UNIT 8 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

MANAGEMENT
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Study Guide
Concept of Environmental Quality
Quality Parameters, Standards, and Measurement
Air
Water
Soil1 Land
Noise
Radiation
Environmental Quality Management
Environmental Management Planning
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Auditing
Life Cycle Assessment and Management
Quality Assurance and Control
IS0 14000 Standards
Environmental Labelling
Environmental Legislation
Activities
Let Us Sum Up
Further Reading and Web-Surfing

8.1 INTRODUCTION
A 'quality environment' is essential for healthy and happy living. As you know
the environment has several components that are interlinked in a complex
manner. Each component has a large number of parameters. The c h a g e in any
one of them has a bearing on the quality of environment. The quality of the
total environment can only be understood and appreciated
- - if we understand the
importance of each of the components. Therefore, each component is as
important as the total environment.
This unit draws your attention towards the necessity of taking a holistic and
objective view about the various issues pertaining to the maintenance and
enhancement of environmental quality, and exploring newer individual as well
as collective ways for addressing the various environmental problems. We
hope, after the study of this unit, you would be well informed and motivated to
contribute in building a quality environment.
Objectives
After going through this unit you should be able to:
discuss the different parameters of environmental components that
determine environmental quality;
outline the standards, and quality measurement criteria of the different
environmental components;
explain the importance of planning, impact assessment, auditing, and life
cycle assessment in environmental quality management;
discuss the various mechanisms of quality assurance and control; and
discuss various legislation enacted at national and international levels to
control environmental degradation.
 Study Guide Environmental Quality
Management
The text of this unit is interspersed with tables, figures, margin remarks,
and box-items. The first three are largely theoretical, and the last one, that
is the box-items are about some real life examples, including different
perceptions of people. These have been taken from the newspapers,
magazines, and books, which are our main source of current information,
as well as knowledge. The reason of including them in the unit is to
familiarize you with some of the contexts and ways in which the
environmental quality is talked about. The other purpose is to make you to
interpret and judge a situation, analyze the causes, and think about the
correctives/remedial measures.
As you begin any section, first read the box items, if any, making a mental
note of the highlighted words, and the key message. And then take up the
related text. This would help you to study an actual, and may be a familiar
situation. This way you would find your reading not only meaningful but
also interesting.

I
8.2 CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Environmental quality refers to the quality of the total environment. The
concept of environmental quality encompasses the following four broad areas:
shelter, which depends upon the quality and adequacy of residential,
commercial, and industrial buildings;
o public health and safety, which concern the prevention of diseases,
accidents, and pollution of air, water, soil etc.;
efficiency factor of the environment, which facilitates various human
activities and movement; and
0 creation of an environment, which maximizes peoples' comfort and
enjoyment of living. This area has more of intangible amenity variables
such as privacy or visual and aesthetic beauty.

You would agree that the objective, physical, and socio-economic environment
is f i l t e ~ dby peoples' perceptions, feelings and attitudes. Thus, environment
quality means different things to different people. It reflects their roles as
residents, entrepreneurs, academicians, architects, and so on. In addition, the
perception of environment quality also varies according to the social class and
life style of people. Even in a given social group individuals may view the
same objective environment differently because of their physical state and
attributes such as gender, age, or physical-disability. For example, for a
physically-challenged and elderly person with mobility problems, if public
transport is infrequent and distances to bus stop are excessive, they would find
the environment quality wanting.

It is important to note that environmental quality varies spatially between

different settlements and within themselves at the neighbourhood scale.
Differences in quality between settlements often reflect size and regional
location, and the legacy of previous phases of development. 'The environment
quality rises as settlement size diminishes' -is a common observation. This
could be a reason for the urban-rural shifting of industry and population.
Environmental Environmental qualih, is not static. The quality of residential environments
Management gets enhanced as landscaping matures and building materials weather. But this
state invariably is of a short duration and may deteriorate over a period of time,
if these are not regularly maintained.

Natural/anthropogenic activities in some distant area affect environmental

quality of a place. The following news clips (Box 8.1) that are two recent
happenings will make this point quite clear to you.

Box 8.1: News clips indicating the changes in air quality due to
naturaYanthropogenic activities
- - - - - - - - - - -

Air quality hits record low; source: The Hindu, August 30,2r)02
JAKARTA: Air quality in Indonesia's Borneo island hit record lows on Thursday
as bush fires continued to belch out thick smoke, weather officials said. Forest and
bush fires - set by farmers, plantation owricrs and loggers to clear the land - have
burned on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra since the beginning of August. In
central Borneo's Palangkaraya town, many people were staying indoors or wearing
surgical face-masks to minimize effects of the smoke, said the meteorology
department. It said visibility in the town early on Thursday was down to about 30
meters (about 100 feet) - the worst it has been since the fires began. Palangkaraya
airport has been closed for more than a week. Thousands of people, many of them
children, have been treated for respiratory problems. AP
Smoke chokes Moscow; source: The Hindu, September 7,2002
MOSCOW: Heavy smoke from forest and peat fires has blanketed Moscow and
most of western Russia as the country suffered a catastrophic drought this summer.
Kremlin towers were invisible from a few hundred metres, airports rerouted flights,
and cars crawled with headlights on. Pedestrians pressed wet handkerchiefs to their
mouths and complained of sore throat and watery eyes, as the carbon monoxide
level soared to three times the maximum admissible concentration. Health
authorities issued an advisory warning to the elderly, children, pregnant women
and asthma patients to stay indoors or leave Moscow. The situation in the capital
slightly improved a day after, but meteorologists warn of new waves of smog at the
weekend, as some 200 fires continue to rage across an area of almost 500 hectares
around Moscow. The European part of Russia has seen the lowest rainfall in a
century this year, which made forests dry enough to catch fire from accidental
sparks.

The exact form environment quality takes in a given place and at a particular
time will depend upon how far societal forces have induced the environmental
change. Taking the example of human settlements as a whole, variation in
quality is often a reflection of age, and of the subsequent fortunes of the
regional economy. Settlements in stagnating or declining regions tend to be of
lower environmental qunlity. At the neighbourhood level, environmental
quality tends to decline when location advantages have been lost or densities
increased, and improves when there has been urban renewal, restoration,
rehabilitation, or conservation. The examples are many. To cite the ones
making the headlines recently are: the restoration of Chilka lake in Orissa, and
the replenishment of water table in cities like Delhi and Hyderabad by various
water harvesting methods.

So far we have talked about various social aspects of environmental quality.

All of these have scientific underpinning. Meaning thereby that the
 environmental quality of a place, at a point of time can be expressed as facts Environmental Quality
and figures that are measurable. For this we need to know the parameters, Management
standards, and ways of measurement of the various components of the
environment, and you would study about this in the following section.

The quality of the total environment as discussed above is the outcome of the
quality of its various components such as air, water, land and so on. The
quality of each of these components can be characterized by a set of
parameters and standards that we shall discuss in this section.

#' The term air is used

interchangeably with
The atmosphere#2is a common resource shared by all the living organisms and the term atmosphere.
is intimately involved in all their life processes. However in the recent years #2
The atmospherearound
the outcomes of cumulative changes largely due to anthropogenic activities are the earth comprises:
increasingly becoming evident. the Troposphere that
extends upto 16 Km and
One commonly sees the quality of ambient air - both outdoors and indoors contains 80% of
being described as clear-, fresh-, light-, sweet smelling-, dirty-, bad-, atmospheric mass and
unhealthy-, hazardous -,infectious-, hot-, and so on. All these are directly water vapour;
the Stratosphere that
related to certain changes in the properties of air, such as its composition,
extends from 16-50 Km
temperature, or presence of suspended particles in abnormally high amounts. and has the greatest
Before you study further you may like to read this article from a newspaper concentration of Ozone;
L reproduced below (Box 8.2). the Ionosphere that
extends upto 50-500 Km
Box 8.2: A perception, analysis and comparison of air quality of two and protects the
places. Also note the measures adopted for educating the citizens. biosphere from cosmic
radiations; and
the Exosphere that is
Give us clean air; source: Desikan R.S., Business Line, September 2,2002 located above the
As I have been travelling around in the US, the one thing that struck me was the Ionosphere.
quality of the air one breathes. It was, must I say, clean even in Los Angeles (LA), The relative proportion of
which is considered polluted by US standards. Of course, it goes without saying various gases (by volume) in
that LA would win hands down, if it were to compete with Chennai, Bangalore, the Troposphere are:
Ahemdabad, Hyderabad and other metros. The Supreme Court has instructed local Nitrogen - 78.09%;
authorities to clean up Delhi's atmosphere. Oxygen - 20.95%;
Argon - 0.93%;
It is time the High Courts also took similar steps to ensure reduction in pollution Carbon dioxide - 0.03%;and
levels of various state capitals to begin with. The South Coast Air Management Neon, Helium, Krypton,
District (South Coast AQMD) in California consists of three counties including Ozone, and others - Traces.
LA. Their campaign is to educate the citizens. In one of the leaflets titled 'Dirty',
they give some interesting guidelines to understand the problem and how it is
affecting the health of the citizens.

How does clean air become dirty? Dirty engines, smog, vapours from petrol
pumps, solvents in paints and allied products, power generating stations, emission
from vehicles and industries and the like. The US Environmental Protection
Agency has found that ground-level ozone and particulate matter affect people's
health even at lower levels than previously thought. Scientific evidence shows that
lung damage caused by prolonged exposure to lower levels of ozone air pollution
poses the greatest health risk. Of all the people, children are the most affected.
(Contd.. .)
Environmental Many of us use words, terms and phrases often, without really understanding the
Management meaning. Let me define some of the words often used in the context of air-
pollution.

Dirty air - Smog is the general term used to describe a variety of air pollutants,
including ground-level ozone (this is smog's main ingredient), particulate matter,
carbon monoxide gas, nitrogen oxides. Smog is fonned when the above mentioned
gases from various sources listed earlier in this article are released into the
atmospheric air, and there these chemically react with each other to form smog,
which blocks sunlight. Ocean breezes sweep the smog inland towards mountains
where an inversion layer of warm air pushes it down, trapping the smog close to
the ground where we live and breathe.

Particulate Matter (PM) - This is the term used for a mixture of solid particles
and liquid droplets found in the air. It originates from a variety of sources,
including motor vehicles, power plants, construction activities, soil dust, soot, and
industrial processes. When inhaled, these fine particulate matters get into the
innermost cavities of the lungs. Over a period of time, they reduce the power of
breathing, which dixctly affects the blood flow to the heart and through it to the
rest of the body.

Carbon monoxide - This is a colourless, odourless gas which is the by-product

emitted primarily by motor vehicles. Burned wood also em& carbon monoxide. In
India, one of the major source of polluting gases are: motor vehicles, which are
throwing up un-burnt fuel as a result of adulteration, over-crowding at traffic
junctions, use of non-roadworthy buses and trucks, and over use of oil in two
wheelers and autorickshaws.

While in the US, the government and citizens' groups are undertaking many
measures to make the qarth a 'purer' place to live in, whereas in India, efforts are
confined to an occasional ruling form the Supreme Court. While the onus is on
vehicle manufacturers to ensure reduced emissions, they in turn blame the oil
companies for supplying adulterated and poor quality fuel.

As industries trade accusations on one hand, we as consumers must remember that

they are laughing all the way to the bank and the costs that we are coughing up
does not just end with the huge amounts spent on purchasing a vehicle and
running it, but on the variety of health hazards we are exposing ourselves and our
progeny to.

Air Outdoors
The parameters affecting ambient air quality are: i) air composition,
ii) temperature, iii) pathogen load, and iv) noise.

i) Air composition
The atmosphere is comprised of a mixture of gases occurring in definite
proportion. The atmosphere with this proportion is found to be life
supporting, as all the life forms have evolved and thrived in their ambient
atmosphere. Whenever there are any marked variations, particularly for
long durations, the life forms are variously affected -the effects being
dependent on a number of variables. We shall now discuss the major
atmospheric components, any changes in which have a telling effect on the
living beings. The components taken up here include:
 carbon dioxide; Environmental Quality
carbon monoxide; Management
oxides of sulfur;
particulates;
ozone;
nitrogen oxides; and
various pollutants.

Carbon dioxide (C02)- It is the main product formed of complete

combustion of fossil hels and other energy yielding sources. It
comprises a minute fraction of the atmosphere, but has a profound effect
on the atmospheric temperature and hence the climate. It has been
estimated that the production of carbon dioxide has increased to an
average of 9 billion tomeslyear resulting in an increase in C 0 2
concentration of 1.6 ppm per year'3. Recent projections indicate that if '3 Source: Jerath, N. 1998
the same trends persist, the C 0 2concentration will increase considerably
in the next 40 years. This could significantly change earth's
temperature, as C02 is the principal greenhouse gas that along with
methane, ozone, .and water vapours absorbs infrared radiations and
increases atmospheric heat. This is commonly known as the greenhouse
effect .

Carbon monoxide (CO) - It is a colourless, odourless, and poisonous gas,

is the product of incomplete combustion of carbon and its compounds and
is generated largely by automobiles. It is very dangerous to humans
because of its ability to combine with haemoglobin and block the carriage
of oxygen to other tissues. The effect of an exposure to 80 ppm of CO for 8
hours is equivalent to losing more than 1 Pint of blood and reducing the
oxygen carrying capacity by 15%. The concentration of CO increases
rapidly in high traffic density areas and industrial areas where the
concentration ranging from 100-1000 times the normal air is often seen.

Oxides of suIfur - Sulfur dioxide (SO$ is the common compound that is

released into the atmosphere as a result of many human activities.
About two thirds of it is contributed through fuel consumption. Some of
the SOz released gets converted into sulfur trioxide (SO3),which
combines with water to form sulfuric acid, resulting in 'Acid Rain'.
Rainfall with pH 4.5 or less has been reported in industrialized regions.
In an extreme episode, rainfall with pH 2.4 has been recorded from a
village in Scotland in 1974. A rainfall of low pH adversely affects the
pH and consequently the ecology of lakes and streams. At a pH value
less than 5, the total biomass of lakes and streams has been found to
reduce by 2 to 10 times, and the species loss occurs too.

Particulates - These refer to a variety of solid and liquid aerosol particles

that remain suspended in the air. These particles can be microscopic dust,
chemicals, liquids, soot, lead emission from automobile exhaust, fly ash,
metallic dust, pollen, and several kinds of microorganisms. These particles,
when abundantly present are injurious to human health. Aerosol #4
particulates range from 0.001pH to more than lOOp in diameter, and of 1p (micron) = 0.00 lmrn
these particles those less than 1p such as dust, smoke, bacteria, and viruses
remain suspended in the air. The relative sizes of some of the common
particulates found in the atmosphere are given in Fig. 8.1.
59

I
Environmental
Management
Fig.8.1: The relative size of common atmospheric particles; adapted from Sethi & Sethi,
#' DU known as the
Dobson unit, is used for
measuring the ozone layer.
It is measured with Dobson
spectrophotometer. One
Dobson unit is equivalent
to O . O l m m of compressed
gas at a pressure of 760
mm mercury at O'C. The
average thickness of ozone
layer is 300 DU, however,
it varies with the latitude
and the season.
.the atmosphere. Of these nitric oxide (NO)\S a primary product of
'
1991
Ozone -'In the atmospheric it is found in two layers - in the Troposphere
and the Stratosphere. Being a strong oxidant, ozone has a harmful effect
on human health and can reduce the crop yield and damage forests. It is
also a component of the photochemical smog - which is a hazy mixture of
gases frequently formed in urban areas at low temperature. Its role in
Stratosphere, where about 90% of the atmospheric ozone is present, is just
the opposite of that in the Troposphere. In Stratosphere it acts as a shield of
average 300'~DU that prevents the harmful ultraviolet radiations f b m
reaching the earth.
It has been reported that the ozone concentration has dropped from
320 DU in 1957-64 to about 200 DU in the late 1990s over a portion of
Antarctica. This thinning of ozone shield over Antarctica is also referred
to as the 'ozone hole'. From recent studies, it is found that the Antarctic
springtime ozone hole-is as big as was reported earlier, that is, about twice
the size of Europe. Even at the Arctic, the ozone depletion continues to be
severe. The estimated rate of ozone depletion is reported to be 1% per
10 years in other parts of the globe. However, in northern Europe, the
decrease is estimated to be 3.5% per 10 years during winter (CPCB, 1995).
Even in ~ndia,/variationshave been observed with regard to locations and
seasons. Kodaikanal' has ozone layer thickness between 240- 280 DU, in
New Delhi it is 230- 270 DU, and in Srinagar it iw290- 360 DU (CSE,
1992).
/
Nitrogen oxides - These are amongst the most toxic substances formed in
combustion of nitrogen, which cin hrth& CQinbinewith oxygen to
 produce highly poisonous nitrogen dioxide (NO2). It is dark brown in Environaental Quality
colour and causes atmospheric discoloration during smog days in Management
metropolitan areas. Power plants, chemical processing industries and
. vehicles emit NO2 into the atmosphere. The gas is deadly poisonous and
breathing air containing 20 ppm of NO2for a brief time could be fatal.

