Midsemester Progress Report Cover Page

Thermal Performance Analysis of Counterflow

Cooling Tower by Merkel’s Method

DE ZG628T: Dissertation

by

Name: Alomoy Banerjee

Student ID: 2018HT30501

Dissertation work carried out at

Paharpur Cooling Towers Ltd , Kolkata

Submitted in partial fulfillment of M-Tech Design Engineering

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

PILANI (RAJASTHAN)

December 2020
 Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani
Work-Integrated Learning Programmes Division
First Semester 2020-2021

DEZG628T: Dissertation MidSemester Progress Report

ID No. : 2018HT30501

NAME OF THE STUDENT : Alomoy Banerjee

EMAIL ADDRESS : alomoybanerjee@gmail.com

STUDENT’S EMPLOYING : Paharpur Cooling Towers Ltd. Kolkata

ORGANIZATION & LOCATION

SUPERVISOR’S NAME : Aninda Sundar Giri

SUPERVISOR’S EMPLOYING : Paharpur Cooling Towers Ltd. Kolkata

ORGANIZATION & LOCATION

SUPERVISOR’S EMAIL ADDRESS: anindasundar.giri@paharpur.com

DISSERTATION TITLE : Thermal Performance Analysis of Counterflow

Cooling Tower by Merkel’s method

______________________________________________________________________
Abstract

The thermal parameters that directly affect the peformance of a cooling tower are water flowrate,
cooling range and wet bulb temperature. Since, evaporative cooling or latent heat transfer is the
primary mode of heat trasnfer in a cooling tower, the cold water outlet temperature of the system is
limited by the Wet Bulb Tempeature (WBT) of the location. WBT of a cooling tower erection site is not at
the control of the manufacturer, hence it is high;y likely to be different than the design WBT. Because of
some other technical reasons, cooling range and water flowrate may also be off from design conditions.

In order to test the cooling tower at varying operational conditions and predict whether, the tower is
giving adequate performance as per requirement, manufacturer-provided performance curves are
referred. These performance curves need to be submitted to the customer during order finalization
process and they follow a standard format as per CTI ATC 105.

In Paharpur Cooling Towers Ltd. performane curves of cooling towers are drawn by extrapolation of
experimental on-site data. However, due to the unviability of testing all cooling tower models
experimentally, performance data extrapolation has given erroneous results for a few cooling towers in
the past. Non-compliance to performance curves after tower installation, leads to loss of customer
confidence and even attracts penalty at certain instances.

The project, at hand, deals with formulating an analytical model that can accurately predict the
performance of a counterflow cooling tower. The project will be using Merkel’s method of heat trasnfer
inside the cooling tower to generate the tower demand curves, by Chebychev’s method of integration.
The results obtained from tower demand curves can be used to predict approach at different wet bulb
temperatures. The activity will be repeated for some pre-designated cooling ranges, to predict thermal
performance.

An iterative method needs to be designed to predict the variation of L/G with varying water flowrate.
Literature survey illustrates that with drop in water flowrate air flow will increase, but a strict
mathematical model is yet to be developed that can quantify the variation of L/G.

With the rectified L/G, cooling tower demand curves are to be regenerated to find out the operational
approach. Finally, collating all the data, performance curves are drawn as per CTI-ATC 105.

Signature of the Student

Signature of the Supervisor
Name: Alomoy Banerjee
Name: Aninda Sundar Giri
Date: 30.08.2020
Date: 30.08.2020
Place: Kolkata
Place: Kolkata
Background of Research

Discharge of process heat is an important technical challenge in powerplants, oil refinery, refrigeration,
steel, sugar mills, processing, HVAC and many other industrial plants. In almost all these cases, this heat
is discharged into the atmosphere with the help of a cooling tower. In a few of these cases, heat
discharge takes place via a secondary cycle with water as the process fluid. The present scope of study
involves wet cooling towers. Wet-cooling takes place by direct contact of air and water. The resultant
cooling is the summation of sensible and latent heat transfer where the latent heat transfer takes the
dominant role.
Cooling towers can be classified according to the type of draft through the tower. The draft in Natural
Draft Cooling Towers (NDCT) is established by the chimney effect of the hotter air inside the tower shell
compared to the cooler ambient air on the outside of the tower shell. Draft in mechanical draft towers is
established by motor driven fans that force or draw air through the towers, usually referred to as forced
draft and induced draft respectively.Cooling Towers can also be classified according to the direction of
flow. In a crossflow tower the water and air flow direction is perpendicular to each other and the fill is
usually installed at some angle to the vertical to make provision for the inward motion of the droplets
because of drag forces caused by the entering cooling air. Counterflow cooling towers on the other hand
have water and airflow direction directly opposite to each other. Less pumping power is needed for
modern counterflow towers, as the towers are generally not as high as crossflow cooling towers. Icing
and wind effects are more prevalent in crossflow towers than in counterflow towers.

