Cuaprer 5 Vibration Methods 6.1, INTRODUCTION Inertia forees become significantin comparison tostatic forces whenthe applied loads fon the soil mass changes rapidly causing oxcossive deformation of the soil. This charac- teristio behaviour could be used in any ground imaprevement technique ky way of adopting some form of vibration which could bring in deformation and displacement resulting in densification. These techniques for compacting cohosionlese soils, arranged in the order of decreasing effectiveness are vibration, watering and rolling. In practice combinations of these techniques have been used in improving the properties of in-situ soils. Cohesionless soils get densified largely by fracture and reorientation of the grains. Static forcos are not effective in this process. But both vibration and shock are helpful in reducing the wedging and aiding densification in eohesionless soils. Vibration and shock avo less effective in cohesive coils as they are offset by the increased cohesive resistance due to dynamic loading, ‘This Chapter deals with ground improvement techniques which utilize the prineiples of vibration. 5.2, VIBRO-COMPACTION Vibro-compaction mathod is a rapid densification technique whieh could be used effectively in saturated eohesionless soils. In such loose deposits vibration or shock waves ‘cause localized spontaneous liquefaction followed by densification and settlement. The load due to shook is temporarily transferred to the liquid and the soil particles take a much denser pattern aided by the soil particles, Hven in dry soils due to shock and vibration, the particles move from the original position and take a more compact pattern. Once the particles aro free or loosened duo to the shock, even a small pressure is enough to put them to @ more compact mass. The new density or the compactness attained is permanent and not reversible. ‘The affectiveness of these methods decrease with increase in the pereentage of finés in the soil, beeause the pormenbility is too low to provent rapid drainage following liquefaction, More than 20% of silt or 5% of clay may veduee the effectiveness of the method (Mite2ell, 1976). Further their application in partially saturated coils is restrieted because compressive stresses from the presence of air-water menisci act to provent the soil particle ‘movements necessary for densification. ‘The.three methods which are in use are : blasting, compactors. ratory probe and vibratory 124 ‘VineaTiOn METHODS ns 6.2.1. BLASTING. In this technique a certain amount of explosive charge is buried at a cortain depth of a cohesioniass soil required to be compacted and is then detonated, As explained above the shock waves producéd by the blasting cause densification, A pipe of 7.6 to 10cm ie driven to the required depth in the soil atrata. The sticks of dynamite and an electric detonator are wrapped in the water proof bundles and Jowored through the easing Fig. 6.1. The casing is withdrawn and. a wad of paper or wood is placed ‘against the charge of explosives to protect it from misfire, Tho hole is backfilled with sand jin ordorto obtain the fall foren af the blast. The electrical circuit is closed to fire the charge. Asories of holes are thus made rondy. Bach hole is dbtonated in succession and the resulting large diametor holes formed ky lateral dioplacement are backfilled. Tho surfacasettloments, are measured by taking levole or from sokow plates embedded at certain depth below the ground surfeco. HE oan WIRE DYNAMITE “4 ‘STICKS =F Fig. ct Installation of explosivos (Aftor Mitohpllj1®70) “Usually the explosives are arranged in the form of a horizontal grid. The spacing of tho charges fs decided by the depth of strata to be. densified, the size of charge and the overlapping of the charges. A spacing of 8 to 8 m is typical and a-spacing less than 2m should be avoided ‘Compaction is earried oitin « single tier only ifthe depth of stratum to be densified is 10 mor less. In auch a case the déipth of explosive charge should be below half the depth of the mass or atvatum to be densified (approximately at 2/3 point). More than one tier126 (GROUND IMFROVEMENT TECHNIQUES should be planned if the depth of stratum to be densified is more than 10 m. Generally the depthof charge should be greater than tho radius of sphere of influence (R), Successive blasts’ of small charges. at appropriate spacings ate likely to be more offective than a single large blast (Hall, 1962 ; Mitchell, 1976). Theoretically, one charge densifies the surrounding adjacont soil and tho écil beneath the blast. Charges thould be timed to explode such that the bottom of the layer being densified upwards in a uniform ‘manner (Koerner, 1985). Tho upper most portionofthe stratum may be less densified which may bs compacted by vibratory rollers. The amount of charge to be used should be optimal such that it is just enongh ta shattar the sail mass \miformly but not ta create pormanent surface craters. A carefully placed charge with required amount and depth shall not create surface heave more tlian-0.18,m, (Mitchell, 1976). As a rough guidance, the. weight of charge required is. computed from the following relationship. We 164CR? where We Weight of explosive (1) C= Coofficient (0.0026 for 60% detonator) R = Radius of influerice (m). Charge masses of less than 2.kgto more than 30 kg have been used (Mitchell, 1976) A typical firing pattern (Mitcholl, 1976) is shown in Fig. 5.2 6 1 2 2 g ° ° 10 " eb 8 oe oo NOTE FIRST BLAST 5 4 © SECOND BLAST Hm ¥ THIRD BLAST + SETTLEMENT OF STAKES b. FIRING PATTERN Fig. 5.2. Typical charge spacing end fring (After Mitchell, 1970). 