Various pollutants - Hydrocarbons, and leadh6are other pollutants, whose #6 Asvehicular pollution
presence in increased concentrations changes the atmospheric profile for control measures, unleaded
the worse. Hydrocarbons get mostly added to the atmosphere due to petrol for new vehicles has
been introduced initially in
incomplete combustion of fuel - both in automobiles and industries. Of four metro cities from April
these methane is a colourless greenhouse gas, which is a dangerous 1995; and leaded petrol has
asphyxiant. In addition, polychlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons are highly been totally phased out in
toxic. Besides hydrocarbons, automobiles also add lead into the Delhi from September
atmosphere due to use of tetraethyl lead as an antiknock agent. The lead 1998, and the entire country
from 1st of February, 2000.
halides produced are blown out with exhaust as particulate aerosols.

ii) Temperature
Various life forms have evolved and developed adaptations for seasonal
and altitudinal variations of temperature. But sudden temperature
fluctuations, mostly towards the higher temperature ranges are deleterious
to living forms and their biological activities. Heat radiating from power
plants and industries affect the quality of the nearby atmosphere.

iii) Pathogen load

The air quality in and around hospitals, sanatoria, dumpsites, where organic
wastes abound, and the degrading and pathogenic microbes are abundant, is
referred to as bad or infectious.

iv) Noise
Noise from diverse sources, is also a pollutant that traverses through the
medium of air. This topic has been dealt in detail in Subsection 8.3.4.

Air Indoors
Indoor air is often considered safe and free from pollutants. But most
people have the greatest contact with toxic pollutants not outside but inside
their homes and offices. The modem consumer products like air fresheners,
cleaning compounds, moth repellents, cigarettes, toilet disinfectants or
deodorizers are the most common sources that laden the indoor air with
toxic pollutants without anyone even suspecting them or their potential.
Further, daily routine chores expose people to many potentially harmhl
materials like volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, benzene,
ozone, pesticides, or dangerous particles (smaller than 2 . 5 in
~ diameter),
and radiation. Poor sanitation and ill ventilation enhances the build up of
these pollutants, as the air exchange rates are very low. We shall now
present a quick run-through account about the various materials or practices
that lower indoor air quality. So watch out for the main culprits of indoor
air pollution in your indoor.

Does anyone suspect the dry-cleaned clothes to be causing pollution? But they
are!,They are laden with tetrachloroethylene that is known to cause cancer in
rats. Moth repellents and toilet disinfectants contain a toxic chemical -
I Environmental
Management
paradichlorobenzene that is also carcinogenic. Similarly, cloth washers,
detergents containing bleaching agents are harmful too. Passing water through
a good quality charcoal filter, or leaving it overnight can minimize the intake
of chlorine in drinking water taken from tap. The bathrooms and the laundry
rooms should be well ventilated.

The kitchen is another potential source of foul indoor air. Poor sanitation,
burning of dirty solid fuels such as coal, wood or biomass for cooking and
heating in poorly ventilated houses are causes of indoor air pollution. One
study reports that women working in smoky and improperly ventilated
kitchens inhale carbon monoxide equivalent to that received from a pack of
cigarettes every day.

Another disturbing feature is the presence of highly toxic pesticides in the

indoor air. These harmful chemicals slowly creep indoors through the soil, or
sometimes are applied by people to ward off insects or termites, without
realizing that they are causing their own exposures. These chemicals when
present outdoors can break readily due to exposure to sunshine and weathering.
However, indoors these chemicals can last for years in carpets or upholstery
because they are protected fi-om degradation. Presence of formaldehyde
vapours in synthetic carpets, synthetic wood-particle board, plywood, and false
ceiling materials is another cause of concern. Formaldehyde is a highly toxic
material and is known to be a mutagen.

Another aspect of concern regarding indoor air is fine particles of the range of
10y or less in diameter. These are formed as the result of cooking, smoking,
.burning candles or firewood. These particles can keep on floating for days and
weeks in air and are small enough to penetrate into lungs. House dust - on
carpets, floors, upholstery, curtains and other objects is highly toxic and is
particularly harmful for children who crawl over the floor, and even put their
fingers in their mouths. Children are prone to more damage because their
breathing rate is higher, their intake is higher, and have a small fraction of
body weight as compared to that of an adult. The house dust has also been
found to have toxic heavy metals like cadmium, lead, mercury, and many
others. Most of these pollutants enter the house through shoes. Therefore, by
using doormats before entering the house can prevent many pollutants being
canied inside the house.

Another common, yet unhealthy practice is the use of mosquito repellants like
coils, mats, and so on. When these are bumt/heated, toxic chemicals and
carbon monoxide are released which can cause harm over prolonged
exposure.

Radiation is another potential cause of indoor pollution. Radiation emanate

from household appliances like microwave and infrared oven, especially if
they are old and leaky, televisions, computers, and even electrical fittings.
These radiatiofis are particularly harmful for eyes and reproductive organs.

Did reading about so many possible agents affecting indoors air quality alann
you? If we make 'prevention is better than cure' our motto, the possibilities
of harm can be better managed by making some alterations in life style and by
taking informed decisions to try reducing the pollutants to zero level. For this
we need to know the various air quality standards.
Ambient Air Q u a l i t y Standards and Measurements Environmental Quality
Management
Table (8.1) given below indicates the standard values and methods of
measurement for the major pollutants affecting the quality of air. Since air is
not a static entity, therefore, the levels of all these pollutants need to be
measured continuously to ascertain the current status of air qztality.

Table 8.1: National Ambient Air Quality Standards; source: CPCB, 200.2'' u7
Note:
1. National Ambient Air
Pollutant Sulphur dioxide Oxides of nitrogen Suspended particulate
Quality Standards:
(NO2 and others) 1 matter (SPM)
The level of air quality

1
Anna 24 o r Annul 24 hours Anna 24 hours that is necessary with
average" average average#' averageg9 averageux averageb9 an adequate margin of
average
safety, to protect the
Industrial 80~g/m' 12oPg/m3 8oPg/m3 12oPgim3 36oPg/rn3 50oPg/m3 public health,
vegetation and
Residential, 1 6OPg/m3 1 80~glrn'
P'oPertY
2. Whenever and
rural and wherever two
consecutive values
Sensitive exceed the limit
area specified above for the
respective category, it
Method of
Measurement
Improved
West and
Gaeke
Ultraviolet
fluore-
scence
Jacob and
Hocheiser
modified .
Gas phase
Chernilumi-
onescence
High
volume
sampling
I would be considered
adequate reason to
institute
methods (Na- (Average regular/continuous
Arsenite flow rate monitoring and further
methods) not less
than 1.1 m3/
minute
I #8
investigations.
Annual Arithmetic
Mean of minimum 104
measurements in a year
8.3.2 Water taken twice a week 24-
hourly at uniform
Water a precious natural resource is'essential for all life forms. Oceans intervals.
account for 97.3% of total water present on the planet. Water on land u9 24-hourlyi8-hourly

comprises fresh water lakes, saline lakes, and inland seas, rivers, soil moisture values should be met
and ground water. Ice caps and glaciers account for 2.8% of the total water 98% of the time in a
available on this planet. Water, is used for domestic, industrial and year. However 2% of the
time, it may be exceeded
commercial purposes, agricultural activities, stock and wildlife watering,
but not on two
aquaculture, aquatic activities like bathing, boating, swimming, aesthetics, consecutive days.
games, hydropower generation, transportation, mining and mineral processing,
and dispersion and elimination of wastes - from houses, industry, and
municipality.

The quality parameters and their values for different water usages are
different. The major parameters employed for ascertaining quality of water
irrespective of the source - freshwater, groundwater, marine- or brackish-
water are:
i) Ph-ysical characteristics - colour, odour, temperature, turbidity, foam or
froth, radioactivity;
ii) Chemical characteristics - pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, hardness,
chloride, fluoride, nitrogen content, total iron, residual chlorine, total solids,
oil and grease, BOD and COD; and
iii) Bioform characteristics - microorganisms.
63
Environmental i) Physical characteristics
Management
'O Planktons are
microscopic life forms,
these are either
phytoplanktons belonging
to the plant kingdom, or
zooplankton belonging to
the animal kingdom.
ii) Chemical characteristics
Colour - Although pure or the drinking water is colourless, the water in
natural sources like rivers and oceans, appears blue, greenish, or muddy.
The variant colour of water may be due to the presence of natural metallic
ions such as iron and manganese, humus and peat materials, planktons#'O,
weeds and industrial wastes.
Odour - Many a times the presence of certain substances (inadvertently) in
water results in its unpleasant odour. Sometimes, due to the blending of
organic and inorganic chemicals originating from municipal and industrial
waste discharges, the taste or odour of water changes accordingly. The
odour affects acceptability of drinking water.
Temperature - Changes in water temperature affect other properties of
water. For instance, difference in water temperature affects dissolved
oxygen, which in turn alters the photosynthesis and metabolic rates of the
aquatic life. The sensitivity of many organisms to toxic wastes is also
influenced by the degree of change in water temperature. Most aquatic life
forms need specific temperature ranges to thrive, and they die if this range
exceeds or recedes. Abrupt changes in temperature can be noticed in the
rivers wherein water from cooling towers, boilers, and process wastes are
discharged, consequently affecting the aquatic life that it harbours.
\
Turbidity - Turbidity refers to the relative clarity of water. It is caused by
suspended matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic
matter, coloured but soluble organic compounds, planktons and other life
forms. The penetration of sunlight is reduced considerably in turbid water,
which reduces the photosynthetic activity of life, and consequently their
growth and development. Lower productivity of plants that occupy the
beginning point in the food chain has a direct bearing on other small and
large animals down the food chain. They may suffer growth retardation or
even death in extreme situations. Another repercussion of turbidity can be
seen on the fishes. If there is large amount of suspended silt or organic
matter in water, their gills often get clogged by them and they die.
Foam or froth - It is formed as a result of suspension or dispersion of gas
or air bubbles in water. Many natural compounds, synthetic detergents, and
industrial wastes cause foam. It can be hazardous as it can carry suspended
solids including pathogenic bacteria.
Radioactivity - Radioactive substances near water bodies cause radioactive
pollution. This is a peculiar kind of pollution, as it can neither be seen nor
tasted .or smelt, but is detected by specific instruments, or their presence
only comes to be known because of a number of health related problems.
pH - The pH of pure water is 7, and in healthy rivers it varies between 6.5 -
8.5. In the catchment areas, the type of geography, i.e., the rocks and
minerals determine the pH of water. The pH of rainwater is slightly acidic,
and a mention of acid rain due to atmospheric pollutants has also been
made earlier (see 'Oxides of sulfur', in 'Air Outdoors').
Alkalinity - It is usually due to the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates, Environmental Quality
and hydroxide compounds of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Management
Borates, phosphates and silicates also contribute to alkalinity of water.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) - Oxygen gets dissolved in water due to turbulence

of waves. Most aquatic plants and animals get their oxygen from the
oxygen thus dissolved in water. Rivers having a DO of 4mg/l or more are
considered to be healthy and such waters support many kinds of life forms.
Slow moving or stagnant water usually co~sistsof low concentration of
dissolved oxygen. Factors like climate, weather, and ambient temperature
affect the DO levels in any of the water source. During the day oxygen
level is maximum at noon due to photosynthesis by aquatic plants and it
falls to minimum at night. The discharge of sewage, industrial effluents,
and decaying plants and animals lower the DO value of water, as oxygen is
consumed by microorganisms during the breakdown of organic matter. DO
is thus an important parameter to assess quality of raw water and keep a
check on pollution of water bodies.

Hardness - Hardness of water refers to the capacity of water to give lather

with soap. It is mainly due to calcium and magnesium ions. Such waters
cause scale formation in boilers and are not considered suitable for laundry
and domestic purposes, as they consume large amount of soap.

Chloride - Natural waters generally contain chloride ions due to dissolution

of salt deposits, discharge of effluents from industries, imgation drainage
and seawater intrusion in coastal regions.

Fluoride - This may occur naturally in water. Fluoride concentration of

about 1.0 mgll in water effectively reduces dental caries without harmful
effects on health. However, if the level exceeds the recommended limits
fluorosis may occur.

Nitrogen content - Nitrogen in waste water occurs in various forms such as

nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen. Sewage contamination and
fertilizer runoff water from crop fields are the main sources of nitrogen
contamination. The desirable limit of drinking water standard for nitrate
(NO3) is 45 mg/l. Excessive intake of water with higher nitrate content
leads to methaemaglobinaemia disease in children, also known as the 'blue
baby' disease. Ammonia in water is present due to decaying plants,
sewage, and industrial discharge and fertilizers containing ammonia. It is
toxic to fish and plants.

Total iron - Iron concentration is generally low in surface water, but its
concentration can increase due to effluent discharge from iron and steel
industries. High amount of iron in water gives a reddish and turbid
appearance and is harmful to aquatic system.

-Residual chlorine - Since chlorination is a widely employed method of

disinfection, the presence of some amount of chlorine is common in potable
waters. It may also be present in some surface waters where chlorinated
industrial effluent or sewerage wastes are discharged.
I Environmental
Management
Total solids (TS) - These are the sum total of solids whether in suspended
form (TSS) or the ones that settle at the bottom of the water body after
floating for some time. While settled solids comprise large chunks of
organic and inorganic matter, suspended solids are particles of decayed
plant and animal materials. Increased amount of suspended particles
increase turbidity, decrease photosynthesis, result in eutrophication, cause
rise in temperature and lowering of DO.

Oil and grease - Oil from barges and tankers often enter ocean waters in
large amounts. These form films on water that are not only ugly looking
but also reduce the DO in water. Over a period of time the oil-laden waters
hit the beach and affect the flora and fauna, notably the birds and oysters
existing there. Similarly grease from industrial sources also lowers water
quality tremendously. A lot of oils and grease are also released from the
industries where these are invariably used for lubricating the bearings and
rollers. The oils and grease form a thin layer over the surface and cannot be
easily separated from the main effluents. The oily surface layer also blocks
the transfer of atmospheric oxygen required for the sustenance of microbes.

BOD and COD - The amount of DO required to meet the metabolic needs
of anaerobic microorganisms in water rich in organic matter such as sewage
is termed as BOD. Its full form is Biochemical Oxygen Demand. Likewise
Chemical Oxygen Demand is abbreviated as COD, it refers to the amount
of oxygen required to degrade the organic compounds of waste water, e.g.,
tannery wastes have high COD. The bigger the COD value of waste water,
the most oxygen the discharges demand from the water bodies.

iii) Bioform characteristics

Microorganisms - Water samples are examined for the presence or absence
of microorganisms like bacteria, and also for fungi and protozoa. This
examination enables one to ascertain whether a sample of water is potable
or not. Various strains of bacteria are present in non-potable waters. Of
these E. coli are very common. Several water borne microorganisms cause
diseases such as cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery, and diarrhoea.
The pathogenic bacteria enter the system through sewage or from excreta of
warm-blooded animals directly.

