3rd International Symposium on Cone Penetration Testing, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA - 2014

Use of CPTu to assess sensitivity of a polymer-treated slurry

D. Reid
University of Western Australia & Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Perth, Australia
A.B. Fourie
University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

ABSTRACT: Addition of polymers at the point of slurry deposition is increasing in popularity in the
mining industry. However, polymer addition has been observed to produce a number of changes to the
geotechnical properties of slurries. There is little available information regarding whether the changes
induced by polymers can be quantified by CPTu probing, and penetration testing generally. This is of
importance as penetration testing will undoubtedly form a key tool in the in situ investigation of depos-
its developed from polymer treat slurries. A series of miniature penetration tests conducted in the
UWA beam centrifuge on two samples of an identical soil, where one sample was treated with a poly-
mer and one was not, are outlined. Significant differences in the results of the penetration test data be-
tween the two materials is observed. Some additional considerations related to interpretation of pene-
tration test data in polymer-treated deposits are outlined.

1 INTRODUCTION

The mining and mineral processing industries manage a large, and increasing, amount of slurry waste
every year (Krizek 1999). The regulatory environment for the management of this waste is generally
becoming stricter in most jurisdictions, as public resistance to new mining developments increases.
Therefore, the management of slurry wastes is an increasingly challenging prospect for industry.
A relatively recent technological innovation to improve some of the characteristics of slurry wastes
involves the treatment of the slurry with a rheology modifying polymer shortly prior to the point of dep-
osition (Brumby et al. 2008, Daubermann & Földvári 2009, da Silva 2011, Wells et al. 2011, Mizan et
al. 2013, Yuan et al. 2013) If performed correctly, this can result in a slurry product with improved de-
watering characteristics and reduced segregation potential. This technology is currently referred to by a
number of terms, including “in-line flocculation”, “polymer treatment”, “secondary flocculation”, “pipe-
head flocculation”, and BASF’s trade name for the process “Rheomax® ETD” (Enhanced Tailings Dis-
posal). The term polymer treatment, abbreviated as PT, will be used herein.
While this technology shows significant promise for improving the management of slurry wastes,
there are a number of important outstanding questions regarding the impacts of polymers on the ge-
otechnical performance of earth structures developed from PT slurry. These include shear strength, liq-
uefaction resistance, sensitivity, and consolidation properties.

439
 The Piezocone Penetration Test (CPTu) is the most common tool for performing in situ investigations
of earth structures developed from slurries. This is owing to its relative accuracy, reliability, speed, cost
effectiveness, and the production of three complementary data channels to aide interpretation (e.g., Been
& Jefferies 2006, Robertson 2009). In addition, for soft cohesive deposits, the vane shear test, and in-
creasingly the T-Bar (Stewart & Randolph 1994), are also utilized depending on project risk. It is there-
fore clear that as PT technology proliferates, the CPTu, along with other penetration test methods, will
be utilized to provide estimates of geotechnical properties of material that has undergone PT.
The purpose of the work outlined here was to conduct CPTu and other testing on two sets of the same
material, prepared as similarly as practicable, except that one of the samples was PT, and the other un-
treated (UT). Given that the technology is relatively novel with few large scale examples, combined
with the impracticability of preparing two near-identical sets of material in field conditions, geotechnical
centrifuge testing was utilized in an attempt to assess the performance of penetration testing in this con-
text.

2 PREVIOUS WORK

Existing published laboratory and field testing on the impacts of PT on the geotechnical behavior of
slurries has generally indicated the following:
- The looser settled densities resulting from polymer treatment within thickeners has been known
for decades. However, consolidation testing of PT treated slurries indicates that a looser state
can persist under some vertical effective stress ranges (Mao & Fahey 1999, Jeervipoolvarn 2010,
Chang et al. 2011, Reid & Fourie 2012a).
- Despite the looser state at a given vertical effective stress, peak strengths are in many cases simi-
lar to the same material prepared without PT, that is at a denser state (Jeervipoolvarn 2010, Mao
& Fahey 1999)
- A higher cv has been observed when compared in terms of vertical effective stress (Jeervipool-
varn 2010)
- Despite the similar peak strengths, increased sensitivity of PT material has been observed, pre-
sumably owing to its looser state and/or different soil fabric (Beier et al. 2013).

