ECEG 3175 Lecture 2

Lecture-2
Laplace Transform
Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T.
Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Introduction to Control Engineering

ECEG-3175
January 13, 2021
Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 1 / 28
Overview
Overview
1 Overview
2 Objective
3 Introduction
4 Definition
5 Existence of Laplace transform
6 Laplace Transform Pairs
7 Laplace Transform Properties
8 Inverse Laplace Transforms

Objective
Lecture Objectives
After this lecture, you will be able to:

Define the Laplace transform,
Solve the Laplace and Inverse Laplace transfrom of different
transformable equations, and
Solve differential equations using the Laplace transform
techniques.

Introduction
Introduction
Why Laplace Transform

Solving linear differential equations
Obtaining transfer functions
Converts many functions into algebraic functions of s
Converts LDEs into algebraic equations of s
Use graphical techniques for predicting a system performance with
out solving DEs

Definition
Definition of Laplace Transform
Definition: Laplace Transform

Let
f (t) = a function of t such thatf (t) = 0 for t < 0

s = a complex variable
L = an operational symbol indicating that the quantity it
Z ∞
prefixes is to be transformed by the Laplace integral e−st dt
0
F (s) = Laplace transform of f (t)
The Laplace transform of f (t) is given by

Z ∞ Z ∞
−st
L = [f (t)] F (s) = e dt [f (t)] = f (t)e−st dt (1)
0 0

Existence of Laplace transform
Laplace transform of a function f (t) exists if

f (t) is sectionally continuous in every finite interval in the range
t>0
f (t) is of exponential order as t approaches infinity. A function
f (t) is said to be of exponential order if a real, positive constant σ
exists such that the function
e−σt [f (t)]
approaches zero as t approaches infinity.

f (t) = 0 for t < 0

Examples
Example (Exponential Function)

Consider the exponential function
(
0 for t < 0
f (t) =
Ae−αt for t ≥ 0
where A and α are constants.

The Laplace transform of this exponential function can be
obtained as follows
Z ∞ Z ∞
−αt −αt −st A
L Ae = Ae e dt = Ae−(α+s)t dt =
0 0 s+α

Example (Step Function)

Consider the step function
(
0 for t < 0
f (t) =
A for t > 0
where A is a constant.
Note that it is a special case of the exponential function Ae−αt
where α = 0. The step function is undefined at t = 0.
The Laplace transform is given as
Z ∞
A
L [A] = Ae−st dt =
0 s
Example (Ramp Function)

Consider the Ramp function
(
0 for t < 0
f (t) =
At for t > 0
where A is a constant.
The Laplace transform is given as
e−st ∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
Ae−st

−st
L [At]= Ate dt = At − dt
0 −s 0 0 −s
A ∞ −st
Z
A
= e dt = 2
s 0 s
Example (Sinusoidal Function)

Consider the Sinusoidal function
(
0 for t < 0
f (t) =
A sin(ωt) for t ≥ 0
where A and ω are constants.

sin(ωt) can be rewritten as:
1 jωt
e − e−jωt

sin(ωt) =
2j
Hence
Z ∞
A
ejωt − e−jωt e−st dt

L [A sin(ωt)] =
2j 0
A 1 A 1 Aω
= − = 2
2j s − jω 2j s + jω s + ω2
Laplace Transform Pairs
Laplace Transform Pairs