Water quality standards

Owing to the importance of water to our life and health, it is recommended to
test all the major parameters except metals/heavy metals at least once a day,
and the latter once a month. The standards are given in Table 8.2. The
municipal agencies supplying potable water to communities undertake
mandatory testing. But it is desirable that the important parameters to be tested
are known to all. A good 'Water Testing Kit' is therefore essential, as it would
enable the user to assess the physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of
water. The Central Pollution Control Board too has developed low cost water
testing kits with an objective to create mass awareness among students, NGOs,
and public at large. The selection of parameters is done by taking into
consideration the most common effluents affecting human, animal and plant
life.
 Table 8.2: Primary water quality criteria for designated-best-use-classes;source: Environmental Quality
CPCB, 2002 Management
I
I
I No. / Designated-best-use Criteria

Drinking water source 1. Total Coliforms Organisms

without conventional MPN1100ml shall be 50 or less
treatment but after 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
disinfection 3. Dissolved oxygen 6 mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20°C 2mg/l or less
Outdoor bathing 1. Total Coliform Organisms
(organized) MPN1100ml shall be 500 or less
2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved oxygen 5mgA or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20°C 3mgll or less
Drinking water source 1. Total Coliforms Organisms
after conventional MPN/lOOml shall be 5000 or less
treatment and 2. pH between 6 and 9.
disinfection 3. Dissolved oxygen 4 mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20°C 3mgll or less
Propagation of wildlife 1. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
and fisheries 2. Dissolved oxygen 4mgll or more
3. Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or
less
Irrigation, industrial 1. pH between 6.0 and 8.5
cooling, controlled 2. Electrical conductivity at 25°C #I I
Soil is the upper
waste disposal micro mhoslcm max. 2250
portion of earth's crust
3. Sodium absorption ratio max. 26 ranging in thickness
4. Boron max. 2 mg/l from a film to three
meters or more. It is
composed of minerals,
air, water, organic
soilx" is a unique, and a complex medium that supports an amazing and matter and various kinds
of living organisms. It
diverse variety of life, including the human civilization. Soils being a subset of provides mechanical
land#12,these two terms are used interchangeably here. anchorage to plants,
besides being a reservoir
Land is used by man in multiple, and overlapping ways, the most essential ones of water and plant
being for food production, supporting water resources (including imgation nutrients.
channels), and forests as pastures and grasslands, settlements, for industrial and #I2 and is the
commercial purposes, and in transportation. Land use usually depends upon fhndamental basis of
most of the human or
the type of soil in an area, e.g., loamy soils support agricultural activities, natural activities, and is
whereas areas, which are sandy and rocky, are used for other purposes. Before one of the major natural
taking up the major parameters of soil quality, your attention is drawn to two resources on this planet.
points. One, specific soil quality parameters are considered for particular use, Primary production of
e.g., a soil with loamy texture, good aeration, and high humus and moisture mineral and agricultural
products depends
content is fit for agricultural purposes. Two, the 'quality of soil' is relative. A entirely on the
good quality soil for making road may be a poor quality soil for growing crops. availability and use of
Having said that, we shall now discuss the main properties of soil that are taken suitable land.
into account for determining the quality of soil at a given place.
Environmental i) Soil particle size
Management
Soil is made up of particles of varying sizes, mixed in different proportions.
Based on diameter, the soil particles have been classified as clay, silt, fine
Table 8.3: Size of sand, coarse sand, and gravel (see Table 8.3).
different
types of soil ii) Soil Texture and Structure
ÿ articles

Type of Size
Depending on the relative proportion of soil particles of different sizes,
Soil Particle (diameter twelve textural classes are recognized, and these are:
in mm)
Clay (colloids) 0.002
clay,
Silt 0.002 - 0.02 silty-clay,
Fine sand 0.02 - 0.2 clay-loam,
Coarse sand 0.20 - 2.0 silty-clay-loam,
Stone and
gravel 2.0 and loam,
above silty-loam,
silt,
sandy-loam,
sandy-clay-loam,
loamy-sand,
sand, and
sandy-clay.

A soil is said to be heavy if it contains more of clay and silt. It is difficult

to draw agricultural implements through such soils. On the other hand,
soils having higher proportion of sand and gravel are termed as light, as
agricultural implements can be easily drawn through them.

Arrangement of soil particles into aggregates refers to as soil structure. The

- - -

=So
common structural types are: granular, crumb, platy, blocky, subangular,
prismatic, and columnar.

iii) Soil moisture

Moisture or water in soil occurs in different forms. Gravitational water
H
seeps through the soil under the influence of gravity, and is not available to

,* . -
+ Na plants.
and other soil organisms.
Capillary water is Hygroscopic
held in the soil pores
water refers
and is
to utilized
the smallbyamount
the plants
of
p :
NH,+
- Y. : Micelle
.......
...
;..*:-
.*,
. -+H water that is tightly held on the surface of soil colloids, and thus remains
unavailable to plants.
6.*,':$, '., ,?h.
.
.; .,.,(<: -+
,>#
?/. . ....
. .. -+ e
...,
+ ' . .. ,.. .. iv) Aeration
IHg+- 7 i
Ca
2%
This is an important property, which influences the availability of gases.
Fig.8.2: Schematic
The growth of plants, particularly their roots is adversely affected in poorly
representation aerated soils. Poor soil aeration retards absorption of water and nutrients
of a clay or by roots and leads to the build up of toxic substances in the soil.
humus particle
with hydrogen v) Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
ions and
mineral ions It refers to the exchangeable cation sites (Fig. 8.2) per unit weight of dry
attracted by soil. It is measured in centimoles of cations per kilogram of dry soil
negative (cmole1Kg). It is by this property of soil that nutrients such as Ca, Mg, K,
charges at its
surface Na, Cu, Mn, Zn, and NH4 that are present in the soil are made available to
the plants and other organisms of the soil. These exchangeable sites are
68
 present on the soil colloids which includes humus and clay particles. The Environmental Quality
release of a particular nutrient in the soil depends on a number of factors Management
such as the cation exchange site(s) occupied by a given cation, the
influence of associated ions; the tenacity with which the colloid micelle
holds the cation; and the soil pH. A cation exchange reaction is depicted in
Fi 8.3. The cation exchange sites adsorb many metals, e.g., cd2+,zn2+,
Ni%, and pb2+from waste waters. Adsorption in this manner removes most
of them from the percolation water that drains into ground water or surface
waters. These sites also hold the K+ and ions from the fertilizers
applied to the soil.

r *6

Clay
Micelle

Fig.8.3: Depiction of cation exchange in a colloidal micelle

vi) Soil biota

Diverse kinds of living organisms inhabit soil. A large number of them
contribute immensely in soil fertility in different ways. Soil microbes carry
out decomposition of organic matter, help in nutrient cycling, produce
growth substances, and participate in nitrogen fixation. Soil biota,
particularly the earthworms improve aeration, and the various life forms in
and on the soil contribute organic matter through their death and decay.

After having discussed about the parameters determining the quality of soil,
we shall now take up in brief the common instances of lowering of the soil
quality, also referred to as soil degradation.

Soil Degradation
Population growth, rapid urbanization, industrialization and various
developmental activities have contributed directly or indirectly in affecting the
quality of this very slow generating, precious natural resource. Not only the
demand for land area for various human activities is increasing by the day, this
resource is also not spared of abuse. All kind of solid wastes - domestic,
industrial, agricultural, construction, engineering, commercial, and biomedical
wastes find land particularly the soil as their ultimate destination. It is true for
the municipal wastes. Would you like to quickly jot down the names of the
stuff entering into the municipal wastes? You may use the margin space for this
purpose. Our list of the same includes - kitchen wastes including fruit and
vegetable peels, and food leftovers, house sweepings, glass, paper, plastics,
metals, rags, packing materials (of gifts, medicines, and other articles). Have
you ever thought where all these wastes end up? These are often dumped in the
low-lying areas or at the municipal solid waste disposal sites, which make these
sites extremely unhygienic and hazardous. This is one aspect of lowering the
quality of soillland.
The other aspect of soil degradation refers to any unnatural loss or alterations in
soil that make it less productiveor usable than what it was before the change.
This includes reduction in soil humus due to non-replenishment of soil with
organic matter, salt-accumulation on the soil surface due to irrigation, and
water logging - all these degrade the soil. Soil erosion often removes the soil
surface, which is the most fertile portion of any block of soil. In addition,
deposition of sediments like clays, sands, or rocky materials on good soil also
lowers the quality of that soil. Soil erosion often results in the formation of
gullies and ravines, which make the land unsuitable for agricultural production.

Yet another dimension of soil degradation is anomalous building up of

concentration of certain chemical elements in soil, particularly the toxic ones.
Some of the most toxic are mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper
(Cu), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co). The first three are particularly toxic to
higher animals. The last three are more toxic to plants than animals and are
termed as phytotoxic. From the standpoint of potential hazard to human health,
an extended list of "priority metals" has been established. This list consists of
As, Hg, Sb, Se, Cr, TI, Pb, Be, Ni, Cd, Ag, Cu, Zn.

Another critical aspect of landlsoil degradation is loss of biodiversity. Land-

cover change has led to, and is still leading to, significant losses in species
numbers and varieties worldwide. Ecosystem structure and function, long-term
ecological processes, and genetic diversity are also at the risk of biodiversity
loss. Land-cover change has also an important influence on water and energy
balance.

Standards and guidelines

Some of the guidelines relevant for the quality of soiVland are listed below.
Their details can be accessed from the Ministry of Environment and Forests
website - htb:/lenvfor.nic.in/
Siting guidelines for Industries
Environmental guidelines for industries
Guidelines for clearance of forest based industriesltrade
Hazardous waste management guidelines
To ascertain the quality of soil/land, it is desirable that the main properties of
soil to be tested monthly, metal levels periodically, and soil texture annually.

8.3.4 Noise
The term 'noise' refers to the 'unwanted sound' in the atmosphere, and the
term sound is usually used for pleasing to easily tolerable sound. Sometimes a
sound may be pleasant for some and nuisance to others. For example, music
may be considered as pleasing sound in most circumstances, but as noise when
it interferes with conversation or rest of other people.

The intensity of sound is measured in decibels (db). This is on a logarithm

scale which means 50db sound would be ten times louder than 40db. Human
ear is receptive or sensitive to an extremely wide range of intensity from 0 to
180db; zero db being the threshold of hearing, whereas 140db marks the
threshold of pain. You would be interested to know the db value of various
kinds of sound, and these are given in Table 8.4.
Noise at higher db values, and for longer period of time is also referred to as Environmental Quality
noise pollution. This is an interesting form of pollution, in the sense it is Management
neither visible, nor it leaves any residues after the source of noise is switched Table 8.4: The db value of
off. sound at different
places. Source:
Jerath, N. 1998
The source of noise pollution is divided into two categories: (i) industrial and
commercial places - by running of machines and gadgets, and as a result of 1 Very quiet place ( 20 db 1
large numbers of people conversing; and (ii) non-industrial sources - include
aircrafts, automobiles, trains, construction works, radios, microphones,
loudspeakers and household gadgets. I household

P
machines
Before we proceed further, you could make a quick run-through of the Table Jet planes at 300 m
100 db
hei ht
(8.5) given in the adjacent margin and see whether the various db values go
with your perception. I Truck horn
I
l10db
I
Rocket 180 db
It is only in the recent years that the concern for noise pollution has been
growing. A largely accepted view is that it is an offshoot of development.
Table 8.5: Noise pollution
caused by
Depending upon the noise level and duration of exposure, an individual's household
hearing can either be impaired or lost completely and permanently leading to gadgets (Source
deafness. The damage occurs in the inner ear, and is neither reversible nor Jerath. N. 1998)
amenable to medical treatment. A study indicates that in people who are
exposed to lifetime of excessive noise, hearing damage appears to be maximum Category
level
after 10-15 years of exposure. Loud and continuous noise also causes rapid
beating of heart, raises the cholesterol level resulting in permanent constriction

1
of blood vessels causing high blood pressure and problems of blood circulation
Desert cooler
and even cardiac disturbances. Loud noise causes peptic ulcers, gastrointestinal
problems, allergy, nervousness in adults, whereas in children noise not only
causes hearing problems but also neurological reactions that make the child r a w t fan
irritable and hyperactive. This slows down the process of development of Electric grinder
child's mental faculties.
Vacuum cleaner 86-87

It has been established that there is an increased incidence of birth defects, Pressure stove
stillbirths and unusually low weight among children born to mothers living
machine
near the airports. ~ l s foetal
o development is affected if the expectant mother is
Hand pump 70-75
subject to continuous noise stress during pregnancy.
Radioftape
recorder
Noise creates communication disruption, frustration, and sleepiness. People in 'lEzG+A
noisy environments easily get tired and become imtable. The number of
accidents in noisy factories is higher than those in quiet ones. Many social Generator 80-85 1
conflicts have been attributed to high noise levels, which keep individuals
imtated, upset, imbalanced and fearful. At a more serious level, noise has
negative mental consequences such as suicidal and homicidal tendencies, and machine
even psychotic behaviour. 1 Pressure cooker 1 65 1
Standards and guidelines Flush toilet
The Central Pollution Control Board's recommended noise standards for 1 Door slamming 1 70-90 1
ambient air and for automobiles, domestic appliances and construction
equipments were notified in Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 and are
given below in Tables 8.6 - 8.8. The standards pertaining to the work zone
area are given in Tables 8.9 and 8.10.
Environmental Table 8.6: Noise standards for ambient air'13
Management
~ r e code1
a Category of area Limits in dB(A)
'I3 Note:
1. Day time is reckoned I
in between 6 a.m. ) A 1 Industrial area 1 75 1 70 1
and 9 p.m.
2. Night time is
B Commercial area 65 55 ~
reckoned in between
9 p.m. and 6 a.m.
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence zone 50 40
3. Silence Zone is I

referred as areas up
to 100 meters around Noise standards for automobiles, domestic appliances and construction
such premises as equipments have been notified in Part 'E', Schedule-VI of Environment
hospitals, educational (Protection) Rules, 1986, and were amended on 19th May, 1993. These are
institutions and
courts. The Silence given in the Tables 8.7 and 8.8 below.
Zones are to be
declared by the Tables 8.7: Noise standards for automobiles
Competent
Authority. Use of Category of vehicle Noise limit in
vehicular horns, dB(A)
loudspeakers and
bursting of crackers , (a) Motorcycle, scooters and three-wheelers 80 1
shall be banned in ) 1 I
these zones.
4. Mixed categories of
' (b) Passenger cars
(c) Passenger or commercial vehicles up to 4 MT
82
85
areas should be (d) Passenger or commercial vehicles above 4 MT and up to
89
declared as one of 12 MT
the four above-
mentioned categories I (e) Passenger or commercial vehicles exceeding 12 MT I 91 1
by the Competent
Authority and the Table 8.8: Noise standards for domestic appliances and construction equipments
corresponding
standards shall apply.
/ Category of domestic appliances/construction
(a) Window air conditioners of 1 tonne to 1.5 tonnes
1
(b) Air coolers

1 (d) Diesel generator for domestic purposes 85-90

(e) Compactors (rollers), Front-loaders, Concrete
75
mixers, Cranes(movable),Vibrators and Saws

Code of practice for controlling noise

The Noise Pollution Control Committee also prescribed code of practice for
controlling noise from sources other than industries and automobiles. These
are given below.

Code of practice for controlling noise from sources other than industries
and automobiles
1. Public Address System
License must be obtained by all parties intending to use loudspeakers or
public address system for any occasion.
 Public address system and loudspeakers should not be used at night Environmental Quality
between 9 p.m. to 6 a.m. except in closed premises. Management

Loudspeakers should be directed at the audiences and not away fkom

audience (i.e., not towards the neighbourhood).
Loudspeakers should not be allowed for advertisement and commercial
activities.
The permitted strength of power amplifier should be just adequate to
cover the audience, and noise level beyond the boundary limit of the
noise source premises should not be increased by more than 5 dB(A)
above the ambient noise level.
P

Aircraft Operations
Aerodrome should be located away fi-om the city and growth of the city
should not be allowed to extend up to the Aerodrome.
Aeroplanes should take off in direction radially away fi-om the city.
During boarding and unboarding operations the plane should be
sufficiently away from the airport buildings.
Night-time operations should be minimised.
During maintenance and repairs of the aeroplane, workers should use
earmuffs.
Portable silencers should be used in the plane intake as well as exhaust
during idling period at the airport.

Railway Operations
Erection of acoustic barrier, reducing speed and avoiding whistling
within and along the municipal limits and habitation zones are
recommended for adoption to the extent possible.

Construction Activities
Acoustic barriers should be placed near construction sites.
The maximum noise levels near the construction site should be limited
to 75 dB(A) Leq (5 min.) in industrial areas and to 65 dB(A) Leq (5
min.) in other areas.
There should be fencing around the construction site to prevent people
coming near the site.
Materials need not be stockpiled and unused equipment to be placed
between noisy operating equipments and other areas.
Constructing temporary earth bund around the site using soil etc., which
normally is hauled away from the construction site.

