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Paper -1
Chapter - 2
Q1. Is Sociology a Science? Give reason for your answer
Q2. How objectivity is different from value-neutrality? Discuss.
Q3. Non-positivist methodology is essential for understanding human
behaviour. Discuss.
(All the questions shall be answered in not more than 200 words)
Q1. Is Sociology a Science? Give reason for your answer.
Structure –
- What is Science
- Why Sociology is a science
- Why it is not
- Conclude

What is Science
Science can be defined as –
“use of systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of
data, theoretical thinking and logical assessment of arguments to
develop a body of knowledge about a particular subject matter.”
To qualify as a science, for any discipline, certain criteria can be like,

Litmus test of Science

Inter-subjective Objective and Value- Universal testability

Quantifiability and Theoretical
reliability free
Orientation

Sociology as a science
Initial sociologists wanted to develop Sociology on bases of natural
science-
Quote These - Saint Simon (social physics), August Comte (statistics and
dynamics), Herbert Spencer (organismic analogy), Durkheim (moral
density, moral volume).
Weber says that Sociology is a general science of society. It is a science
which attempts at interpretative understanding of social action in order
to arrive at a causal explanation of its courses and effects.
Since beginning, Sociology has been developed and flourished under
the influence of positivism which considers it as a positive science of
society based on empiricism, experimentation.
Why Sociology is a Science
Comte writes that Sociology has key features of Science viz. Perspective,
methods of study, subject matter, etc.
1. Inter-subjective reliability:
It is the extent to which other researchers are able to reach the same
results if they were to replicate one’s study.
Sociology has concepts which have universal meanings irrespective of
who is the investigator. Example: Family, Religion.
2. Objective and Value-free:
This is also possible to a great degree.
According to Weber, objectivity is possible through methods like,
‘Verstehen’ and ‘Ideal types’. Durkheim suggested ‘indirect
experimentation to prove empirical validity of social theories.
3. Generalizations and theoretical orientation:
It is also possible to certain extent.
Example:
Durkheim theory of religion and Pparsons theory of social system claimed
to be universal theory, incest taboo, etc.
4. Quanitifiability:
Social phenomenon can be observed albeit directly/indirectly- Durkeim
social facts and Weber- Ideal types.
Sociology employs scientific methods like scales of sociometer,
schedules, questionnaire, interview, case history, comparison, etc.

Why Sociology is not a science

Sociology has certain limitations compared to natural sciences in terms
of empiricism, testability , universal theories and absolute objectivity.

MAX WEBER – difference in subject matter ( human beings have

consciousness).
So sociology science in itself.
Natural sciences go for statement of facts while social sciences go for
statements of value.

Wilhelm Windelband and Heinrich Rickert (neo kantians) introduced

concepts of nomothetic (based on facts/empiricism/ tendency to
generalize) and idiographic (based on tendency to specify/ subjective
interpretations/ suited to humanities).

So methodology, approach towards knowledge and theorizing is

different for social science.
Erving Goffman and GH Mead used different approach to understand
social phenomenon.
However, it suffers from certain limitations as follows:
- Difficult to be empirical
- Difficulty in being inductive and universal
- Human beings have consciousness (non-positivism)
- Difficulty in achieving objectivity and value-neutrality.

Conclude
But if seen as method of enquiry, sociology fulfils all conditions.
Conception of science has changed – enlightenment ideologies
consider it as a body of knowledge (empirical (observed)/testable
(verified)/uniform laws) based on natural science.

Karl Popper argues that only positivism is not science because it

overlooks aberration and kills the critical spirit of science.
Gradually science came to be understood as method of enquiry or
approach based on evidence and reason.

Karl Popper says that science is not a body of knowledge but a method
of approaching and studying phenomenon.
Natural science – astronomy is considered a science but
experimentation not possible.
In Sociology, scientific method is not bound by the empirical nature of
study, but is more concerned with methodology. Hence, it can’t
become like a natural science but it is like social science. As Stuart Chaze
said, “Science is science whether it is sociology or biology”.
Thus, Sociology as a Science can, be seen through the following lens-
1) Methodology (positivism/non positivism)
2) Spirit (critical)
3) Purpose (to know the truth)
4) Consequences (curiosity and solving the problem)
Q2. How objectivity is different from value-neutrality? Discuss.
Structure –
- Define Objectivity
- Define Value Neutrality
- Correlate
- Differentiate
- Conclude

Defining Objectivity – It means freedom from personal biases.

Objectivity allows Sociologist to have positions or opinions if it is based on
scientific methods, evidence based reasoning, logic, etc.
The focus is on means, that is, the methods.

Defining Value – It highlights desirability.

Values or Personal bias come from Race, caste, language, religion,

culture etc.
Source of value is, thus, through Socialisation.
These values influence human thoughts and actions.