8. GRID SPACING Blasting technique involves loss timo, Iebour and expense, This technique needs no spécial-equipment and could be successfully used for derisifying soil’ at a great depth. Furth this could be affectively usod to compact a large volume to a substantial depth up to 20 m aud in small areas where the use of other methods would be impractical, Relative densities of the order of 70 to 807 ean be achieved. In remote areas where vibrations are favourable, the technique may, prove most cost offective, Invariably the. blasting work should be executed only by an experienced contractor under special supervision, VIDRATION METHODS 7 Although blasting is one‘of the most economical ground improvement technigites, it suffers the disadvantages of non-uniformity, potential adverse effects on aidjacent struc- tures and the danger associated with the use of oxplosives in populated areas. Very fine grained soils which:have high cohesive forces cannot be compacted by this method, ‘Maximura compaction is obtained only when the soil is dry or conipletely saturated. Incase ‘of dry loose sand, good results axe-obtained duo to free fall of small-size particles into tho voids between the soil grains thus making a dense soll. In ease of saturated soils shack waves cause liquefaction leading to expulsion of water resulting in a better arrangement of particles. But in partially saturated soils due to‘eapillary tension between the soil gains, less deusit achieved, Pie-flooding of the site isdosivable, ifblastingisto be resorted, to for densification of partially saturated sands or loess, ‘Theoretically there is no limit for the depth of densification by this technique. However, if the depth is.more than 10 m, compaction should be done in more than one tior for which a careful planning ig needed to wwe the result. ‘Thus it is emphasized that adequate data with regard to type of soil, degree of satuiation, depth of deposit to be densified and degres of densification required should be collected. A preliminary test may be necessary to ascertain the spacing, depth, amount of charge and Sequenéo of operation. Th order to evaluate the economical feasibility of this technique, the above details are needed, . VIBRATORY PROBE, Vibratory probe, also called’as Terra Probe, consists of a vibrodriver (similar to vibratory pile driving) coupled to an opon-onded steal tubular probe of 760 ram diameter and 16 m length. Vibrodriver activises thé’ probe to vibrate in the vertical direction and imparts a vertical impulse normally at 15 Hz with 10 to 25 mm amplitude. Thie vibration ‘enables the vertical pipe to ponotrate the loose material, The probe is sunk to the desived depth and held for 30 to 60 cesonds.befere extraction. A spacing of 1 to 9 m is generally adopted. A square pattern js followed with a fifth probe at the centre of each aquare to achieve an ineveaso of densifieation, instend of adopting « reduced spacing. In exch insertion the probe densifios a cylinder of soil of 1 m diameter and about Lm deeper than the probe location. Effective treatment has been accomplished between. depths of 4 m below the ground surface and up to a depth of 20 m. The operation is very efficient. when the groundwater is 2 to 3 m of the surface, Sometimes a water jot may be used to help easy penetration of the probe for sites where the water table is deep but the operation of jt has to be stopped during withdraw Pondingof the site may alo be adopted to utilise this technique in a better way. Saturated soit conditions are necessary and ‘underlying soft clay layers may damp vibrations thereby hamporing the densification process, 5 Inorderto ovaltiate the effectiveness of this teclinique and todecide a proper spacing, testsoctionsoftheorder of 10to 20m may be utilised. As this technique needs no backfilling, the cost of densification by this mothod is modevata. hus this technique is proferred for donsifying offshore locations. Compared to vibroflotation (discussed in the next section) this technique needs a more closely spaced penetration to improve a given area uniformly as only a lesser lateral soil zone is improved by this technique. The terra probe technique is