Burning of Crackers
Manufacture and sale of crackers having an impulsive noise of more
than 90 dB at 5 meters distance from the site of bursting should be
banned.
Manufacture and bursting of joined cra~kersshould be banned.
Environmental Bursting of crackers during night between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. should be
Management banned.
Bursting of crackers may be permitted only during public festivals.

"'Notes: Table 8.9: The permissible levels for noise exposure for work zone area
1. No exposure in excess
have been prescribed under the Model Rules of the Factories
of 140 dB peak sound Act 1948, as below#14
pressure level is

I
permitted. Peak sound pressure Permitted number of
impulses or +
2. For any peak sound level in dB
pressure level falling I im~actsldav
in between any figure
and the next higher or
lower figure as
indicated in column 1,
the permitted number
of impulses or impacts
per day is to be
determined by
extrapolation on a
proportionate basis.
Table 8.10: The permissible levels for noise exposure for work zone area'''
#lj
Notes:
1. No exposure in excess Total time of exPosure Sound pressure level
of 115dB(A)istobe (continuous or a number in dB(A)
permitted. of short term exposures)
2. For any period of per day, in hr
exposure falling in
between any figure and
I 8 90 I

the next higher or

lower figure as
indicated in column 1,
the permissible sound
pressure level is to be
determined by
extrapolation on a
proportionate basis.

8.3.5 Radiation
The word 'radiation7 is invariably linked with those emanating from a
radioactive or nuclear source (also see Box 8.3). It is rightly so, because from
time to time one hears about news and issues pertaining to this area through the
media. The above mentioned are not the only kinds of radiation. The benign
daylight is also a form of radiation. In addition, the infrared (IR), ultraviolet
(UV), radio waves, X-rays and gamma rays are the radiation that we come
across in our lives. Natural background terrestrial radiation is equally
important. One such case is presented in Box 8.4.

Radiation has become a part of modem civilization. They are either used in
different ways for various purposes, or they are the products of some activities.
To elaborate this point further - radiation in the form of X-rays are used in Environmental Quality
medicines; the gamma-rays (y-rays) are used in the treatment of certain cancers Management
and these are also released in nuclear explosion. The UV radiation owing to
their potential to kill certain microorganisms is employed to kill certain germs.
Radio waves emitted by TV and radio broadcasting stations are received I.y the
TV and radio sets through antennas. The nuclear powerplants are considered
as 'unlimite'd' and 'clean' sources of energy. And, of course, there is nothing to
beat the popularity of cellphones - anywhere -urban or rural areas.

Box 8.3: A news clip bringing to light the radiation exposure, and the non-
usage of protective devices by the workers in the nuclear power
plants

These observations were made in the annual report of the Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board (AERB) whose primary function is to enforce safety standards
in the nuclear establishments in the country.

Taking on the Nuclear Power Corporation m), the report stated that the NPC
had given a misleading figure of the number of dry storage casks meant for
storing spent fuel. "These casks were found to be adequately designed for very
long term storage", says the report. The AERB has allowed the NPC to use these
casks under certain conhtions for 10 years.

The AERB, however, praised'the NPC for the safe operation of power plants.
"The radioactive releases fiom the power stations to the environment were well

Box 8.4: A news clip highlighting the long-term effects of natural

background radiation on humans
-
High point mutation', in DNA of fisherfolk along Kollam coast;
source: N. Gopal Raj ,The Hindu, October 1,2002

published their findings.

The he radioactive elernept,

is a tional Highway, where
fisher folk live.
(Contd.. .)
Environmental
Management

Many scientific studies have been conducted over the years, but none has yet
unequivocally established that such high levels of background radiation are
responsible for the higher incidence of diseases such as cancer.
The latest study being published in the proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, U.S., has looked at the DNA from mitochondria, the tiny energy
factories which power the cells.
Unlike the long strands of DNA making up the chromosomes in the cell nucleus,
mitochondrial DNA are small and contain just a few genes.
While the chromosomes are inherited from both parents, the mitrochondrial DNA
is provided only by the mother's egg cell. By studying mitochondrial DNA across
generations, it is possible to establish whether a mutation in the mother is being
passed on to her descendants.
The study found that those living in the high radiation belt had higher levels of
"point mutation" in their mitochondrial DNA than those living nearby in areas
with a low background radiation.
A "point mutation"happens when a single "base" (the genetic code is made up of
four bases) along a DNA strand gets changed. Moreover, these point mutations
were being inherited by the succeeding generations.
But more point mutations do not automatically translate into higher risk of
disease. Where the mutations occur is all important. Long stretches of DNA
making up the chromosomes contain no genes and a polnt mutation here will

"The question whether such point mutations also affect genes which are
implicated, for example, in cancer, needs to be explored in fkther genetic
studies," Peter Forster of the University of Cambridge, one of the authors of the
study, told The Hindu.
But the study's finding of greater inheritable DNA mutations associated with
exposure to higher tadiation levels has important implications for radiologists, he
points out. Radiation workers are allowed to receive up to 50 times the normal
level of radiation.

mechanism. s~eculatethe authors.

Characteristics of radiation
We shall now consider the generic properties of radiation.
i) Radiation in its various forms is present everywhere and at any point of
time. They have natural or cosmic origin, and are also produced due to
several anthropogenic activities. Luckily, most of the incoming radiation
that could be harmhl to life are blocked by the atmospheric layers. It is
only the harmhl radiation generated by various activities that are our
concern here.
ii) These are neither visible nor is their effect felt immediately, except in lethal Environmental Quality
doses. But their effect is cumulative in most life-forms, that in humans in Management
extreme cases is painful and even fatal.
iii) Once generated they persist in active form for decades.
iv) They contaminate all the components of the ecosystem - air, water, and soil
at the macrolevel. And at the microlevel they enter and traverse down the
food chain, and to the cells of organisms.

Generation and human exposure

The common sources, and ways whereby radiation are generated are discussed
below.

i) Nuclear power plants - There are evidences to show that low levels of
radiation from nuclear power plants enter their nearby environment. This is
despite all the cautions and all the modem approaches in their siting, and
operational aspects. People who are unaware of the consequences/do not
have alternatives, living closer to the nuclear power plants get long
exposures to radiation.

ii) The o'lher source of radiation is occupational exposure, that is, the
'radiation workers' choose to work in 'radiation environments' within the
permissible dose (also see Tables 8.1 1 and 8.12). And their radiation dose
is monitored on regular basis, e.g., as in the radiation sector of medicine;
radioactive chemical processing plants such as for the extraction of
uranium; research establishments carrying out a wide variety of
investigations and using a broad and varying selection of nuclides in
different chemical forms. In addition, a number of other users such as
research institutions, university research laboratories, and industry too
handle fairly large quantities of materials, and have no elaborate waste
treatment methods.

iii) Another potent, yet important source is the nuclear weapons, which so
many nations have developed and piled-up to exhibit their might. God
forbid, if even a single one is ever targeted to any human population what
could be the magnitude of their grief, can never be put in words. The
instance of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are exemplars of the situation.

The nuclear plants also contribute in discharging radiation in the environment

through the radioactive efflueks or wastes and by way of 'accidents' - chances
of which are described 'remote', but the outcome of Chernobyl disaster (also
see Box 8.5) is still fresh in our mind.

How radiation affect human health?

The release of radioactive material into the environment may result in

significant exposure to man. The exposure modes are classified into two
groups. One, direct exposure - when the radiation source is outside the body,
that is, immersion in contaminated air, submersion in contaminated water, and
exposure to contaminated surface. Two, internal exposure - when the radiation
source gets inside the body, that is, by inhalation and ingestion.
Environmental Radiation have two kinds of effects on human body: i) somatic effects, and
Management ii) genetic effects.
i) Somatic e f f e c - Those radiation effects that manifest in the exposed
individual are known as somatic effects. A dose of 500-2000 rad of total
60 body irradiation, results in death within about a week. Doses of
100-500 rad can result in damage and death, depending on the proportion of
the individual exposed. At the end of the latent period (after exposure), the
effects become detectable. Some of the effects are destruction of bone
marrow, dermatitis, and sterility. If smaller doses up to 100 rad are received
over a long period of time, a variable response can be seen. There is
variation of sensitivity with age, and the smaller doses spread over a period
of time has lesser effect than one large single dose. Estimates have been
made of the annual risk under continuous exposure to 1 rad/yr or to the
lifetime risk from a single exposure of 1 rad. The study projected that the
total number of radiation induced leukemia would be about 20 cases per
million exposed to I rad. For those getting larger doses in a single go, as in
those exposed occupationally to ionizing radiation, the chances of reduced
life expectancy were high. Also see Tables 8.11 and 8.12.
ii) Genetic eSfects - Radiation effects are said to be genetic, if they affect the
descendents of the exposed individual. These show their effect in the next
or may be the subsequent generation of the exposed individual. Therefore,
these are difficult to assess. These cause damage to germ cells either by
causing lethal mutations resulting in premature death or reduced fertility,
and non-lethal mutations that lead to an increased rate of genetic disorders
in the subsequent generations. Many of these mutations are recessive in
character.
Box 8.5: A brief account of Chernobyl Disaster highlighting its fallout on
the quality of the atmosphere

The Chernobyl Disaster and after; source: Green business, Wheatley. M. 1993.
..................The nuclear industry has been saying for years that the odds of a
serious incident were so remote that they could effectlveiy be discounted. Thcre
was, it was alleged, only a fifty per cent chance of such an event once every 23,000

"On April 26, 1986, two massive explosions rocked one of the four reactors in the
ighty miles ro the north of Kiev. R&dimctiw deMn
and it took ten days to bnng the burn~ngreactor

and into Scotland and Wales. Within t-10 weeks, Geiger Counters throughout the
northern hemisphere were ticking away registering the he~ghtenedlevels of
background radioactivity, even as far as Washington and Tokyo.

figures like this: worldwide, as many as one m~llionpeople may eventually fall

e levels of radioactive
Table 8.11: Radiological dose limit for individ~als"~.Source: Environmental Quality
International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1966 AManagement
#I6 Note:
~ ~ r g a n % t i s s u e ~ x i r n upermissible
rn 1 Dose limits f o q #I7

I 1 doses for adults exposed 1 the members of I Subject to the li~nitations

given in the ICRP, 1966
I I
in the course of their 1 the public I publication, up to one-half of the
I I
I work I annual dose limit, or one-half
Gonads, red bone
marrow I 5 rem in a year#'7 0.5 rem in a year
of the annual permissible dose
commitment, may be
accumulated at any period of a
( Skin, bone, thyroid 1 30 rems in a year#17 ( 37ems in a year#'* I quarter of a year.
Handses; #18
1.5 rems in a year the thyroid
1 feet and ankles
75 rems in a year"7 7.5 rems in a year
of children up to'l6 years of age.
1 Other single organs 1 15 rems in a year''7 1 1.5 rems in a year 1
Table 8.12: The permissible dose limits of radiation in radiation workers,
introduced by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board #I9 Note:
(AERB)''~. Source: International Commission on I. These dose linuts are given
Radiological Protection in the unit of milli-Sievert
(mSv).
Category Life time dose limit Annual time dose 2. Radiation worker means any
1 (msv) + limit (mSv) person who is
occupationally exposed to
Radiation worker 1000 30 radiation including X-ray
Member of public I - 1.O technicians working in
hospitals.
3. Members of public are those
who get exposed to radiation
8.4 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT due to effluent releases from
nuclear installations.
So far you have read about the concepts, parameters, and standards of various 4. Radiation absorbed dose
elements of environmental quality. We now discuss about the tools available means the energy deposited
and the actions required for managing environmental quality. by radiation in the human
tissue. Its unit is Gray. It is
8.4.1 Environmental Management Planning equivalent to absorption of
1 Joule of energy in 1Kg of
A holistic environmental planning taking into account the existing social tissue or any other medium.
realities is crucial for environmental quality management. The ensuing 5. Different radiation have
different effectiveness in
discussion reflects the salient issues and concerns, to be considered and causing damage to tissue.
incorporated in the environmental management planning. This is termed as Radiation
weighing factor (WR). For
Human population X-ray and Gamma rays the
Radiation weighing factor is
As human population continues to increase on a regional and global level, one.
careful planning has become even more important to ensure that we make wise 6. Different tissues in human
decisions concerning where we live, how we conserve and preserve body have different
sensitivity to radiation. This
ecosystems, and how we construct'our urban environment. aspect is expressed in terms
of Tissue weighing factor
Sustainability (W,).
7. Effective dose = Absorbed
Sound environmental planning is central to sustainable development. Planning dose x W, x W ,.
decisions we make today and in the near future will greatly impact the quality 8. The unit of effective dose is
of environment we leave for our future generations. Concepts of Seivert.
environmental impact analysis, mitigation of adverse environmental impact,
and environmentally compatible land-use planning methods if made integral
parts of the various projects and activities would bring in both the immediate
benefits and sustainability.
Environmental Global perspective
Management
The fact that we are becoming a global community, all our environmental
planning therefore must have a global perspective. Development of
international environmental agreements despite the conflicting interests, is
becoming increasingly important, so are the continuing efforts in global
environmental forecasting.

Urbanization
#
In view of the large-scale migratiofi toward cities and urban areas, these areas
thus need more attention when it comes to environmental issues. One of our
most pressing environmental needs is to ensure that our urban environments are
carefully planned to maximize human well-being and minimize effects of
natural hazards and pollution of our life-sustaining environmental elements
namely - air, water, and land.

Newer and emerging technologies

In the light of the residual damaging effects of Industrial Revolution on the
environment, it is important to use the newer and emerging technologies with
utmost caution, and after weighng their benefits vis-A-vis the environmental
costs incurred by them.

Values and knowledge

Since we value our environment both at local levels to global systems, it is
essential to develop new and relevant knowledge, tools and technologies to
assist in the environmental planning process. It is important that we know as to
where knowledge is lacking in the solving particular environmental problems
so that we might focus on those areas. We must also recognize that people's
values with respect to resource-use and land-use are variable, resulting in
periodic conflicts between those who wish to use the environment and those
who wish to preserve it. Environmental mediation can help resolve conflicts
when values collide.

We hope that the aspects discussed above would continue to roll on as a part of
your thought-process, and you could add and use many more dimensions to the
ones discussed above from your experiences.

8.4.2 Environmental Impact Assessment

Many-a-times the results of the human-produced changes due to projects or
actions are not totally beneficial, and they leave the surrounding environment
in a state that was neither wished for nor expected. Although the proposed
project or action has good intent and the potential to solve or address an
identified problem, but the resultant ramifications cause degradation of the
environment. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an analysis of
changes produced by a developmental activity or project or action. This is the
underlying principle and purpose of EIA.

EIA Studies
The EIA studies which are carried out at the conceptual and planning phase of
any proposed developmental activity (see Box 8.6), project, or action consists of:
+ literature research, Environmental Quality
+ field studies, and Management
+ impact assessment.

The areas of study are:

land-use,
water-use,
SO C ~ ~ - ~ C O ~ O ~ ~ C S ,
soil,
hydrology,
water quality,
meteorology,
air quality,
terrestrial and aquatic ecology, and
noise.

With the involvement of so many fields and disciplines of study, an

interdisciplinary approach and expertise is but necessary. A team of people in
disciplines like Planning, Geography, Geology, Biology, Civil Engineering,
Architecture, Law, Sociology, and Meteorology pool-in their knowledge and
experiences to consider the pros and cons of the proposed project, give
recommendations and suggest ways and means to make the project beneficial
to both humans, and the environment. This analysis considers potential
consequences, which are long-term and short-term; direct and indirect; primary
or secondary; individual and cumulative; and beneficial and adverse.

Box 8.6: A news report about an EIA study to be undertaken for a

proposed project. Such EIA studies that involve substantial inputs
both of finances and time are carried out to understand the likely
impacts on the environment and the living species including the
human population in that area.

Source: Down to Earth; May 15,2002; p.17.