The thermal parameters that directly affect the peformance of a cooling tower are water flowrate,
cooling range and wet bulb temperature. Since, evaporative cooling or latent heat transfer is the
primary mode of heat trasnfer in a cooling tower, the cold water outlet temperature of the system is
limited by the Wet Bulb Tempeature (WBT) of the location. The project, to be undertaken deals with
thermal performance of Induced Draft Counterflow cooling tower. In order to capture all three thermal
performance parameters of a cooling tower, into a standard plot, cooling tower performance curve is
published by the product manufacturer. The purpose of having thermal performance curves of cooling
towers is to gauge the expected product performance at varying WBT, water flowrate and cooling range.

Objective

 The objective of the present research project is to develop an analytical model to predict the
thermal performance of an induced draft counterflow cooling tower as per CTI ATC 105.
 Evaluation of cooling tower performance by using Merkel’s analysis and e-NTU analysis.
 The analytical model can solve a long-standing issue of the company to predict cooling tower
performance accurately, before experimentally testing the tower’s performance on-site.
 After development of the model, the output data will be tested against experimental data to predict
the accuracy of the model.
 Scope of Work

The scope of the present work involves developing a mathematical model to evaluate heat transfer
inside the cooling tower, using the Merkel and e-NTU method by Chebyshev's method of integration.
The cooling tower demand curves thus obtained, from the Kav/L and L/G values serve as an input to the
evaluation of cooling tower performance curves. Another important factor that needs to be considered
in the present scope of work is to evaluate the L/G ratio at changing operational water flowrate. The
ideal model will incorporate all these factors and give predicted cold water performance as output as
per CTI-ATC 105.
Thus the present scope of study deals with developing an analyical thermal model that can accurately
predict cooling tower performance curves. The broader scope of the project is to make the model
universal for all counterflow cooling towers, such that on giving certain tower specific inputs, the same
model can give the necessary output irrespective of cooling tower capacity.

Merkel Theory of Heat & Mass Transfer

Quite a number of theories have been developed since the early 20th century in an effort to formulate
the heat and mass transfer in cooling towers. The cooling tower may be considered as a heat exchanger
in which water and air are in direct contact with each another. However, the issue with cooling tower is
that there is no acceptable method to accurately estimate the total contact surface between water and
air. Hence, a heat transfer coefficient cannot be determined directly from experimental data or by
known heat transfer theories. The factor of mass transfer further complicates the process. Experimental
tests conducted on the specified equipment designs can be evaluated using accepted theories which
have been developed using dimensional analysis techniques. Similar methods and theories can be used
for thermal design and to predict performance at the operating conditions other than the design point.

The Merkel theory overcame the issue of dual heat & mass transfer by combining the two into a single
process based on enthalpy potential. Dr. Frederick Merkel, the faculty of the Technical College of
Dresden in Germany developed a cooling tower theory for the mass (evaporation of a small portion of
water) and sensible heat transfer between the air and water in a counter flow cooling tower. The theory
considered the mass and energy flows from the bulk water to an intermediate interface, and then from
the interface to the surrounding air mass. The flow crosses both these boundaries, each offering its
respective resistance resulting in temperature, enthalpy, and humidity ratio gradient. Merkel
demonstrated that the total heat transfer is proportional to the difference between the enthalpy of
saturated air at the water temperature and the enthalpy of air at the point of contact with process
water.
Basic assumptions for the Merkel design of cooling tower are as follows:

 the rate of evaporation of water is 1% of the rate of water flow to the tower
 evaporative cooling of water occurs in the tower
 Fig 1- Enthalpy Balance Diagram of Cooling Tower

Let,
L be the design water flow rate (kg/m2s)
Gs be the air rate (kg dry air/m 2s).
Across a differential thickness dz of the bed ,
Temperature of water is decreased by dTL
The enthalpy of air is increased by dH’.
Hence,
Change in enthalpy of water=L.cWL.dTL
Change in enthalpy of air =Gs.dH’
Differential enthalpy balance over dz is

L.cWL.dTL=Gs.dH’…………………………………………. (i)

Enthalpy balance over envelope I,

LcWL (TL-TL1) = Gs (H’-H’1)…………………………………(ii)

This is the operating line for air-water contact.