Laplace Transform Properties
Laplace Transform Properties

1 Addition and Scalling: L [af1 (t) ± bf2 (t)] = aF1 (s) ± bF2 (s)

d
2 Differentiation: L f (t) = sF (s) − f (0±)
dt
Z Z
F (s) 1
3 Integration: L f (t)dt = + f (t)dt

s s t=0±
Z
4 Convolution: f1 (τ )f2 (t − τ )dτ = F1 (s)F2 (s)
Basic Theorems
Initial-Value Theorem: f (0+) = lim sF (s)
s→∞
Final-Value Theorem: lim f (t) = lim sF (s)

t→∞ s→0

Inverse Laplace Transforms

The inverse Laplace transform can be obtained by use of the
inversion integral
Z c+∞
−1 1
L [F (s)] = f (t) = F (s)est ds for t > 0 (2)
2πj c−∞
However, the inversion integral is complicated.
A convenient method for obtaining inverse Laplace transforms is
to use a table of Laplace transforms.
In this case, the Laplace transform must be in a form immediately
recognizable in such a table.
Quite often the function in question may not appear in tables of
Laplace transforms
Then, we may expand it into partial fractions and write F (s) in
terms of simple functions of s for which the inverse Laplace
transforms are already known.
Partial-fraction Expansion Method

For problems in control systems analysis, F (s), the Laplace
transform of f (t), frequently occurs in the form
B(s) where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials in s.

F (s) = ,
A(s)
In the expansion of F (s) into a partial-fraction form, it is
important that the highest power of s in A(s) be greater than the
highest power of s in B(s),
If such is not the case, the numerator B(s) must be divided by the
denominator A(s) in order to produce a polynomial in s plus a
remainder
It should be noted, however, that
In applying the partial-fraction expansion technique in the search
for the inverse Laplace transform of F (s) = B(s)/A(s), the roots of
the denominator polynomial A(s) must be obtained in advance.
That is, this method does not apply until the denominator
polynomial has been factored.
If F (s) is broken up into components,
F (s) = F1 (s) + F2 (s) + · · · + Fn (s)
and if the inverse Laplace transforms of F1 (s), F2 (s), · · · , Fn (s)

are ready available, then
L−1 [F (s)]= L−1 [F1 (s)] + L−1 [F2 (s)] + · · · + L−1 [Fn (s)]
= f1 (t) + f2 (t) + · · · + fn (t)
There are three cases to consider in doing the partial fraction

expansion of F (s).
(case-1): F (s) has all non repeated simple roots (distinct poles)
(case-2): F (s) has complex poles
(case-3): F (s) has repeated poles

Case-1: Partial-fraction expansion when F(s) involves distinct poles only

Consider
B(s) K(s + z1 )(s + z2 ) · · · (s + zm )
F (s) = = (3)
A(s) (s + p1 )(s + p2 ) · · · (s + pn )
where, −z1 , − z2 , · · · , − zm are the zeros of F (s) and

−p1 , − p2 , · · · , − pn are the poles of F (s)
Hence, the partial fraction expansion of F (s) has the form
a1 a2 an
F (s) = + + ··· + (4)
s + p1 s + p2 s + pn
Multiply both sides of equation-4 by (s + p1 )

a1 a2 an
(s + p1 )F (s) = (s + p1 ) + + ··· +
s + p1 s + p2 s + pn

Hence, (s + p1 )F (s) = a1 ⇒ all the expanded terms drop out
s=−p1
except a1
Generally, the residue ak can be found from

B(s)
ak = (s + pk ) (5)
A(s) s=−pk
Since , from Laplace table,

−1 ak
L = ak e−pk t
(s + pk )
f (t) is obtained as:
f (t) = L−1 [F (s)] = a1 e−p1 t + a2 e−p2 t + · · · + an e−pn t for t > 0

Example (For Case-1)

Find the inverse Laplace transform of
10s
H(s) =
(s + 4)(s + 9)
Solution:
The partial fraction expansion takes the form
10s a1 a2
H(s) = = +
(s + 4)(s + 9) s+4 s+9
a1 and
a2 are obtained using equation-5 as follows
10s 10 × −4
a1 = (s+ 4)
= = −8.
(s
+ 4)(s + 9) s=−4 ((−4) + 9)

Similarly, a2 = 18. Finally,

−8 18
and L−1 [H(s)] = h(t) = −8e−4t + 18e−9t u(t)