The Union M~nistryof Shipping has asked the Nagpur-based National
Engineenng Environment Research Institute (NEERI) to conduct a detailed
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the Sethusamudran ship canal project
~n'Tamil Nadu.

the movement of coastal ships of the size of 3,000 tonnes. The project runs
through the Gulf of Mannar National Park and there has been opposition to the

Methodology of EIA
There is no one methodology for assessing the environmental impact that
results from a particular action or project. No single method of impact
assessment is appropriate for the broad spectrum of developmental projects and
activities, which range from construction of large reservoirs, highway
construction, laying out infrastructure for mass rapid transport system in a city,
Environmental and so on. The main principle of any method is that it is objective, and is
Management technically and legally defensible (see also Box 8.7).

Box 8.7: A news clip reporting the alterations made in the environmental
impact assessment clearance procedure-recently. It is important
to be aware of such changes. Not oilly this, it is also expected from
the enlightened citizens to bring to the notice of the concerned
authorities the oversights, if any, or any constructive comma~tsor
suggestions.

'These had been done with a view to promoting tlme-bound and transparent

The salient features of the reforms Include a dccislon to raise the Investment limit
from R s 50 crores to Ks 100 crores for new projects with regard to the

In any methodology the basic stages of study are invariably similar, and these
are described below.
O Baseline conditions, O Scoping, O EIA report (Draft), @ Mitigating
measures, O Review of draft EIA report, @ Impact monitoring, and
O Evaluation.

O Rascli?le conclifions - This involves studying the existing total

eilvironmental conditions in the area where the proposed project is to be
undertaken. The general practice is that an area falling within a 10 Km
radius of the project is studied in detail, while the area falling within a
25 Km radius is examined for the major features. Some of the parameters
that are examined are:
land-use;
water-use;
socio-economic;
soil;
hydrology;
water quality;
meteorology;
air quality; .
ecology; and
noise.
I
A lot of information is available from local Government Agencies and Environmental Quality
Universities, Revenue Records, Census Reports, Agriculture Department, Management
Forest Department, Fisheries Department, Meteorological Department, and
other organizations provide a wealth of information that has to be collected
and collated. ~ o c a l ~ u b lisi calso a valuable source of information
particularly about thk local knowledge, and the environment issues that the
public perceives to be important. The development authority may not have
this perspective that is crucial for the ultimate success of the project. Public
participation may also provide access to information about the local
environmental, economic and social systems, the possible identification of
alternative actions and increase in the acceptability of the project as the
public will better understand the project.

All these data is then put together, and information gaps if any, are then
filled. The field studies mostly span over a period of one year to
accommodate seasonal variations.

O Scoping - Scoping is the process of early identification of relevant

environmental issues, concerns, assessment methods, affected interests, and
other aspects requiring detailed evaluation. At this stage there is also
public involvement for getting inputs about the factors to be assessed. This
- -

also facilitates early agreement on contentious issues, thus saving time and
~ -

money. The exercise of scoping does not stop here. It may continue well
- -

into the project design finalization stage depending on new issues, which
may arise f i r consideration. The approach and techniques used in scoping
are commonly a part of any decision-making process. Issues are identified, .------- ---------- - ----- -
prioritized, and strategies identified - all these informations are then j (i.iv.i) Objectives L
I

organized for presentation to the decision makers. I (i.iv.ii) Types of impacts j

I

I Socio-economic I
As a part of scoping, terms of reference (TOR) for full-scale study are also Biological and I

I physico- I
prepared. The format given below is self-explanatory. a I
I
I
I
I
chemical , I

background information; I
I
Cultural I
I
I Direct impacts
methodology to be used; I

specific EIA guidelines;

I
Indirect impacts I I
II
I Cumulative I
time limits for completion of study; II II

budget; I impacts I

: (i.iv.iii) Methods of I
I

EIA report format; 9 impact a

I

I
I
other relevant information; , I
I
I
I identification
reference list; I
I and comparison
annexes, maps, photographs, figures, tables, charts, drawing, check- j Checklist I
I

lists, etc. 4
I
I
I
Matrix methods j
I
I
Network I
I
I
O EIA report (Draft) - It is a concise report limited to addressing the main methods I
I
I
environmental issues. The format of an EIA report given below would give I (i-iv-iv)Impact I
I

you an idea of the contents involved. I prediction I

4 I Magnitude of j
I
I
i) EIA Report (main body) I impact I

Extent of impact i
I
I
I
I
(i.i) Executive summary I
I
Duration of I
I
I I
(i.ii) Project description , II impact I

(i.iii) Baseline information

I
I
I
Impact ranking j
(i.iv) Identification of environmental impacts I'
I
I
I
methodology ! I
------------------------a
(i.v) Analysis about the alternatives
83
Environmental (i.vi) Review of policy and legal framework
Management (i.vii) Monitoring mechanism
(i.viii) Auditing design

ii) EIA Report Annexes

Maps
Aerial photographs
Other devices such as questionnaires, figures,
drawings; climatological, meteorological and
hydrological data; Data on flora and fauna;
Information on air, water, and noise quality;
Audio-video aids, slides, transparencies, recordings
(video, films).

iii) EIA Report references

Publications consulted
(Author, date of publication, title of cited reference, name of
publication or journal, volume, pages)

@ Mitigating measures - Mitigating measures are actions, which reduce,

avoid or offset the potential adverse environmental consequences of
development activities. The objective of mitigation measures is to
maximize the project benefits, and keep the undesirable impacts to the
minimum. Some common aspects of development proposals for which
alternatives need to be considered include: technology, location, fuel, raw
materials, mitigation measures, design, time schedule, and economic
factors. A word of caution here, building-in mitigation to reduce or
compensate for environmental degradation is a useful endeavour in many
instances, but it must not be considered a standard operating procedure to
circumvent the adverse environmental impacts associated with a particular
project.

The main kinds of mitigation measures are the following:

Compensatory measures - These compensate for adverse impacts that
are unavoidable. Possible compensatory measures include:
- Restoration of damaged resources;
- Rehabilitation of displaced settlements; and
- Compensation of affected people.
Correctives measures - These are adopted to reduce adverse impacts to
acceptable levels. Following are some examples of the types of
corrective measures that can be used.
- Installation of pollution control devises.
- Construction of effluent treatment plant.
Introduction of preventive measures - Some potential adverse impacts
may be reduced or eliminated before occurrence by introducing
preventive measures. Examples of such measures are:
- Implementation of health education programmes.
- Initiation of public awareness programmes.
 Implementation of mitigation measures requires fimding. Therefore, it Environmental Quality
should be estimated, included in the EIA report. All the project mitigation Management
measures should be integrated in the project design so that these measures
may automatically form part of the construction and operation phases of the
project. This is more cost-effective approach than adding mitigating
measures to an existing report.

O Review of draft EIA report To make the EIA a h i t f u l exercise, it is

-

necessary to review it (see Box 8.8), not only by the project proponent
alone, but also by an independent body, and very necessaily by the public.
The purpose of the review is to once again examine that the key areas and
issues are addressed or not (also see Box 8.8).

The key points that should be kept in mind at the time of review aie the
following.
The EIA report responds fully to the terms of reference outlined in the
beginning of the project.
The EIA report is in concurrence with the national EIA Guidelines.
The report addresses the key environmental issues, which need to be
answered prior to decision-making.
Has attention been paid to off-site effects, including trans-boundary
effects?
Are results in the report scientifically and technically sound, and
coherently organized so that the people and the bodies reviewing it
easily understand them?
The study identifies all the major adverse environmental impacts likely
to arise through project implementation, with mitigation measures for
each impact.
The methodology adopted, techniques to be used, assumptions made,
and the limitations faced are fully described, and are feasible.
Reasonable alternatives have been suggested to the proposed action.
The source of information cited in the report is relevant.
Are the institutional arrangements adequate to implement recommended
mitigation measures.
Does the EIA report specify who will be responsible for monitoring the
standard enforcement programme?
Have environmental protection measures been costed and are there
fimds and technical capacity to implement them?

8 Impact monitoring - Environmental monitoring is one of the most

important components of an EIA. It is essential for:
- ensuring that the impacts do not exceed the legal standards;
- checking the implementation of mitigation measures in the manner
described in the EIA report; and
- providing early warning of potential environmental damage.
It may not be always possible to monitor all the aspects covered by the
impact identification process. In such instances, selection or 'scoping' of
the most important and critical parameters that could influence the project
(site) and its surrounding environment, could make it a realistic proposition.
In addition to this, if the EIA monitoring process is to generate meaningful
Environmental information and improve implementation of mitigation measures, the
Management following constitute the core principles.
a Carefully determine the indicators that cover all the programme
components.
Collect only meaningful and relevant information.
Apply measurable criteria in relation to chosen indicators.
Pass objective judgments on the information collected.
Draw tangible conclusions based on the processing of information and
objective judgments.
a Make rational decisions based on the conclusions drawn.
Recommend improved mitigating measure(s) to be undertaken by the
implementing authorities.
Box 8.8: A news clip pointing out the importance of review in any
developmental project. Many times despite the best of efforts,
deficiencies remain resulting in lowering the environmental quality.
The provision and practice of review makes EIA a truly meaningful
and a purposive exercise.

Metro floodlights leave birds sleepless; source: United News of India, July 8,
2002
Birds have fallen unsuspecting prey to the ambitious Delhi Metro Rail Project,
with the harsh lights from its construction sites keeping them awake in the night
and leaving them disoriented. Bird lovers fear this change in nocturnal behaviour
could affect their breeding pattern.

To add to their woes af.*ir r d n a , trees have been axed or kmspiated

to w y for ahe traek. "Small birds like mynahs will somehow manage
and find new spaces to build nests and get over their bafflement. It is thi;81%B&
li& axld wlw& wwill wmkkit'', the Northern India Bird network
Secretary, Mr Nikhil Devasar told UNI.
Eagles and vultures build nests in tall trees, and with most of the canopied trees
gone, they will find it difficult to breed during the current season. However, they
should return to normalcy by the next season, he opined. Bird lovers have been
talking to the Delhi Government about the issue, he added.
The Delhi Government has proposed to set up a bird sanctuary at Najafgarh on the
outskirts of the Capital. However, Devasar said it was yet to talk to any of the
good bird men here. "A sanctuary is very important, The land is already there.
But we need to know how much funds they plan to allocate," he said.
DMRC officials seem genuinely apprised of the problem. The Metro Chief
Project Manager, Mr Mangu Singh, admitted it was quit&likely ht. rhi8 %@at
W B il?lltialsurveys. "We will look into it.. ..
%gh% w r e d i w t d tcp f$TSos1iy .4P %bwefk
up the sky",he told UNI. Mr Anuj Dayal, the Chief Public Relations Officer of
DMRC, said a detailed b v i h i p a d A&=
before wutk was stakted sad wugM %am
and Farest. Only those trees that came right in the way of the track were cut, he
said. "We even changed the prescribed track alignment to save about 25 of the
trees that were marked to be felled. Nearly 1,200 of them have been
transplanted", he pointed out.
@ Evaluation - EIA evaluation is a continuous process through which project Environmental Quality
impacts can be objectively assessed. An EIA evaluation is primarily Management
employed to assess the performance of environmental protection
programmes undertaken by responsible public or private sector agencies.
While implementing agencies may claim that mitigating measures have
been adopted, EIA evaluation determines if such measures have been
implemented with the requirements of the EIA report. Monitoring and
evaluation are thus two complementary processes of the EIA report. It is
only that the information generated by EIA monitoring, on regular basis,
that is the key aid for the regular review meetings held at key decision
making points in the EIA process. The role of EIA evaluation is to
strengthen EIA implementation on a nation wide level. Now we shall talk
briefly about the determinants of effective evaluation. Monitoring data
should be analyzed to determine the actual impact of project
implementation, against impact predictions made at the time of EIA
preparation. These analyses will indicate whether new or revised remedial
measures are necessary.

8.4.3 Environmental Auditing

The term auditing refers to the examination and assessment of performance. In
context of EIA, an audit assesses actual environmental impact, the accuracy of
prediction, the effectiveness of environmental impact mitigation measures, and
the functioning of monitoring mechanisms. The audit is undertaken after the
project has been operational for some time. To make auditing a meaningful
exercise, the following aspects are important. To begin with, it should be
thought off clearly as to what areas should be focused on. An outlige be
prepared, and time limits set to enable the process go on in a structured and
controlled manner. An audit camed out by one individual runs the risk of
bringing some sort of bias, affecting the credibility of the exercise. A team
effort rather a multidisciplinary team not only broadens in constituency, but
adds to the quality of findings. To handle and process various kinds of data,
and to get some tangible output, the use of computers would be of immense
help and value.

The common types of audits camed out for different aspects of EIA process are:
1. Decision point audit - examines the effectiveness of EIA as a decision
making tool.
2. Implementation audit - ensures that consented conditions have been met.
3. Performance audit - examines the responses of agencies concerned with
project management.
4. Project impact audit - examines environmental changes arising from
project implementation.
5. Prediction technique audit - examines the accuracy and utility of predictive
techniques by comparing actual against predicted environmental effects.
6. EIA procedure audit - critically examines the methods and approach
adopted during the EIA study.

Audit is invariably carried out by the agency, which approves the project, with
assistance fiom the other relevant organization, if required. The audit is a
crucial stage of project implementation that may show a need to alter the
implementation of a project, to prevent or reduce any unwanted consequences.
The above mentioned formal part of audit if coupled with the inputs from
Environmental people residing near the site, taken even informally but with open mind would
make this whole exercise fruitful. The adjacent reference#20is particularly
recommended for extra reading. This is a critique of three EIA studies, the
Environmental impacts - points raised here could have been incorporated in the relevant EIA studies to
Biased assessments, by make them more effective.
Kanchi Kohli & Manju
Menon. In 'The Hindu
Survey of Environment 8.4.4 Life Cycle Assessment and Management
2002'. pp. 87-90.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be used to evaluate the
environmental effects of a product, process, or activity that are the outcome of,
or that happens repeatedly, in a production process in a cyclic manner. It
evaluates the environmental effects associated with any given activity from the
initial gathering of raw materials from earth such as petroleum, coal, ores and
so on, up to the point at which all materials are returned to the earth (Fig. 8.4).
lliiLm Life-Cycle Stages 1
Atmospheric
-) emissions
Raw materia
Waterborne
+ wastes
-4 Manufacturing
Solid
materials wastes

Energy4 Coproducts

Other
releases
System boundary
Fig.8.4: The stages and boundaries for Life Cycle Assessment; source: Curran, 1996

Methodology
The LCA methodology has four stages:
i) Goal definition and scoping,
ii) Life cycle inventory (LCI),
iii) Impact assessment (IA), and
iv) Improvement assessment.

A full LCA includeseach of these components. Goal definition and scoping at

stage one of LCA defines the purpose of the study, the expected product of the
study, the boundary conditions, and the assumptions.

The second stage of the LCA process is the preparation of LCI. The LC1
quantifies the resource and energy use, and the environmental releases
associated with a particular life cycle system are evaluated. The concept of one
such system is illustrated in Fig. 8.5. For a 'Product Life Cycle', the analysis
involves all the steps in the life cycle of each component of the product'. This
includes the acquisition of raw materials and the acquisition of energy
resources fiom the earth; processing of raw materials into usable components;,
manufacturing of products and intermediates; transportation of materials to Environmental Quality
each processing step; distribution of the product; use of the product; and the Management
disposition aspect of the components, the intermediates, and the product.
These include recycling, reuse, incineration, or landfill.

The Environment

I
Other natural
reso.Utces
reswrces
(such as water)

1
All
(as raw materials)
W

water emissions)

The Environment

Fig.8.5: Outline diagram of the Life Cycle System concept (source: Curran, 19%)

Once the inputs and outputs of a system have been quantified by the LCI,
Impact assessment (IA) - the third stage of LCA can be performed.
Conceptually IA consists of three stages:
i) Classification,
ii) Characterization, and
iii) Valuation

i) Classification is the assignment of LC1 inputs and outputs to impact

grouping. For example, the use of fossil fuels may be assigned to the
impact group 'depletion of finite resources7.
ii) Characterization is the process to develop conversion models, to translate
the LC1 and the supplemental data to impact descriptors. For example,
carbon dioxide and methane LC1 outputs may be converted to units of
global warming potential.
iii) Valuation is the assignment of relative values or weights to different
impacts, allowing integration across all impact categories.