In addition to the laboratory testing outlined above, the authors are aware of one example where
comparison CPTu was conducted on similar tailings material with and without PT, described by da Silva
(2011). This data indicated higher tip resistance, and lower excess pore pressure in material that had
undergone PT. However, the PT process also resulted in elimination of segregation and higher levels of
effective stress owing to faster settling and dissipation of pore pressure. Hence, it is difficult to identify
which changes to geotechnical properties and penetration test data were induced by PT, and which are a
result of material and stress differences between the tests.

3 LABORATORY CHARACERIZATION

3.1 Material and Polymer Selection

Early work conducted by the authors focused on kaolin clay (Reid & Fourie 2012a, Reid & Fourie
(2012b). However, while this work was useful in developing material preparation techniques, a material
of lower plasticity, and therefore potentially higher sensitivity, was developed. A composite mixture of
kaolin, non-plastic silica silt, and silica sand was created. The proportion of these components was ad-
justed in collaboration with BASF to ensure the mixture selected was amenable to PT. BASF then per-
formed polymer-screening tests, which indicated that the polymer DPW-1687 was suitable for treatment
of the synthetic slurry developed. A polymer dosage of 500 g/t was recommended by BASF and used
on all PT tests outlined herein. This is similar to the typical dosage ranges being considered in current
pilot programs (e.g., Mizan et al. 2013, Yuan et al. 2013).

440
3.2 Laboratory Testing
Once the slurry and polymer were selected, a comprehensive laboratory program was conducted on the
material both untreated (UT) and PT. The full testing program and results are beyond the scope of this
paper, therefore pertinent results have been summarized below. Polymer treatment can only be conduct-
ed on soil within a slurry state. Thus, sample preparation methods involved mixing the soil to a slurry
state, and pouring into moulds to allow 1-D consolidation to produce usable samples for the various
kinds of laboratory tests conducted. More detail on the sample preparation techniques utilized are pro-
vided by Reid & Fourie (2012a) and Reid & Fourie (2012b).
Index properties for the synthetic slurry are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Index properties of the material used for testing.

____________________________________________
% Fines D50 Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
(<75 µm) (µm) (%) (%)
____________________________________________
68 11.3 24 16
____________________________________________

Oedometer testing indicated that PT samples exhibited a looser state up to at least 1000 kPa, while cv
values for PT samples were approximately three times larger than UT samples at the same vertical effec-
tive stress. Peak (su) and residual (sr) shear strengths measured in laboratory and vane testing, and esti-
mates of sensitivity (su / sr), are outlined in Table 2.

Table 2. Laboratory-based strength and sensitivity estimates.

_____________________________________________________________________
Test Method UT Material PT Material
_____________________________________________________________________
CIU Triaxial
su/p’ 0.33 0.35
_____________________________________________________________________
Simple Shear
su/σ’v (monotonic, at 20% strain) ~0.30 ~0.30
sr/σ’v (post-cyclic, at 20% strain) 0.15 – 0.25 0.10 – 0.28
Implied Sensitivity 1.2 – 2.0 1.1 – 3.0
_____________________________________________________________________
Shear Vane Testing @ 25 kPa σ’v
su/σ’v 0.19 0.68
sr/σ’v 0.10 0.08
Sensitivity 1.9 8.9
_____________________________________________________________________
Shear Vane Testing @ 50 kPa σ’v
su/σ’v 0.18 0.52
sr/σ’v 0.10 0.12
Sensitivity 1.8 4.3
_____________________________________________________________________
Sensitivity predicted at 100 kPa 6 19
from Mitchell & Soga (2005)
_____________________________________________________________________