H(s) = +
s+4 s+9
Case-2: Partial-fraction expansion when F(s) involves complex poles

Since the initial equations are real, complex poles will always
appear as complex conjugate pole pairs
Complex poles pairs in the partial fraction expansion of the
Laplace transform
A1 s + A2
F (s) = 2
s + as + b
Break the denominator into two (method of completing the square)
s2 + as + b = s2 + 2αs + α2 + β 2 = (s + α)2 + β 2
The numerator then becomes: A1 s + A2 = A1 (s + α) + B1 β

A1 (s + α) B1 β
Breaking the numerator F (s) = 2 2
+ + F1 (s)
(s + α) + β (s + α)2 + β 2
From Laplace table, the inverse is a damped sine and cosine
f (t) = L−1 F (s) = e−αt [A1 cos(βt) + B1 sin(βt)] + f1 (t)


Example (For Case-2:-1)

2s + 12
F (s) =
s2 + 2s + 5
Solution:
When the denominator polynomial is factorized,
s2 + 2s + 5 = (s + 1 + j2)(s + 1 − j2)
Using method of completing the square: s2 + 2s + 5 = (s + 1)2 + 22

Hence
2s + 12 2(s + 1) + 10 2(s + 1) 2
F (s) = = = +5
s2
+ 2s + 5 2
(s + 1) + 2 2 2
(s + 1) + 2 2 (s + 1)2 + 22
Finally, f (t) = 2e−t cos(2t) + 5e−t sin(2t) u(t)


Example (For Case-2:-2)

1
F (s) =
s(s2 + 2s + 2)
Solution:
Since s2 + 2s + 2 = (s + 1 + j1)(s + 1 − j1)
It can be noticed that F (s) involves a pair of complex-conjugate
poles, and so it can be expanded into the form
1 a1 a2 s + a3
F (s) = = + 2
s(s2 + 2s + 2) s s + 2s + 2
where a1 , a2 and a3 are obtained from
1 = a1 (s2 + 2s + 2) + (a2 s + a3 )s
By comparing the coefficients a1 = 1/2, a2 = −1/2 and a3 = −1
Example (For Case-2:-2 continued ...)

Solution:
Therefore
11 1 s+2
−
F (s) =2
2 s 2 s + 2s + 2
Using completing the square method
s+2 (s + 1) + 1 s+1 1
= = +
s2 + 2s + 2 2
(s + 1) + 1 2 2
(s + 1) + 1 2 (s + 1)2 + 12
Substituting the above in the previous equation

11 1 s+1 1 1
F (s) = − 2 2
−
2 s 2 (s + 1) + 1 2 (s + 1)2 + 12
Using the Laplace table, finally,

1 1 −t 1 −t
f (t) = − e sin(t) − e cos(t) u(t)
2 2 2
Case-3: Partial-fraction expansion when F(s) involves multiple poles

Let’s see this by using an example
Consider
s2 + 2s + 3
F (S) =
(s + 1)3
The partial fraction of F (S) involves three terms
B(s) b1 b2 b3
F (S) = = + 2
+
A(s) s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)3
where b1 , b2 and b3 are etermined as follows

Multiplying both sides of the previous equation by (s + 1)3 , we
obtained
B(s)
(s + 1)3 = b1 (s + 1)2 + b2 (s + 1) + b3 (6)
A(s)
Solving equation-6 at s = −1 gives b3 = 2

Case-3: continued ...