The fourth stage - improvement assessment, like goal definition and scoping,
has always been a part of LC1 and LCA studies. The desire to reduce burdens
on the environment by altering a product or process is often the driver for any
such study. Another driver of LCA studies is to benchmark a product against its
competitive products or to prove that one product is environmentally preferable
over another. This is also a type of improvement assessment. It assists
individuals or companies in making more environmentally sound choices.

In LCA huge data recording, processing, and record keeping are involved.
Appropriate software for data management can make the task both easier and h i t h l
Environmental Importance
Management
The LCA is mostly used to gather information to make comparisons either
between competing products performing the same function or in evaluating
modifications to a product to make it more 'environmental-friendly'. LCA is
important for making the selection of one product over another. It is also
important when modifications are made to any part of the system, they have the
desired end result of decreasing environmental impacts from all the life cycle
stages, that is, from cradle-to-grave and not cradle-to-gate. Many times
apparent improvements are made in the operations or activities without any
thought given to the possible secondary effects. Potentially, any change to any 1
part of the product or the process system can result in an unwanted shifting of I
!
burdens to another part of the system, unless a lijie cycle frame work is
employed. Identifying these unwanted shifts between life cycle stages, as well
as between the different media (air, water, solid wastes) is the key concept
behind LCA.

Pollution is another area which can be viewed with life cycle impacts in mind.
Many success stories have been reported in the field of pollution prevention in
which source reduction of hazardous waste streams and increased recycling
opportunities have been achieved.

Applications
'Life cycle concepts' and 'LCAs' have been used in a variety of applications in
both the private and public sectors. In private sector, it is applied for product
improvement, product comparison, and strategic planning. Environmental
labelling, and the use of LCAs in drafting regulations are among the main
public sector applications. You will study in detail about environmental
labelling in Subsection 8.5.2.

Management
Life cycle management includes all decisions and actions taken by multiple
stakeholders which ultimately determine the environmental profile and
sustainability of the product system. Each stakeholder has an important role in
guiding improvement as indicated below. A major challenge for the product
manufacturers lies in coordinating the diverse interests of these stakeholder groups.

Key stakeholders and their role in Life Cycle Management

Users and Public - Understanding and values through education.
+

Modify behaviour and demand toward more sustainable lifestyle.

Policymakers and Regulators - Develop policies to promote sustainable
economies and ecological systems. Apply new regulatory instruments or
+

modify existing regulations.

Suppliers, Manufacturers, End-oflife Management - Research and
develop more sustainable technologies. Design cleaner products and
processes. Produce sustainable products. + Improve the effectiveness of
environmental management systems.
Investors and Shareholders - Support cleaner product system development.
+

Service Industy - Maintain and repair products.

+

Insurance Industy - Assess risk and cover losses.

 - - -

8.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL Environmental Quality

Management
The different management tools help us to assess the impact of activities or actions
on environment, and evaluate whether the measures adopted and correctives put in
place are turning out to be effective or not. Thus in this way the process of
minimizing environmental impacts goes on. All these aspects comprise half the
story of environmental quality management. For assuring and controlling the
environmental quality, the above discussed environmental management tools need
to be complemented with certain planned and systematic actions that could
provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given
requirements for environmental quality. I S 0 14000 Standards, and
environmental labelling are amongst the quality assurance and control devices
with international acceptance. These are regulated and monitored by the
governments in their respective countries. The details about these two are given in
the following subsections. In addition to the above two mechanisms,
Environmental Legislation is another valuable tool for maintaining and improving
environmental quality. This aspect has been dealt with in Section 8.6.

8.5.1 I S 0 14000 Standards

We use 'standards' all the time without giving so much a thought. We can
communicate because of standardization of English language. A litre of milk in
New Delhi is the same as a litre of milk in Mumbai, because we have standards of
weights and measures. Likewise a computer disk manufacturer's product is
compatible with any computer regardless of the brand. A system of accepted
standards is essential for the widespread marketability, efficient production, and
use of products - from complex mechanical devices like the automobiles, the nuts
and bolts that hold them together, and even the purely intellectual products such as
computer programmes.

IS0 9000 and IS0 14000 Standards are internationally accepted series of
standards. You might have seen a whole lot of products and services tagged with
either of these series of standards. Let us now see what are these standards about?
The IS0 9000 series pertains to quality management and quality assurance, and the
latter series is about environmental management standards. The IS0 14000
Standards being relevant to the present topic of the unit, are being discussed below.

Genesis
The IS0 14000 Standards had their origin in the 1960s when worldwide concern
for environment began. In 1992, the United Nations conference on Environment
and Development also called 'Earth Summit', took place in Rio de Janeiro.
Preparation for this conference and subsequent related activities led to the
development of international environmental management standards, and the
development of the accompanying implementation and auditing tools were
assigned to IS0 (International Organization for Standardization). The IS0 created
Technical Committee 207 (TC 207) to develop these standards.

IS0 is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies, at present comprising

127 members, with its headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland. It was established in
1947 to promote the development of standardization and related activities in the
world, with a view to facilitate exchange of goods and services, and to develop
cooperation in the sphere of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic
activity. The results of IS0 technical works are published as International
Standards.
Environmental I S 0 membership has three categories. A Full Member is a national body
Management designated by its respective country as the "most representative of
standardization". Most nations are represented by full members. A nation that
does not have standardization bodies may be represented by a Correspondent
Member. A small nation with a very small economy may become a Subscriber
Member at a reduced membership rate. Although only full members participate
in the development of standards, I S 0 keeps the correspondent and subscriber
members informed about activities of their interest. India has a full I S 0
membership. The contact details of the national standards organization -
dZ1
Bureau of Indian Standards, abbreviated as BIS are as given in #21.
Bureau of Indian Standards,
Manak Bhavan, Inside I S 0 14000
9, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg,
New Delhi - 110002 You may recall that the I S 0 14000 series is about Environmental Management
Website: Standards in which basics of how to establish, document, implement, and
http://www.bis.org.in/ maintain an effective environmental system are defined. These standards are
intended to achieve improved environmental results by a management process
rather than by coercion from regulations. International acceptance of these
standards reduces duplication of efforts, besides creating a level playing field.
Therefore, these standards improve international trade by reducing trade barriers.

I S 0 14000 Standards can be applied to any organization - public or private,

large or small, that might have any kind of impact on the environment.
Compliance to I S 0 14000 is not mandatory but the trends indicate that
customers will mandate in the near future compliance with I S 0 14000 and even
now compliance offers a competitive advantage to the suppliers. Nevertheless
an organization with commitment to IS0 14000, indicates that it is dedicated to
the principles and elements of the environmental management standards, with
an eye on sustainable development and an efficient environmental performance.
This means that the organization is making sure that their activities, products,
and services are good for the mankind and the world on the whole.

The I S 0 14000 series consists of:

i) Organization and Process Standards (Fig. 8.6, see the left-hand column) -
Environmental Management System (EMS), environmental performance
evaluation, and environmental auditing;
ii) Product-oriented Standards (Fig. 8.6, see the right-hand column) - Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA), environmental labelling, environmental aspects
in product standards; and
iii) Terms and definitions (Fig. 8.6, see the lower most box).

Two types of I S 0 14000 series documents include Specification Standards and

Guidance Standards. A Specification Standard describes requirements against
which a facility will be audited for registration-certification purposes. A
Guidance Standard offers instructions to implement EMS and its relationship
with other systems. Although documents concerning I S 0 14000 series are
several, an applicant is audited only against the requirements of I S 0 14001,
for EMS to be certified. The other documents guide implementation of system
or the analysis of product attributes.
 Environmental Quality
Management

Terms and Definitions

I S 0 14050

Fig.8.6: An overview of I S 0 14000 Environmental Management System (source: Goetsch

& Davis, 2001)

Environmental Management System (EMS)

An environmental management system (EMS) is a systematic approach to
dealing with the environmental aspects of an organization. It is a 'tool' that
enables an organization of any size or type to control the impacts of its
activities, products or services on natural environment. The IS0 14001
Standard 'Environmental Management Systems - Specifications with guidance
for use' is the standard within IS0 14000 series that specifies the requirements
of an environmental management system. It provides a framework based on
which an organization performs its environmental management functions,
including allocation of resources, assignment of tasks, and improvement of
procedures and processes. The EMS elements include environmental policy,
planning, implementation and operation, checking and corrective action,
management review, and continual improvement (see Fig.8.7).

IS0 14010, IS0 14011, and IS0 14012 describe general principles of
environmental auditing, guidelines to audit EMS, and qualification
requirements for environmental auditors. Auditing is required to find out
whether processes put in place to improve compliance are working, and verify
the efficacy of the management reviews in capturing the effectiveness of EMS.

Performance evaluation is a key feature of EMS. The management monitors

the performance from time to time to ensure that policy goals, objectives, and
targets are met. The Performance indicators are presented in IS0 14031.

The environmental labelling and LCA focus on product characteristics that

impact the environment. You have studied about LCA in Subsection 8.4.4, and
you would be knowing about environmental labelling in the following
subsection.
 Environmental
Management
Policy
Environmental aspects

Canada
Compliance requirements I
(EnvironmentalChoice)
Objectives and targets
Programs

Management structure

West Germany Communication

(Blue Angel)
Documentation

n
Operating procedures
Emergency preparedness
Measuring and monitoring
Corrective actions Checking
United States Records
(Scientific Certification Environmentalaudits corrective
System)
sction

Management
Nordic Countries review Continual Improvement
(White Swan)

Fig.8.7: An I S 0 14001 Environmental Management System Model (source: Goetsch &

Davis, 2001)

IS0 14050 pertains to Environmental Management terms and Definitions used

Japan in various IS0 14000 environmental standards. This is to avoid any
(EcoMark)
ambiguities in their use, and ensure uniform understanding of technical terms
throughout the world.

8.5.2 Environmental Labelling

Manufacturers communicate environmental attributes of their products through
United States
(Green Seal) environmental labelling. This is also referred by names like 'green labelling'
or 'eco-labelling'. Environmental or green labelling programmes have been
introduced in several countries to help consumers identify environment-
friendly products. These labels are in different formats and they display
various kinds of product-specific information. Germany (formerly West
Germany) was the first country to launch environmental labelling of products
Netherlands
by introducing the 'Blue Angel Labelling Programme' in 1978. Later on other
countries such as Austria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, India, Japan,
Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, and United States
also started their green labelling programmes, some of their logos are depicted
in Fig. 8.8.
1 India There is a global network of countries (GEN) that have eco-labelling schemes.
(Ecomark)
I
Fig.8.8: Environmental
The Central Pollution Control Board (India) is also a member of GEN since
labels from around March 2000. The purpose of green labelling is to steer consumers towards
the world; source: green or environment friendly products, and also encourage the manufacturers
Curran et al., 1998 to develop such products. However, debates are on about the dangers of
misusing eco-labelling criteria as a trade barrier by the industrialized countries Environmental Quality
against the developing nations (also see Box 8.9). Management

Box 8.9: A news clip reporting the stand of India regarding 'eco-labelling'
at the World Summit of Sustainable development. As you would
note from the details given below, in all such instances, that involve
operations in the international arena, the norms are developed with a
lot of thinking and utmost caution. It is important to keep oneself
informed by such developments.
- -

Eco-labelling norm deleted on our insistence: Baalu; source: Press Trust of

India, New Delhi, September 5,2002
Despite stiff resistance from two powerful blocks, tndia and other developing
countries have come out with hono
and other restrictions on them at the
" ~ f , $g;*,&;ms
. e ~ "*,,. .> ,~..% a., . ,~

'The industrialized countries were determined on imposing trade barriers against

the developing countries in some form or the other,

Wednesday.

He said the Sum

important because

Asserting that environment was a common global concern and not exclusive to
individualized countries, he said the success of global effort in this regards was
directly related to the right kind of international cooperation in which the
developed countries have to help the developing nations with financial and
technical resources.
Common but differentiated responsibility, the core element of Rio principles was
the main concern for India and other members of the G-77, he said.

The other concerns were ensuring access for the people to clean water and
sanitation facilities, increasing access to energy, biodiversity, changing the
present unsustainable patterns of consumption and production and means of
implementation, he said.

The green labels on one hand give credible information about the environment-
friendly properties of the product, and they also indicate that the labelled
product is relatively environmentally less harmful than the others in the same
category. However, because most products harm the environment during some
phases of their life cycle, only a few products are considered environmentally
benign. Therefore, making such relative evaluations requires estimates that
take into account a product's overall environmental impact. Some examples of
green labels are given below: 'energy efficient', 'chlorofluorocarbon free',
'ozone-friendly', 'flammable', 'ecotoxic', 'biodegradable' and several others.

Most environmental labelling programmes follow similar basic procedures.

They identify the product group to be labelled, such as light bulbs or printing
papers. The Life Cycle Analysis is done to identify areas of maximum
environmental impacts. Based on Life Cycle Analysis, criteria that the
products must satisfy to qualify for labelling are established. For example,
Environmental
Management
'22From:
htt~://c~cb.delhi.nic.in/ec
omark/ecomark.html
h Terms such as recycled materials, pre-consumer material, recyclable, and so on
#2j
Vide a resolution 'I,
passed by Ministry of ',
Environment and forests, ',
New Delhi, dated
February 20,199 1.
Details are available at the I,, private organizations to communicate the greenness within a given product
following website.
Notifieation:
httu://envfor.nic.in/leeis/o
thers/ecomark.html
The complete details of
the scheme are available
at the following website
address:
http://cvcb.delhi.nic.in/ec
omark/ecomark.htrnl
about 90 percent of the environmental consequences arising from washing
machine occur during the use stage. Therefore, the criteria to award green
labels for washing machines generally are based on the use-related
environmental impacts. Public comments are also considered while making
final decisions about the awarding criteria. Then the criteria for awarding
green labels are published, and the manufacturers are encouraged to apply for
the labels.
A green labelling typically involves charges and is valid for a fixed duration.
This was an overview of the award of green labelling programme. We shall
resume detailed discussion about this aspect when we take up the 'Ecomark
Scheme of India'.
Environment labels by themselves may not change consumer behaviour.
However, integrated campaigns consisting of promotion, education, and
incentives are found to be effective in changing consumer behaviour. More
aware consumers will take into account environmental label, along with
environmental quality, and brand while making purchasing decisions. There is
thus a need of public education that can encourage a consumer with
environmental labels. A consumer will be receptive to an environmental
labelling programme if he or she understands relevant issues. Issues by
themselves may not cause a consumer to use a particular product unless he or
she realizes how buying choices will affect the relevant environmental issue.
This is possible only if product characteristics are clearly presented to the
consumers. In addition, labelling programmes should indicate to consumers
what they have read on the label. On the other hand there is also a danger of
the consumers getting confused because of ambiguity in the presented
information. It is therefore essential to standardize existing labelling
procedures.
The International Standardization Organization (ISO) labelling standards try to
achieve these goals. IS0 14020 focuses on labelling standards and deals with
product marks and their meanings. Labelling standards are likely to affect sales
and advertising functions. IS0 14021 presents general guidelines about
environmental claims. The standard is intended to produce accurate claims,
encourage environmentally favourable products, and reduce barriers to trade.
are defined in this standard.
IS0 14022 is about standardization of environmental labels used in various
II
II
countries. IS0 14024 deals with labelling programmes run by governments or
II category based on the environmental attributes.
I
Ecomark Scheme of ~ n d i a ' ~ ~
The government of India as a part of its proactive environmental protection
strategy, launched an eco-labelling scheme in the year 1991'~~. In this scheme,
'Ecomark" label is awarded to consumer goods which meet the specified
environmental criteria and quality requirements of Indian Standards. This
award is for a specific period, that is, for one year, and the license is
withdrawn anytime if the Bureau of Indian Standards finds any misleading
information, or change in criteria due to advancement of technology or any
other valid reasons.
The aim of the scheme is to promote the development and use of 'eco-friendly ~nvironmentalQuality
products'. This therefore makes both the consumers and the manufacturers of Management
products to actively participate in the environmental protection process. The
definition of an eco-friendly product as per this scheme is - 'any product which
is made, used or disposed off in a way that significantly reduces the harm it
would otherwise cause the environment.

The Ecomark Logo: An earthen pot has been chosen as the logo (see Fig. 8.8)
for the Ecomark Scheme of India. The familiar earthen pot uses a renewable
resource like earth, does not produce hazardous waste and consumes little
energy in making. Its solid and graceful form represents both strength and
fragility, and also characterizes the ecosystem. As a symbol, it puts across its
environmental message. Its image has the ability to reach people and can help
to promote a greater awareness of the need to be kind to the environment. The
logo for the Ecomark Scheme signifies that the product, which carries it, does
the least damage to the environment.