Defining Value Neutrality –

It means indifference to the matter in hand.
No opinions or values about the matter.
Which might be unrealistic or unnecessary if we are objective.
That is, whatever be the conclusion, nothing is prescribed as such.
Value-neutrality refers to the normative injunction that men of science
should be governed by the ethos of science in their role as scientists, but
emphatically not in their role as citizens.

Correlate
Weber - Max Weber in his book ‘Methods of Social Sciences’ talked at
length about objectivity and value neutrality.
He also proposed ways to ensure objectivity and value-neutrality.
Even during research, there are various points when the problem of loss
of objectivity or loss of value neutrality can creep in.

1) Choice of topic not considered a problem of subjectivity.

Max Weber - Distinguish between value freedom and value reference.
Value reference can be made while doing investigation. Value
reference has to be ensured.
Merton – The very choice of topic is influenced by personal preferences
and ideological biases of researcher.
Also, topic of suicide has received disproportionate amount of
attention in Sociology after Durkheim’s study.

2) Formulation of problem depends on prevailing choice of

investigators debates and this issue is considered objective

3) Accumulation of data faces the problem of objectivity.

Andre Beteille – Brahmins did not let him visit the Unthouchables’
locality, hence subjectivity can also creep in because of field
limitations.

Interview method influenced by subjectivity of interviewer and

interviewee.
William Whyte - study of Italian criminals concluded. “I started as a Non-
participant observer but ended as participant non-observer”

4) Interpretation of facts also coloured by viewpoints of investigator.

Robert Redfield (functionalist) and Oscar Lewis (Marxist) studied the
same village in Mexico around the same time but their interpretations
differed vastly.

5) Theories also suffer from biases.

Durkheim gave functional theory of religion whereas Marx gave
conflict theory of religion

6) Testing is subjected to researcher’s bias. As the tendency would be

to produce the same results. Durkheim’s Study of Suicide is accused of
this.

Conclude

Jurgen Habermas – Since humans study humans, thus, complete

separation of facts and values not possible.

Objectivity has been found to be neither possible nor desirable.

It is an elusive goal.
Alvin Gouldner – Fact and Value cannot be separated in empirical
research.
Gunnar Myrdal- Total objectivity is an illusion.

It amounts to falsifying history and loss of basic purpose of the discipline

which is of reformist agenda.

Social problems cannot be and should not be studied objectively.

They become meaningful only within a specific cultural context.

Suggesting solutions with reference to the society is essential.

Gunnar Myrdal – “Chaos cannot organise itself into Cosmos we need

viewpoints”
Book - The Asian drama.
Q3. Non-positivist methodology is essential for understanding human
behaviour. Discuss.
Structure –
- What is non-positivist methodology
- Importance of non-positivism
- Criticism – talk about Importance of positivism or lacunae of non-
positivism
- Conclude

When it was realized by scholars that sociological issues can’t be

addressed using fixed law only, they turned to non-positivism. This led to
development of non-positivism.
Weber was one of the pioneers of this approach. Other early doyers
were like Mead, Spencet, Blumet, Schutz. Weber said foundation of
interpretavist methodology and Mead pioneered symbolic
interactionism.
What is non-positivist methodology
According to this approach, the task of Sociology is to interpret the
meanings attached by individuals to their actions in order thereby an
explanation of its course and effect.
The basis of this approach is that individual is having a voluntary will and
his thoughts can’t be understood simply in terms of external influence.
Human beings have consciousness which can’t be predicted.
Importance of non-positivism
Hitherto existing, Positivist assumptions were questioned by ‘idealists’
traditions.
Kant – Ideas are important, as they change the society
It drew from hermeneutics i.e. study of interpretation.

Society is highly subjective so emphasis is on understanding (or

interpretation) as explanation not possible.

Martin Heidegger talks about how interpretation of text and context will
give ‘what is’ and ‘what ought to be’.

Wilhelm Dilthey says that reality should be understood in three different

ways
 - Experience
- Expression (opinion of others)
- Comprehension (interpreting information)

Heinrich Rickert and W Windelband differentiated b/w nomothetic and

idiographic.

George Simmel says that reality is objective but knowledge about

reality is subjective.
Cause-consequence relationship is not constant in behavioural
science.
It depends on mood, intentions, situation.

Max Weber (interpretative)

Symbolic interactionism (GH Mead)

Phenomenology (Alfred Schutz – Peter Berger – puppet)

Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel) (Louis Dumont in India)

General elements-
- Internal sides
- Scientific methods as natural science cannot be used in social
science
- No general theory
- Futility of objective approach

Critique:
- Vague methods (verstehen),
- Dependence on the ability of investigator
- Time consuming and costly
- Contradictory explanations (various Ideal types for same
phenomenon)
- Reliability and validity cannot be achieved

Conclusion:
Ray Pawson: Discussing which is better between positivism & non-
positivism is 60s hangover.
Alan Bryman: Choice of methodology depends on type of research
(purposive research).
Post modernist ( no knowledge is untrue, voices of diverse groups be
encouraged, meta narratives)