Differentiating both sides of equation-6 with respect to s yields to

d B(s)
(s + 1)3 = 2b1 (s + 1) + b2 (7)
ds A(s)
| {z }
2s+2

Differentiating both sides of equation-7 with respect to s yields to
d
[(2s + 2] = 2b1 (8)
|ds {z }
2

Case-3: continued ...
Hence
1 0 2
F (s) = + +
s + 1 (s + 1)2 (s + 1)3
From the laplace table
f (t) = e−t + 0 + t2 e−t

= e−t (1 + t2 ) u(t)


Example (Solving Linear Differential Equations)

Find the solution of the differential equation
ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 3, x(0) = 0, ẋ(0) = 0
Solution:
In solving linear, time-invariant, differential equations by the
Laplace transform method, two steps are involved
1 By taking the Laplace transform of each term in the given

differential equation, convert the differential equation into an
algebraic equation in s and obtain the expression for the Laplace
transform of the dependent variable by rearranging the algebraic
equation.
2 The time solution of the differential equation is obtained by finding
the inverse Laplace transform of the dependent variable

Example (Solving Linear Differential Equations continued ...)

Solution:
Taking the Laplace transform of the given DE results in
3
s2 X(s) + 2sX(s) + 5X(s) =
s
Rearranging and solving for X(s) gives
3 31 3 s+2
X(s) = = −
s(s2
+ 2s + 5) 2
5 s 5 s + 2s + 5
31 3 2 3 s+1
= − 2 2
−
5 s 10 (s + 1) + 2 5 (s + 1)2 + 22
Using the Laplace table

3 3 −t 3 −t
x(t) = − e sin(2t) − e cos(2t) u(t)
5 10 5

Questions?

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Lecture-2

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T.

Addis Ababa University

Introduction to Control Engineering

5 Existence of Laplace transform

6 Laplace Transform Pairs

7 Laplace Transform Properties

8 Inverse Laplace Transforms

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 2 / 28

After this lecture, you will be able to:

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 3 / 28

Why Laplace Transform

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 4 / 28

Definition of Laplace Transform

Definition: Laplace Transform

f (t) = a function of t such thatf (t) = 0 for t < 0

The Laplace transform of f (t) is given by

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 5 / 28

Existence of Laplace transform

Laplace transform of a function f (t) exists if

approaches zero as t approaches infinity.

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 6 / 28

Example (Exponential Function)

where A and α are constants.

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 7 / 28

Example (Step Function)

Example (Ramp Function)

Example (Sinusoidal Function)

where A and ω are constants.

Laplace Transform Pairs

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 11 / 28

Laplace Transform Properties

Final-Value Theorem: lim f (t) = lim sF (s)

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 12 / 28

Inverse Laplace Transforms

Partial-fraction Expansion Method

B(s) where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials in s.

If F (s) is broken up into components,

F (s) = F1 (s) + F2 (s) + · · · + Fn (s)

and if the inverse Laplace transforms of F1 (s), F2 (s), · · · , Fn (s)

= f1 (t) + f2 (t) + · · · + fn (t)

There are three cases to consider in doing the partial fraction

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 15 / 28

Case-1: Partial-fraction expansion when F(s) involves distinct poles only

where, −z1 , − z2 , · · · , − zm are the zeros of F (s) and

Multiply both sides of equation-4 by (s + p1 )

Generally, the residue ak can be found from

Since , from Laplace table,

f (t) is obtained as:

f (t) = L−1 [F (s)] = a1 e−p1 t + a2 e−p2 t + · · · + an e−pn t for t > 0

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 17 / 28

Example (For Case-1)

Similarly, a2 = 18. Finally,

Case-2: Partial-fraction expansion when F(s) involves complex poles

The numerator then becomes: A1 s + A2 = A1 (s + α) + B1 β

f (t) = L−1 F (s) = e−αt [A1 cos(βt) + B1 sin(βt)] + f1 (t)

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 19 / 28

Example (For Case-2:-1)

Using method of completing the square: s2 + 2s + 5 = (s + 1)2 + 22

Finally, f (t) = 2e−t cos(2t) + 5e−t sin(2t) u(t)

Bethlehem A. & Nebiyu T. (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 January 13, 2021 20 / 28

Example (For Case-2:-2)

where a1 , a2 and a3 are obtained from

Example (For Case-2:-2 continued ...)