Enthalpy balance over entire tower (envelope II)

LcWL (TL2-TL1) = Gs (H2’-H’1)…………………………………(iii)

The equilibrium curve for air-water system on TL-H plane is the plot of enthalpy of saturated air
versus liquid temperature at equilibrium.
Rate of transfer of water vapor to air in the differential volume is

Gz dY '=k Y a(Y i '−Y ' ) ……………………………………………..(iv)

The decrease in temperature of air for sensible heat transfer to water is

−Gz c H dT G=hG adz(T g −T i ) ……………………………………..(v)

 Gz dH'=G z cH dT G +G z dY 'λ 0
Gz dH'=−hG adz(T G −T i )+kY 'adz(Y i '−Y ')λ 0 ¿
Gz dH'=k' y adz¿
¿
The height (z) of the packing in the cooling tower is obtained by

k' a
∫ ( H dH'−H' ' ) = GY z................................................................(vii )
i z Number of gas-enthalpy
transfer units

H' 2
dH '
N tG= ∫ . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . ..... .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. ..( viii)
H '1 ( H i '−H ' )

Height of gas-enthalpy transfer units

Gz
H tG= .............................................................................(ix )
k 'Y a
The height of cooling tower packing section (z) is thus expressed as

z=H tG N tG ..........................................................................( x)

Volumetric mass or enthalpy transfer coefficient ( Y k' a

) should be known. Then HtG can be estimated
from given mass flow rate. There is no direct relation available between enthalpy of bulk gas H’ and that
of H’i . So, integral cannot be evaluated analytically. For numerical or graphical evaluation of the integral,
it is important to know the values of interfacial enthalpy (H’ i) for a set of values of H’.
Let, hLa is volumetric heat transfer coefficient on the water side.

Gz dH '=Lc WL dT L=hL a(T L−T Li )

Gz dH '=k Y ' adz( H 'i −H ' )=−h L a(T Li−T L )
H ' i−H ' h L
=− ....................................................( xi)
T Li −T L k ' Y

A point (TL, H’) on the operating line meets the equilibrium line at the point (T Li, H’i)
Substituting
Gz dH '=Lc WL dT L in equation (vi),
LcWL dT L =k Y ' adz(H 'i −H ' ).....................................( xii)
T L0
L dT Y k' a
∫ ( H ' −H = z .. .. . ..... .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. .( xiii)
T Li ' ) Lc
i WL
The equation (xiii) is known as the Merkel Equation.
If overall enthalpy transfer coefficient K’ Y is used, differential mass balance equation becomes
Gs dH '=K ' y adz(H *'−H ' )
H*’ is the enthalpy of saturated air at T L(bulk liquid temperature)

H2'
dH ' k'Y a
∫ ( H *'−H = z .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .( xiv )
H '1 ') Gs

This is defined as the overall enthalpy transfer units (N tg).

q=K Y '( H ' i −H ' )=hL (T L−T Li )=K ' Y ( H *'−H ' )
( H *'−H ' )=( H *'−H ' i )+( H ' i−H ' )
q ( H *'−H ' i ) q
=q +
K 'Y h L (T L−T Li ) k Y '
1 ( H *'−H ' i ) 1
= +
K ' Y (T L−T Li ) kY '

Hence the simplified Merkel Equation is given as,

T L0
K 'Y a V dT L
=∫ .. ... ... .... ... ... .... ... .. . .... .. ... ... .... ... ... .... ... .. . .. .. .. . .. ... .... .( xv)
L T L 1 ( H ' i−H ' )
The left hand side of the equation is called “tower characteristic” where, V is active cooling volume/plan
area.

Heat & Mass Balance Conservation for Cooling Tower

Fig 2- Heat Balance Diagram

Heat in =Heat out
 ( Heat Waster +Heat air )in =( Heat Waster +Heat air )out
C w L2 t w 2 +Gha1 =C w L1 t w 1 +Gha 2 ...........................................( xvi)

The difference in discharge of water at the inlet and outlet may be related by the following equation
where wi represents the specific humidity of the air at inlet and oultet conditions.

L2−L1 =G(w 2 −w1 )

Substituting this in equation (xvi), the expression converts to,

C w L2 t w 2 +Gh a1 =C w {L2−G( w2 −w 1 )}t w 1 +Gha 2

C w L2 (t w 2−tw 1 )=G(h a2 −h a1 )−C w t w 1 G(w 2−w1 )

The 2nd term on the right hand side G (w 2-w1), is ignored to simplify the calculation under the
assumption that the specific humidity at the inlet and outlet of the cooling tower are equal.
Thus the above equation reduces to,

C w L2 (t w 2−tw 1 )=G(h a2 −h a1 )

Thus the enthalpy of exit air is finally expressed as,

L
ha 2 =ha 1 + (t w 2 −t w1 )......................................................................(xvii).
G
Consequently, the enthalpy of exit air is a summation of the enthalpy of entering air
and the addition of enthalpy from water to air (this is a value of L/G x Range).