Criteria for Ecomark

The criteria are based on the cradle-to-grave approach, i-e., from raw material
extraction to manufacturing and to disposal. The basic criteria cover broad
environmental levels and aspects, but are specific at the product level. A
product is examined in terms of the following main environmental impacts:
that they have substantially less potential for pollution than other
comparable products in production, usage and disposal.
that they are recycled, recyclable, made from recycled products or bio-
degradable, where comparable products are not;
that they make significant contribution to saving non-renewable resources
including non-renewable energy sources and natural resources compared
with comparable products; and
that the product must contribute to a reduction of the adverse primary
criteria which has the highest environmental impact associated with the use
of the product, and which will be specifically set for each of the product
categories.

Product General Requirements - The product general requirements deal with

the issues of compliance of the pollution control acts; raising environmental
awareness among consumers; and in addition to safety, quality and
performance of the products.

Product Specijic Requirements - While determining the product specific

requirements, the following issues have been taken into account:
production process including source of raw materials;
use of natural resources;
likely impact of the environment;
energy conservation in the production of the product;
effect and extent of waste arising from the production process;
disposal of the product and its container;
utilization of "waste" and recycled materials;
suitability for recycling or packaging; and
biodegradability
Environmental 1. Ecomark Criteria of the Product Categories covered under the scheme
Management
The Government of India has notified the final criteria for the following 16
product categories:
1. Soaps & Detergents
2. Paper
3. Food Items
4. Lubricating Oils
5. Packaging Materials
6. Architectural Paints and Powder Coatings
7. Batteries
8. Electrical/Electronic Goods
9. Food Additives
10. Wood Substitutes
11. Cosmetics
12. Aerosol Propellants
13. Plastic Products
14. Textiles
15. Fire-extinguisher
16. Leather
The details of each of the above 16 product categories have been spelt out.
The full details of product category # 2, i.e., about 'Paper' is being
reproduced here for you to appreciate the thoroughness of the process. It is
recommended that you familiarize about the details of the remaining
categories also. The internet address is given in '#23'. We recommend you
to take it as an activity to apprise yourself of the details of the various
products. It is also our duty to look at these details critically, adopt them,
and if any shortcomings/scope of further improvement comes to your mind,
these be informed to the concerned authorities and make our contribution in
the mighty ocean of improvement.

2. Ecomark Criteria for Paper (The Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part 11-Section
3(i), No. 455, Nov. 13, 1992)

1. General requirements:
1.1 All the paper manufacturers shall meet relevant Indian Standards of Bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS) pertaining to quality and performance.
1.2 The product manufacturers must produce the consent clearance as per the
provisions of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, respectively along
with the authorization, if required, under Environment (Protection) Act,
1986, and rules made there under to BIS while applying for ECOMARK.
1.3 The product packaging may display in brief the criteria based on which the
product has been labelled 'environment-friendly'.
1.4 The material used for product packaging shall be made from recyclable,
reusable or biodegradable material and the parameters evolved for the
packaging shall also apply.
2. Product specific requirements:
2.1 The paper and paper boards manufactured out of pulp containing not less
than 60 percent by weight of pulp made from materials other than bamboo,
hard woods, sofi woods and Reed.
OR
2.2 Recycled paper and paper board must be made from 100 percent waste
Paper.
 The following BIS standards have been amended incorporating the above Environmental Quality
Ecomark requirements. Management
Blotting paper
Paper for permanent records (first revision)
Base paper for sensitised paper (first revision)
Writing and printing paper (third revision)
Ticket board (first revision)
Base paper for waxed paper
Hand made drawing paper (first revision)
Backing sheet for stencil (first revision)
Match paper (first revision)
Base paper for carbon paper (first revision)
Alkali resistant paper (first revision)
Coated paper and board (art and chromo) (first revision)
Pulp board (first revision)
Cover paper
Tracing paper (first revision)
Wrapping tissue paper
Diazo sensitised paper
Reproduction tracing paper
Black centered board
Paper for magnetic ink character recognition cheque
printing (first revision)
Base paper for tracing paper
Map printing paper
Paper for computer use
Base paper for one time carbon paper
Plain copier paper-Specification
Release Base Paper- Specification
Toilet paper-Specification

8.6 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

Legislation is a valuable tool for assurance and maintenance of environmental
quality. Numerous legislations have been enacted at national and intemational
levels. Here, we will briefly discuss the important environmental legislations.
The coverage includes the Indian legislations called Acts and Rules, and the
intemational legislations in the form of Conventions, Protocols and Treaties.

1. National Legislations
After the United Nations Conference on Human Environment at
Stockholm, the Constitution of India was amended, to include protection of
the environment as constitutional mandate. The constitution (forty second
Amendment) Act of 1976 has made it fundamental duty to protect and
improve the natural environment by Clause (g) to Article 51A:

"It shall to be duty of every citizen of India to protect and

improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers
and wildlife and have compassion for living creatures."

There is a directive, given to the State a.s one of the Directive Principles of
State Policy regarding the protection and improvement of the environment.
Article 48A states "The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country". The
Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a
Environmental healthy environment for the country. This later became the Ministry of
Management Environment and Forests in 1985. This Ministry has overall responsibility
for administering and enforcing environmental legislations and policies.

The constitutional provisions are backed by a number of legislations - Acts

and rules. Much of our environmental legislations are enacted as Acts by
the Parliament or the State Legislatures. These Acts generally delegate
powers to regulation agencies, to make rules for the purpose of their
implementation.

The main Indian environmental legislations are listed here under the
following four categories:
a) Water Acts
b) Air Acts
c) Forest and wildlife Acts
d) General Acts

a) Water Acts
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and
Amendment, 1988
The main objective of this act is to provide for the prevention and
control of water pollution and maintaining or restoring of
wholesomeness of water (in the streams cr wells or on land).

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977

The Water Cess Act was passed to help meet the expenses of the
Central and State Water Boards to enforce the provisions of the water
Act.

b) Air Acts
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and
Amendment, 1987
The main objectives of this Act are to improve the quality of air and to
prevent, control and abate air pollution in the country.

c) Forest and Wildlife Acts

India is one of the few countries, which had a forest policy since 1894.
To protect forest and wildlife, the following legislations have been
enacted.

The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 and Amendment, 1982

In 1972, Parliament enacted the Wildlife Act (Protection) Act. The
Wildlife Act provides for state wildlife advisory boards, regulations for
hunting wild animals and birds, establishment of sanctuaries and
national parks, regulations for trade in wild animals, animal products
and trophies, and judicially imposed penalties for violating the Act.
 The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 Environmental Quality
Management
First Forest Act was enacted in 1927. This is one of the many surviving
colonial legislations. It was enacted to consolidate the law related to
forest, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and
other forest produce. Subsequently, the Forest (Conservation) Act was
promulgated in 1980 to make certain reforms over the preceding Act of
1927.

Biodiversity Act, 2000

India is one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries of the world and
became a party to the International Convention on Biological Diversity
in 1994. The objectives of the convention are: the conservation of
Biological Diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of
genetic resources. To achieve these goals a Biodiversity Bill 2000 was
passed in 2002.

d) General Acts
The most important legislation in this category is The Environment
(Protection) Act of 1986 that was enacted in the wake of Bhopal gas
tragedy. Through this Act central Government gets full power for the
purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and
preventing, controlling and abating pollution.

The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986

The Act is an "umbrella" legislation designed to provide a framework
for Central Government Coordination of the activity of various central
and state authorities established under the previous Acts, as the Water
Act and the Air Act.

The names of few important rules, which have been notified under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 in the recent past for the
management and control of hazardous substances, which includes
hazardous chemicals, wastes and microorganisms, are the following:

i) Hazardous waste (Management and Handling) Rules of 1989

Objective is to control generation, collection, treatment, import,
storage and handling of hazardous waste.
ii) The manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical
Rules of 1989
Defines the terms used in this context, and sets up an authority to
inspect, once a year, the industrial activity connected with
hazardous chemicals and storage facilities.
iii) The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous
Microorganisms/GeneticallyEngineered Organisms or Cells Rules
of 1989.
These were introduced with a view to protect the environment,
nature and health, in connection with the application of gene
technology and microorganisms.
Environmental iv) Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules of 1998
Management
It is a legal binding on the healthcare institutions to streamline the
process of proper handling of hospital waste such as its
segregation, disposal, collection and treatment.
v) Recycled Plastic Manufacture and usage rules of 1999 & Recycled
Plastic Manufacture and usage Amendment Rules of 2002
These rules were introduced to prohibit the usage of carry bags or
containers made of recycled plastic for foodstuffs. Rules also lay
down procedures for the manufacture of virgin and recycled plastic
carry bags and recycled plastic containers.
vi) Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules 2000
According to these rules any municipal solid waste generated in a
city or a town, shall be managed and handled in accordance with
the compliance criteria and the procedure laid down in Schedules
of these rules. The waste processing and disposal facilities to be set
up by the municipal authority on their own or through an operator
of a facility shall meet the specifications and standards as specified
in the Schedules.

The Factories Act, 1948 and Amendment, 198 7

The Factory Act was formulated in 1948 to safeguard the service
conditions of the workers in the factory. Shortly after the Bhopal
tragedy and the Supreme Court's judgment in the Shriram Gas Leak
Case, the 1987 Amendment to this Act introduced special provisions to
control hazardous industrial activities.

National Environmental Tribunal Act of 1995

This has been created to award compens~tionfor damages to persons,
property and the environment arising from any activity involving
hazardous substances.

2. International Legislations
In contrast to national legislations, there is no international legislation body
with authority to pass legislations, nor are there international agencies with
power to regulate resources in a global scale. There is an international court
at Hague in the Netherlands, but it has no power to enforce its decisions.
Powerful nations can simply ignore the court. As a result, international
legislation must depend on the agreement af the parties concerned. Certain
issues of multinational concern are addressed by collection of policies,
agreements, and treaties that are collectively called International
Envirpnmental legislations. Most of the international legislations are
international agreements to which nations adhere voluntarily. These
agreements are generally finalized through international conventions or
treaties. Nations that have agreed to be bound by the convention are known
as Parties. A convention provides a framework to be respected by each
party, which has to adopt its own national legislations to make sure that
convention is implemented at national level. To support the conventions,
some time protocols are also framed. A protocol is an international
agreement that stands on its own but is linked to an existing convention.
 This means that the Climate Protocol shares the concerns and principles set Environmental Quality
out in the Climate Convention. It then builds on these by adding new Management
commitments which are stronger and far Inore complex and detailed than
those in the convention. United Nations has very important role in
developing and implementing conventions.

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1972,

Stockholm, popularly known as the Stockholm Conference, was the first
step from the United Nations to address the growing problem of
Environmental degradation at international level. The United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) is its important outcome.

Key international environmental conventions which have been agreed since

the Stockholm Conference include:
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (1973),
a the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-
Based Sources (1974),
a the Convention on Long-Range Trans-boundary Air Pollution (1 979),
a the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Level (1985), and
the Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of
Hazardous Waste and their Disposal (1989).

It was again in UN Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED) also known as "Earth Summit" held in Rio de Janeiro in June
1992 many global environmental issues were taken up. The Rio Declaration
on Environment and Development consists of 27 principles for guiding
action on environment and development. It reaffirms and builds on the
Stockholm Declaration of 1972, and is important in contributing to the
development of general principles of international law. The Declaration is
significant to highlighting:
a the Concepts of Sustainable Development,
the Precautionary Principle and the Polluter Pay Principle.

, The key outcomes of this meeting were:

Agenda 21: This is a comprehensive, non-binding action plan for
sustainable development. The document outlines actions to address the
social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable
development, identifies the role of the major groups and outlines the ways
and means for implementing the various actions.

The UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD): The UN

Commission on Sustainable Development was created with the aim of
promoting implemei~tationof Agenda 2 1, and fostering dialogue and
partnerships between governments, the international community and the
major groups.

The Forest Principles: Following the failure to reach consensus in Rio on

forests, the outcome was a non-binding set of Principles. Discussions on
 Environmental forests have continued in the intergovernmental Panel (new Forum) on
I Management
Forests.

Beside these two important international conventions were agreed at the

conference. These are:
i) The Framework Convention on Climate Change (LTNFCCC), and
ii) The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

In 2002, a World Summit on Sustainable Development, also known as ,

Rio+lO was organized in Johannesberg, South Afiica to provide the global

community with the opportunity to take a critical look at the
implementation of all that took place at Rio in 1992.

Now we shall take up few important conventions on some international

environmental issues such as chemicals and hazardous wastes disposal,
ozone layer depletion, climate change, biodiversity loss and laws of the sea.

a) Conventions on Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes

In 1982, UNEP decided to deal with the problem of growing trans-
boundary transportation and disposal of toxic wastes. This resulted in
the enforcement of The Base1 Convention in the year 1992 on the
control of trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and their
disposal.

The main principles of the Base1 Convention are:

1. Trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste should be reduced to
a minimum consistent with their environmentally sound
management.
2. Hazardous waste should be treated and disposed off as close as
possible to their source of generation
3. Hazardous waste generation should be reduced and minimized at
source it self.

b) Conventionsfor the protection of Ozone Layer

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been
addressing this issue since 1977. Under the auspices of UNEP, The
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was organized in
Vienna in 1985. Through this Vienna Convention, nations committed
themselves to protecting the ozone layer and to co-operation with each
other in scientific research to improve understanding of the atmospheric
processes and the serious consequences of ozone depletion. The
Convention provided for future protocols and specified procedures for
amendment and dispute settlement.

Pursuant to the objectives of the convention for the protection of ozone

layer, the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone
Layer was agreed to by nations in 1987 and has since been amended
five times so far. Its control provisions were strengthened through five
amendments to the Protocol adopted in London (1990), Copenhagen
(1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999). The
C)
Protocol aims to reduce and eventually eliminate the emission of -man-
made ozone depleting substances.
< ,

The Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol ,are considered

ozdne layer-depleting chemicals. Unlilie'most environm6nial

1

highly effective regimes for reducing and eliminating emissions of

ageerpepts', the Montreal Protocol contains econqmid incentives to

encoura~eparticibation and cornplikce. The ~ o d r e aPqbtocol,
provides'irl its ~ r t i c l e16
l

to reduce their consumption. The Montreal ~rotocolalso provides a

gradual ban on trade with non-parties. The Protocol promotes
technology transfer to the developing countries,' thiieby offeiing"
economic incentives f~r~devoloping,co~~tsies.to

C+ventions on Climade Change

.% '

The Uk Framework Convention on climate Change W C C C ' J ' i s the

landmark international 'treaty unveiled at the United at ions
Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de ~aneird'in June
1992. The UNFCCC commits signatory countries to anthropogenic
(i.e., human-induced) greenhouse
p ~ v e ndangerous
t
I1 i t '
/

ehksions to le\;erd tfiat wodd

,

- t h t eleven countries r@resenting two-tgirds

of global coryumptioq of controlled sY$stanc& must rati@ the Protocol
before it may enter into'fotce. Thus, the Protocdl creates a o&el of
consumers who control the consumption market, and Ah; 6hse agreed

jain and comply,-

Global warming and climate chapge are perceived as the greatest threat
to the fil'ture of the plket. heref fore, td;lay, action occurs at evej level
to produce, to avoid, and to understand the riski"associated,\;rithclimate
change. ,

anthrapogehic interference ,with the ~lirnatesystem.

Such a level should be achieved within a time frame suffuient to,allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to. ensure the food
production is not threatened a ~ tod enable economic development to
proceed in a sustainable manner.

In pursuance to the objectives of the Convention on Climate Change

the Kyoto Protocol was: agre,ed.bythe nations of the, wqrld iq
December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and it camee,intoforce as 3 legally
binding treaty in February 2005. The Protocol states that Annex I
natidns (mostly developed countries) are committed - individual19 or
jointly to ensuring that their aggregated anthr~po~enic carboi dioxide
equivalent emissions of greenhouse gases do not exceed mount
assigned to each country in Annex B to the Protocol, with a View to
reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5% below
1990 levels in the cornmhrnent period 2008 to 2012. Annex A lists the
6 major greenhouse gases covered by the treaty [Carbon dioxide (C02),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N20), Hydro fluorocii~bons(HFCs),
Perfluoro Carbons (PFCs) and Sulphuhexafluaide (SF6}].

