increased growth rates caused by CO2 at low as well as at high light levels.
Elevated CO2 concentrations also increase the optimal temperature for growth.
The maximum crop response depends on the level of the balanced
environmental parameters. Off seasonal cultivation is quite possible in
greenhouse and it improves economic conditions of farmers. This paper
reviews the available worldwide thermal modeling for heating, cooling and
ventilation technologies and experimental studies of agricultural greenhouses.

SOLAR VOLTAIC SYSTEMS AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Basic principle of PV cell

• Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called

photovoltaic effect.

• When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, then some of the photons of
light ray are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a significant
number of free electrons in the crystal.

• This is the basic reason for producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect.

• Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic effect is
utilized to produce electricity from light energy.

• Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing the
photovoltaic cell.

• The silicon atom has four valence electrons. In a solid crystal, each silicon atom
shares each of its four valence electrons with another nearest silicon atom hence
creating covalent bonds between them.

• In this way, silicon crystal gets a tetrahedral lattice structure. While light ray strikes
on any materials some portion of the light is reflected, some portion is transmitted
through the materials and rest is absorbed by the materials.

The same thing happens when light falls on a silicon crystal.

If the intensity of incident light is high enough, sufficient numbers of photons are absorbed
by the crystal and these photons, in turn, excite some of the electrons of covalent bonds.

These excited electrons then get sufficient energy to migrate from valence band to
conduction band.

As the energy level of these electrons is in the conduction band, they leave from the
covalent bond leaving a hole in the bond behind each removed electron.

These are called free electrons move randomly inside the crystal structure of the silicon.
These free electrons and holes have a vital role in creating electricity in photovoltaic
cell.

These electrons and holes are hence called light-generated electrons and holes
respectively.
These light generated electrons and holes cannot produce electricity in the silicon crystal
alone. There should be some additional mechanism to do that.

ARRANGEMENT OF PV CELL:
CLASSIFICATION OF PV CELL:

MAGNETO HYDRODYNAMIC POWER GENERATION

INTRODUCTION

MHD power generation is a direct energy conversion, which converts the heat energy
directly into Electrical energy without any intermediate Mechanical Energy conversion.

Magneto Hydro Dynamic or Hydrodynamics is the academic discipline which studies the
dynamics of electrically conducting fluids (Ex)Plasma, Liquid metals and Salt water.

The word MHD derived from Magneto-Magnetic Field, hydro-Liquid and Dynamics-
Movement

The field of MHD was proposed by Hannes Alfven for which he received the noble prize
in Physics in 1970.
THERMO ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
THERMIONIC POWER GENERATION
FUEL CELL
FUEL CELL
Hydrogen- Oxygen fuel cell
Molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are high-temperature fuel cells that operate at
temperatures of 600 °C and above.
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural
gas, biogas (produced as a result of anaerobic digestion or biomass gasification),
and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications.
MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten
carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic matrix of beta-
alumina solid electrolyte (BASE). Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of
650 °C (roughly 1,200 °F) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at
the anode and cathode, reducing costs.
Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions
over phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs). Molten carbonate fuel cells can reach
efficiencies approaching 60%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiencies of a
phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuel
efficiencies can be as high as 85%.
Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MCFCs
don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due
to the high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen
within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.
Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to poisoning by carbon monoxide or carbon
dioxide — they can even use carbon oxides as fuel — making them more attractive for
fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than
other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal
reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and
particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others,
into hydrogen. Alternatively, because MCFCs require CO2 be delivered to the cathode
along with the oxidizer, they can be used to electrochemically separate carbon dioxide
from the flue gas of other fossil fuel power plants for sequestration.
The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high
temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate
component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently
exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that
increase cell life without decreasing performance.

Materials
Due to the high operating temperatures of MCFC’s, the materials need to be very carefully
selected to survive the conditions present within the cell. The following sections cover the
various materials present in the fuel cell and recent developments in research.
Anode
The anode material typically consists of a porous (3-6 μm, 45-70% material porosity) Ni
based alloy. Ni is alloyed with either Chromium or Aluminum in the 2-10% range. These
alloying elements allow for formation of LiCrO 2/LiAlO2 at the grain boundaries, which
increases the materials' creep resistance and prevents sintering of the anode at the high
operating temperatures of the fuel cell.[6] Recent research has looked at using nano Ni
and other Ni alloys to increase the performance and decrease the operating temperature
of the fuel cell.[7] A reduction in operating temperature would extend the lifetime of the fuel
cell (i.e. decrease corrosion rate) and allow for use of cheaper component materials. At
the same time, a decrease in temperature would decrease ionic conductivity of the
electrolyte and thus, the anode materials need to compensate for this performance
decline (e.g. by increasing power density). Other researchers have looked into enhancing
creep resistance by using a Ni3Al alloy anode to reduce mass transport of Ni in the anode
when in operation.
Cathode
On the other side of the cell, the cathode material is composed of a porous Ni that is
converted to a lithiated nickel oxide (lithium is intercalated within the NiO crystal
structure). The pore size within the cathode is in the range of 7-15 μm with 60-70% of the
material being porous.[9] The primary issue with the cathode material is dissolution of NiO
since it reacts with CO2 when the cathode is in contact with the carbonate electrolyte.
This dissolution leads to precipitation of Ni metal in the electrolyte and since it is
electrically conductive, the fuel cell can get short circuited. Therefore, current studies
have looked into the addition of MgO to the NiO cathode to limit this
dissolution. Magnesium oxide serves to reduce the solubility of Ni 2+ in the cathode and
decreases precipitation in the electrolyte. Alternatively, replacement of the conventional
cathode material with a LiFeO2-LiCoO2-NiO alloy has shown promising performance
results and almost completely avoids the problem of Ni dissolution of the cathode.
Electrolyte
MCFC’s use a liquid electrolyte (molten carbonate) which consists of a sodium(Na) and
potassium(K) carbonate. This electrolyte is supported by a ceramic (LiAlO 2) matrix to
contain the liquid between the electrodes. The high temperatures of the fuel cell is
required to produce sufficient ionic conductivity of oxygen through this
electrolyte. Common MCFC electrolytes contain 62% Li 2CO3 and 38% K2CO3. A greater
fraction of Li carbonate is used due to its higher ionic conductivity but is limited to 62%
due to its lower gas solubility and ionic diffusivity of oxygen. In addition, Li2CO3 is a very
corrosive electrolyte and this ratio of carbonates provides the lowest corrosion rate. Due
to these issues, recent studies have delved into replacing the potassium carbonate with
a sodium carbonate. A Li/Na electrolyte has shown to have better performance (higher
conductivity) and improves the stability of the cathode when compared to a Li/K
electrolyte (Li/K is more basic). In addition, scientists have also looked into modifying the
matrix of the electrolyte to prevent issues such as phase changes (γ-LiAlO2 to α-LiAlO2)
in the material during cell operation. The phase change accompanies a volume decrease
in the electrolyte which leads to lower ionic conductivity. Through various studies, it has
been found that an alumina doped α-LiAlO2 matrix would improve the phase stability while
maintaining the fuel cell's performance.