Fig 3- Plot of enthalpy vs exit air temperature

Tower Demand & Characteristic-Advent of Black, Brown & Bluebook

Liechtenstein introduced the Cooling Tower equation in 1943 and he used Merkel heat transfer theory
along with differential and fundamental equations to define cooling tower boundary conditions. The
resulting dimensionless variables and series of equations related the variables for heat and mass
transfer on the counter flow type tower. Liechtenstein determined that his equation did not fully
account for the air mass rate or velocity from experimental results. Several investigators have
substantiated the effect of hot water temperature and air velocity on the counter flow tower. The
Merkel equation calculates the thermal demand based on the design temperature and selected mass
flow of liquid-to-gas ratios (L/G). The value of KaV/L indicates the difficulty of water cooling. The design
temperature and L/G relate the thermal demand to the MTD (Mean Temperature Difference) used in
any heat transfer problem. During Leichtenstein’s employment with the Foster-Wheeler Corporation, he
published a limited edition of "Cooling Tower Black Book" in 1943. The tower demand calculations were
incorporated into a volume of curves eliminating the need for for rigorous calculations. The so-called
"Brown Book" presented a change in format to a multi-cycle log plot. This format allows the cooling
tower characteristic curves to be plotted as straight lines. The publication includes cooling tower design
data for various types of counter flow fill. Design procedures affecting cooling tower selection and
performance have been discussed. With the advent of the computer age the Cooling Tower Institute
published the "Blue Book" entitled "Cooling Tower Performance Curves" in 1967. The CTI curves were
calculated and plotted by computer over a large span of temperature and operating conditions. The
curves are plotted with the thermal demand, KaV/L as a function of the liquid-to-gas ratio, L/G. The
approach lines (tw1 - WBT) are shown as parameters. The curves contain a set of 821 curves, giving the
values of KaV/L for 40 wet bulb temperature, 21 cooling ranges and 35 approaches.

Basis of Calculation

 Effect of heat of evaporated liquids on the results is negligible.

 The set of equations is based on counter-current flow of air & water. Vertical towers having upward
air flow & downward water flow predominantly are counterflow. Towers with inclined structural
columns, along with horizontal air flow and downward water flow are predominantly cross flow.
Most towers in reality are a combination of counter & cross flow. Although the calculation is based
on pure countercurrent flow, the curves are applicable within the limits, set forth in CTI Bulletin
ATC-105 to both crossflow & counterflow towers.

Limitations

 The accuracy decreases as the calculations and tests are run at conditions further from design.
However within the temperature limits of ±8.5°C as listed in ATC-105, these deviations will be less
than the test measurement inaccuracies. Under conditions beyond the aforementioned limit, the
deviations may become larger than test inaccuracies. However the curves will still have sufficient
accuracy to be successful to the tower operator.
 Actual tower performance may deviate from predicted performance at water loading considerably
different from design, because of uneven water distribution and possible channeling of air & water.
Also it is necessary to correct or control airflow at water loadings considerably different from design,
since water loading affects air pressure drop.
 Fig 4- Plot of NTU vs L/G

Tower Characteristic Curve

Currently, the following equation is widely accepted predict the thermal performance of a specified
cooling tower and is very useful to be able to superimpose on each demand curve, since KaV/L vs.
L/G relationship is a linear function on log-log demand curve.

Kav L
=C( )−m
L G

where,

KaV/L=Tower Characteristic, as determined by Merkel equation

C=Constant related to the cooling tower design, or the intercept of the characteristic
m=Exponent related to the cooling tower design (called slope), determined from the test data

The characteristic curve may be determined in one of the following three ways;

 The vendor supplied characteristic curve may be used. In all cases the slope of this curve can be
taken as the slope of the operating curve.

 By field testing, one characteristic point can be determined and the characteristic curve is drawn
through this point parallel to the original characteristic curve.

 By field testing 2 characteristic points are determined at different L/G ratios. The line through
these two points is the characteristic curve. The slope of this line falls within the expected range,
and serves as a check on the accuracy.