Annex B lists 39 nations, including USA, the*EuropeanUnion plus

individual EU nations, Japan, and many of the former communist
. '

nations. The amount of each nation are listed as percentage of the base
year, 1990 and range from 92% (a reduction of 8%) for most European
Countries to 110% (an increase of 10%) for Iceland. The USA has
'

I , ; ? t

+
=
committed on this list to 93%, or a reduction of 7%, to be achieved as
an average over 5 years 2008-2012.

The Protocol does call on all Parties - developed nations and

developing nations - to take a number of steps to formulate national
and regional programmes to improve "local emission factors", activity
data, models, m d national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions and
sinks that remove these gases from the atmosphere. All parties are also
committed to formulate, publish and update climate change mitigation
and adoption measures, and to cooperate in promotion and transfer of
environmentally sound techniques and in scientific and technical
research on the climate system.

Conventions on Biodiversity
Although not formally part of the UNCED preparatory process, the Rio
Summit provided political impetus for completing the negotiations on
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The aim of CBD is to
promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity through
commitments relating to: promoting scientific and technological co-
operation, establishing protected areas, eradicating alien species,
respecting and maintaining traditional knowledge and practices, and
providing financial resources. In January 2000, the Cartagena
Biosafety Protocol was adopted to address potential risks associated
with cross-border trade and accidental releases of living modified
organisms.

Conventions on Law of the Sea

After the Second World War, the increasing complexity and myriad
interpretations of the global rules for ocean use encouraged efforts to
stsndardise international legislation of the sea. The most important
multilateral negotiations in this regard were.
The First United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS I), 1958;
The Second United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS II), 1960;
The Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS 111), 1967; and
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention), 1972.

Subsequent to this is the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law

of the Sea that came into force in,T)Jovember 1994. It provides for the
first time a universal legal framework for the rational management of
marine resources and their conservation for future generations. It
enshrines the notion that all problems of ocean space are closely
interrelated and need to be addressed as a whole.

UNCED Agenda 21 - Chapter 17

In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro adopted a declaration
 and a global agenda for management of the environment into the next Environmental Quality
century (Agenda 21). The UNCED process classified several important Management
concepts of environmental management that have immediate relevance
to the marine environment. Chapter 17 of Agenda 2 1 emphasizes these
general principles in its discussion on the oceans. Some important
environmental concepts to be legitimised by UNCED are the ideas of
ecologically sustainable development (ESD), the Gecautionary
approach, and integrated oceans management.

The combined effect of Conventions on Law of Sea and UNCED

Agenda 21 - Chapter 17 was an unprecedented level of activity around
the world and several countries strive to develop and articulate their '

oceans policy.

3. Enforcement Issues
In the earlier section of this unit you have learnt about various
Environmental Acts at national level and Efivironmental legislations at
international level. Now we will take up the issues involved in their
enforcement.

Problems and Prospects

You may wonder that despite so many legislative measures the state of the
environment continues to be gloomy. he rivers and the lakes continue to
be polluted with sewage and industrial waste, bioresources continue to
disappear. The air quality i; some major cities is declining at alarming rate.
The basic problems in enforcement of national environment legislations are
briefly taken up here.
Most of the existing environmental legislations are essentialIy punitive
not preventive. The acts apply only after the chemicals or substances
are discharged into the air or water or soil, the preventive measures
have hardly ever evoked or worked and the concerned agencies have
moved into action only after the h a m has been done. We need to stop
this fire-brigade approach.
Another more serious problem in the implementation of environmental
legislation is overlapping powers of authorities involved in supervising
the safety mechanisms and devices of companies, and in granting or
refusing No Objection Certificate (NOC). Thus though the water and
air pollution board may refuse to grant NOC, the Municipality may
grant a license to an industrial unit based on which it may start its
manufacturing activity.
In some cases statutes of environmental legislations do not lay down
any guideIines on the nature of the authority and their specific rights
and the obligations. In the absence of statutory guidelines the agencies
can be structurally inexpert, functionally inefficient and thus totally
ineffective. It also has happened that act is passed long time back but
the rules are not framed for enforcement and prosecution. In the
absence of such niles it becomes very difficult for the environmental
agencies to take any action against defaulters, e.g., in recent past Delhi
State Government has banned the manufacture and use of coloured
plastic bags, without formulating the rule to prosecute the defaulters. So
 when the state knvironment department found some factories
manufactdng the banned bags it was not clear as to what action is to
be taken.
Sometimescasual a$titude of enforcement agencies also affects tbq
enforcement of the legislations.
A common feature with environmental legislation in India is that they
exclude peoples' participation in their implementation. The enterprises,
which make profits at *e, expense of the environment, are always well
represented and their interests well protected but not those of the
common pqsan who suffer the consequences of pollution and
degradation.
Sometimes enforcement of legislation is difficult due to shortage of
funds. Take for example the rivers pollutian in India It is well known
that the major source of pollution of rivers is domestic sewage, which
the municipalities nonchalantly dump in the nearest rivers. Ninety
percent of the pollution of Ganga stream is from the 100 odd untreated
municipal waste dumping. The technology for treating municipal
wastes exists, but because of the prohibitive costs most of the
municipalities cannot afford it.
Public opposition also makes difficult the implementation of
enviionmental legislation. For example, the Hon"b1e Supreme Court
recently made m ~ d a t o r ythe use of CNG for all public transport
vehicles in New Delhi. This ruling, however, led to the disappearance
of some 15,0b0 taxis and 10,000 buses from the city creating public
protests, riots, and widespread commuter chaos. Similarly public did
not support the order of Supreme Court regarding ban on all public
vehicles that were more than 15 years old.

Many of the legislations such as restraining the use of plastic bags can be
fully enforced if public consciousness can be raised rather than await a
judicial direction. After all, many environmental legislations are essentially
"social code of conduct" that should automatically be a part of a better civic
sense instead of a legal framework. Thus, public awareness and
environmental education together can considerably reduce the needs for
multitudes of environmental legislations since enforcement under the
Indian context. will continueto be difficult in foreseeable future. .

As we have said earlier that international law is different in basic concepts

from domestic legislation because there is no world government with
enforcement authority over all the nations. As a result, international
legislations depend on the agreement of the parties concerned to bind them
to follow up the terms and conditions of the concerned document. But there
is always a possibility that many residents of a particular nation may
oppose. Because of this reason efforts at the international level to improve
environmental quality have been v e i successhl. There are many
examples of abuse of the planet despite hundreds of international treaties,
protbcols and cbnventions. But these Aternational legislations certainly
have played a major role in protecting many resources, restoring water
quality regionally, and slowing the depletion of global resources such as the
ozone layer and most importantly generating debates and raising public
awareness about various environmental issues.
8.7 ACTIVITIES Environmental Quality
Management
1. Make a map of your neighbourhood. Given the authority, how would you
re-plan and develop the present set-up, to make it more environment-
friendly?
2. Prepare an account on the mitigation of environmental impact of any
development project that is familiar to you. (Hint: You can prepare a report
on any ongoing project like flyover construction, layinglwidening of a road,
installing underground civic amenities etc.).
3. Think of three different products or processes whose production to disposal
depends on standardization. What problems would result if these standards
were removed?
4. Discuss about the potential conflicts in the management of recreational
activities? Weave your discussion around a particular example.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of regional and national
planning? Mention the potential problems.
6. Study and analyze the details of any one product category of the "Ecomark
Scheme of India'. (You can have an access to the relevant contents through
the website address given in #23).
7. Try to get hold of 'Annual reports' for two or three consecutive years of any
company that are circulated to the shareholders. Study and compare the
investments made by them towards the cause of environment.
8. Prepare a brief report after a follow-up of two local and national newspapers
for their coverage of news on environment, paying attention to aspects like
- what kind of news/informationpertaining to environment are presented,
the frequency, likely impacts on the readers, and any other aspects.
9, List the environmental legislations af your State.
10. Prepare a detailed account pertaining to the formulation and
implementation of an environmental legislation.

8.8 LET US SUM UP

The major points dealt with in this unit are:
b

The quality of total environment is the sum total of the quality of its -
components such as air, water, soillland, noise and radiation - both singly
as well as the outcomes of their interactions with the other components.
This is because, each component plays two kinds of roles in the
environment - one, at single level, and second, while interlinked to the
other components.
The indicators like - shelter, public health and safety, efficiency factor, and
people's comfort and enjoyment, can assess the quality of environment
particularly in context of human beings. The environmental quality varies
spatially, and is never static. The main parameters that influence the quality
of various environmental components are:
Environmental Air - composition, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulfur,
Management particulates, ozone, nitrogen oxides, pollutants, temperature, pathogen load,
and noise.
Water - colour, odour, temperature, turbidity, foam or froth, radioactivity,
pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, hardness, chloride, fluoride, nitrogen
content, total iron, residual chlorine, total solids, oil and grease, BOD and
COD, and microorganisms.
Soillland - particle size, texture, structure, moisture, aeration, cation
exchange capacity, and the biota sustained.
Noise - physical, physiological, reproductive, and psychological indicators
determine its levels.
Radiations emanating both from natural and anthropogenic activities after a
threshold are harmful to life forms including humans.
For an effective management of.environmenta1quality, a holistic planning
incorporating the current as well as the anticipated global, regional, and
socio-economic, geographic, and environmental issues, is essential.
Environmental impact assessment assesses the impact of planned activities
on the environment in advance, thereby allowing avoidance and mitigative
measures to be taken. Environmental audit is another such tool for checking
the past and current environmental performance of the systems under study.
Its benefit lies in introspection, self-discipline and enlightened self-interest.
In other words it is very useful in productivity enhancement.
Life cycle assessment is a tool which systematically examines the
environmental aspects of product systems, from the raw material
acquisition to final disposal stage, and which demonstrates thC
environmental performance or acceptability of a product or service in the
market place. Life cycle concepts and life cycle assessments can be
powerful frameworks for analysis in support of public and private sector
decisions.
I S 0 14000 series of standards are relevant to any organization, public or
private, large or small, that might have any kind of impact on the
environment. These standards aim to achieve improved environmental
results by management process only. These standards are quality assurance
and control devices with international acceptance.
Manufactures of various consumer products communicate the
environmental attributes of their products through green or eco-labelling.
I S 0 14020 series aims to standardize the various aspects of the labelling
procedures.
Several national and international legislations have been framed to stop
environmental degradation. India is one of the few countries of the world
that have made specific reference in the constitution to the need for
environmental protection and improvement. The Central Government, State
Governments have utilized this provision to pass various Acts in order to
protect the envir~nmentfrom destruction.
There is a great contribution of UN in addressing global environmental
challenges. To implement the agenda of UN, there is movement towards
 environment protection on a worldwide scale through special conventions, Environmental Quality
protocols and multilateral agreements. Management

Despite of the presence of satisfactory legislative measures and

administrative set-up, it is difficult to enforce the legislation due to lack of
expertise, shortage of funds, and no seriousness on the part of
implementing authority.

8.9 ' FURTHER READING AND WEB-SUWING

Books
1. Bhat, Vasanthakumar N. (1998). Total Quality Environmental
Management - An I S 0 14000 Approach. Quorum Books, London, U.K.
2. Botkin, D.B. & Keller, E.A. (2000). Environmental Science - Earth as a
Living Planet. Third edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. U.S.A.
3. Chary, S.N. & Vyasulu, Vinod (Editors) (2000). Environmental
Management - An Indian Perspective. Macmillan India Limited, N. Delhi,
India.
4. Curran, M.A. (1996). Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment. McGraw
Hill. New York, USA.
5. Glasson, J.; Therivel, R. & Chadwik, A. (1999). Second edition.
Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment. UCL Press, U.K.
6. Goetsch, D.L. & Davis, S.R. (2001). I S 0 14000 Environmental
Management. Prentice Hall, N. Jersey, USA.
7. Jerath, Neelima (Editor) (1998). Source Book on Environmental Issues in
Technical Education. Sponsored by UNESCO. Punjab State Council for
Science & Technology, Chandigarh, India.
8. Johnson, P. (1997). I S 0 14000 - The Business Manager's Complete Guide
to Environmental Management. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York,
U.S.A.
9. Lohani, B.N. (1984). Environmental Quality Management. South Asia?
Publishers, N. Delhi, India.
10. Mannion., A.M. & Bowlby, S.R. (Editors) (1992). Environmental Issues in
the 1990s. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. U.K.
11. Marriott, B.B. (1997). Practical Guide to Environmental Impact
Assessment. McGraw-Hill, New York. U.S.A.
12. National Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines (1992). National
Planning Commission, HMG Nepal, in collaboration with IUCN - The
world Conservation Union.
13. Sayre, D. (1996). Inside I S 0 14000 - The Competitive Advantage of
Environmental Management. St. Lucie Press, Florida, USA.
14. Subramanian, V. (2002). A Textbook in Environmental Science. Narosa
Publishing House, N. Delhi, India.
15. Wheatley, M. (1993). Green Business - Making it workfor your company.
Pitman Publishing, U.K.
16. Sham Divan and Armin Rosencranz (2000). Environmental Laws and
Policy in India: Cases, Materials and Statues, Oxford University Press.
17. R. Khan, Environmental Laws of India, Lancer Books, New Delhi.
18. H.V. Jadhav and V.M. Bhosale, Environmental Protection and Laws,
Himalayas Publications, Mumbai.
19. S. Bell and S. Ball, Environmental Law, University Law Publishing Co.,
New Delhi.
111
Ewironinental Company Annual Reports
Management
1. ICI India Limited 2001-2002. (It manufactures and markets paints,
specialty chemicals, catalysts, nitrocellulose, rubber chemicals and
adhesives, and industrial starch); http://www.iciindia.com
2. Indian Rayon and Industries Limited 2001-2002. (It is a multi-product
conglomerate, some of their products are textiles, cement etc.);
http://www.adityabirla.com
3. ITC Limited 2002. (Li's main areas of business are: cigarettes and tobacco,
hotels, packaging, specialty papers and paperboards; lifestyle retailing
business; information technology business; and agri-commodities.);
www .itcportal.com
4. Tata Steel 1996-97. (It manufactures a wide range of steel products,
metals, sheets, ferro-alloys, and billets); ht~://www.tatasteel.com
5. Ashok Leyland 2001-2002. (They are manufacturers of commercial
vehicles; special Vehicles; and engines for industrial, gensef and marine
requirements.); htttx//www.ashokleyland.com

Popular Science Periodicals1 Survey Book

1. Everyman's science 2002. National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute, Nagpur. Vol. XXXVI. No. 4. January-March 2002. pp. 257-
262.
2. The Hindu survey of the Environment 2002. Published by Rangarajan, S.
for Kasturi & Sons Ltd. Chennai, India.

1. Environmental Management, Springer Publication

http://link.Springer.de/li&service/ioumals/0026?/tocs. htm
2. Our Planet; www.ourplanet.com
3. Down to Earth ; www.cseindia.org ; www.downtoearth.org.in

Newsletters
1. Connect - UNESCO International Science, Technol~gyand Environmental
Education Newsletter ;
http://~.unesco.or~education/e~cPr~dste/index.html
_ ht~:ljwww:envfor.niq!in
2. Paryavaw Abstract;
1

J
i

Web addresses '

1. Bureau of Indian Standards; h~://www.bis:or~.id

2. Central Po~hiibnControl Bodrd; http:Nwww.cpcb.nic,inl
3. International Organization for Standardization; .
http:/lwww.iso.ch/iso/en/IS00nline.fron~a~!e
4. National Remotit.,Sasing Agency; h~://www.nrsa.g;ov.in
'

5. Ministry of Environment & Forests; http://www.en~for.nic.in

6. United Nations Envircmmeni Programme; httt,://unep.org ;
http:Naldb.a1500;mg
7 ENVIS Centre on Biogeochemistiry; h~:/l'envisinu.tri~od.com
8. Environmental Information System [ENVIS] of CES;
http://ces.iisc.emet.in/hpn/envis/
9. CSIR Iibrdries union catalog of journals;
htt~://www.cmmacs.ernet.in/nal/icast~csir/unionlunione.html
10. Tata Energy Research Institute; http://www.teriin.orn/