A characteristic point is experimentally determined by first measuring the wet bulb temperature, air
discharge temperature, and cooling water inlet and outlet temperature. The L/G ratio is then
calculated as follows:
 The air discharge is assumed to be saturated. Therefore, the air discharge is at its wet bulb
temperature. Knowing wet bulb temperature at the inlet of tower, the enthalpy increase of the
air stream can be obtained from a psychrometric chart. Air and water flow rates have to be in
the proper range as per CTI ATC 105 for uniform flow distribution. In case of recirculation of the
 air discharge, the inlet wet bulb may be 1 or 2 oF above the atmospheric design wet bulb
temperature.

 From a heat and mass balance the dry air rate and the prevailing L/G ratio in the tower can be
calculated as
L Dh a
=
G C w (t w 2 −t w1 )

Next, the corresponding KaV/L value has to be established. This is simply done by plotting the
calculated L/G and approach on the demand curve for the proper wet bulb and range as in Fig 5.

Fig 5- Plot of NTU vs L/G superimposed

Project Specific Inputs

The developed mathematical model will be tested against an induced draft counterflow cooling tower installed at
Chhattisgarh. In order to maintain the confidentiality of the data, the site of installation and the cooling tower model
no. is not being disclosed. However, some confidential information is being shared in the below table, to render
relevance to the context of the thesis.

Parameters Value
Design Flowrate 400 CMH
Hot Water Temperature (HWT) 42 °C
Cold Water Temperature (CWT) 32 °C
Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) 28 °C
Air Inlet Height 15.3 ft
Fill Film Type with 0.67 inches Pitch
Fan Diameter 10 m
Fan Blades 6
Fan RPM 114
GearBox Ratio 12.93:1
End Wall Open

Using the above inputs Equation (xv) will be solved by Chebychev’s method of integration for different L/G values
in order to compute the charctersitic demand curve of Kav/L vs L/G. Enthalpy on the air side is computed by using
equation (xvii) to act as an input to the Chebychev discretization method. Each plot on the demand curve
corresponds to a specific approach
 Water Side Air Side
hw1 = CWT+0.1 X Range ha1= hwbt +0.1X L/G X Range
hw2 = CWT+0.4 X Range ha2= hwbt +0.4X L/G X Range
hw3 = CWT+0.6 X Range ha3= hwbt +0.6X L/G X Range
hw4 = CWT+0.9 X Range ha4= hwbt +0.9X L/G X Range
Range 1 1 1 1
Kav /L= X( + + + )
4 hw 1 −ha 1 hw 2−ha 2 h w 3−ha 3 h w 4−h a4

Plan of Work

Research Phases Dates

Literature Survey Done
Selection of Heat Transfer Model Done
Developing Mathematical Model for Done
generating Cooling Tower Demand Curves
Developing Mathematical model for Done
generating Cooling Tower Demand Curves for
varying WBT
Developing Mathematical model to predict 4th October- 15Th October (Pending)
cooling tower performance at varying WBT
and cooling range.
Developing mathematical model to predict 16th October – 30th October (Pending)
L/G ratio at varying operational flowrate
Developing mathematical model to predict 31st October -8th November (Pending)
cooling tower performance curves at varying
water flowrate
Integrating all the submodels above to make a 9th November-13th November (Pending)
mathematical model to predict cooling tower
 performance at
Testing of cooling tower onsite to compare 14th November-17th November (Pending)
analytical data vs Experimental data
Final Report Writing & Submission 18th November-30th November (Pending)

Lit References

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Supervisor & Additional Examiner Details

Supervisor Additional Examiner

Name Mr. Aninda Sundar Giri Mr. Varun Swarup

Qualification B-Tech Mechanical Engineering MS Design Methodology with

with 16 years Work Experience 10 years Work Experience

Designation Assistant Manager Senior VP

Employing Orgn Paharpur Cooling Towers Ltd. Paharpur Cooling Towers Ltd.
and Location Kolkata Kolkata
Phone No.
(with STD Code) +918075301152 +913340133215

Email Address anindasundar.giri@paharpur.com varunswarup@paharpur.com

Signature

Date 29-08-2020 29-08-2020

Remarks of Supervisor

The project is ambitious and bears a very high significance on behalf of the organization. Inaccurate
performance curves have been causing issues with thermal performance tetsing at site for quite some
time now. An analytical thermal model, which can be uniformly applied to all counterflow induced draft
cooling towers, is the need of the hour. The project has very high prospects in terms of original research
as well. A suitable mathematical method to calculate corrected L/G for varying flow rate, is yet to be
developed and tested. Thus, the scope of the present project is not only beneficial to the company, but
will also open new avenues of research in the field of cooling tower analytical thermal modelling
approach.

_________________ ___________________ __________________________

Signature of Student Signature of Supervisor Signature of Additional Examiner

Name: Alomoy Banerjee Name Aninda Sundar Giri Name: Varun Swarup