441
 The simple shear testing was performed under constant-volume conditions, with a membrane con-
strained by a stack of Teflon rings. For most tests conducted, contractive-dilative behavior was ob-
served, with the shear stress increasing up to at least 50% strain. However, at these strains it is likely
that sample non-uniformity and the deformed geometry of the rings and membrane are impacting the re-
sults. Therefore, peak strengths were selected as those developed at 20% strain. Post-cyclic tests were
impacted by this issue as well – typically, shear stresses equal to the peak values would be attained at
strains of approximately 50%. However, the post-cyclic strength developed at 20% strain was selected
for presentation above consistent with peak value selection. Soft post-cyclic response has been observed
in similar laboratory testing (Wijewickreme et al. 2005, James et al. 2011). While the simple shear tests
conducted thus far on UT and PT materials demonstrate a reduced stiffness as a result of pore pressure
build up, they do not provide conclusive evidence as to the sensitivity of either material, owing to poten-
tial inaccuracies with shear stress measurement at such high strains. Further analysis and calibration are
required to assess and potentially correct for measurement issues at large strains. The difficulty in
achieving complete “remoulding” to a residual strength within laboratory tests, as compared to residual
vane strength, has been described previously by Castro (2003) for a low plasticity clayey silt.
Vane shear tests were conducted within a 150 mm diameter consolidation tube at 25 and 50 kPa ver-
tical effective stress. Achieving higher stresses was not possible with the hanger and weights system
used. In the case of the UT material, while the vane shear results are lower than the other laboratory
tests, this is somewhat consistent with previous comparisons (Chandler 1988) of simple shear and vane
strengths for low PI materials. However, the PT material provides strengths far in excess of correspond-
ing laboratory tests. The reasons for this are currently unclear. Regardless, the vane indicates a higher
sensitivity for the looser PT material, consistent with vane testing on other PT treated slurries (Beier et
al. 2013). A similar residual strength is implied for PT and UT material, which is noteworthy as the PT
material is in a looser state.

4 BEAM CENTRIFUGE TEST PROGRAM

4.1 General
The UWA beam centrifuge was utilized for the penetration testing. Centrifuge strong boxes with ap-
proximate dimensions of 650 mm (L), 390 mm (W), and 325 mm (H) were used. Two separate tests
were conducted to allow filling the entire strongbox with either UT or PT material, rather than utilizing
an internal divider. Tests were performed at an average acceleration of 100g. Further description of
pertinent issues and methods related to geotechnical centrifuge testing are outlined by Schofield (1980)
and Muir Wood (2004).
Sample preparation for the beam centrifuge tests was performed using the same methods as the labor-
atory test program, except on a much larger scale, as follows. The bottom of the boxes were covered in
a nominal 20 mm thick layer of coarse sand and filter paper, to promote two-way drainage during con-
solidation. In the UT test, material was poured into the remainder of the box as a thick slurry, while the
PT material was gently placed by hand. To minimize the potential for air bubbles or macro-pores devel-
oping, the material was gently stirred and agitated to produce a uniform sample. Each sample was then
preloaded under a vertical stress of 12 kPa, topped up, then preloaded again. While this preloading pro-
cess resulted in a thin overconsolidated crust during self-weight consolidation, it allowed a deeper quan-
tity of material to be placed within the boxes prior to spinning. Given that penetration data from the
near-surface region of centrifuge samples are generally unreliable (e.g., Bolton et al. 1999), preloading
did not itself preclude the production of useful data.

442
4.2 CPTu Testing
The miniature CPTu system at UWA consists of a 10 mm diameter device, with pore pressure measure-
ment at the u2 position. The friction sleeve has equal-end areas, and an area of 1188 mm2. The CPTu
tests presented herein were conducted at 3 mm/s in both materials, which is the fastest speed possible
with the UWA centrifuge actuator system. This speed represents a normalized velocity V (Finnie &
Randolph 1994) at ~160 mm depth of 201 for UT and 67 for PT materials. These values are within the
range at which it is expected that undrained conditions will prevail (Finnie & Randolph 1994, House et
al. 2001, Randolph & Hope 2004). CPTu data was interpreted based on a measured net area ratio of 0.8.
Dissipation tests were also conducted at 100 and 200 mm depth to confirm later calculations of pore
pressure profile within the box.

4.3 Other Testing

T-Bar testing was conducted at the maximum actuator speed of 3 mm/s – again to ensure undrained
conditions prevailed. T-Bar testing was conducted with the UWA miniature device, which features a
5 mm diameter bar of 20 mm length. Cycling of the T-bar was performed twenty times between depths
of 150 and 170 mm in an attempt to develop remoulded strengths.
At the end of spinning, the boxes were removed from the centrifuge, and measurements of depth and
test locations made. Oedometer samples were taken from the crust material to confirm a similar normal
consolidation line to the laboratory testing program. Finally, a series of moisture content profiles were
taken to estimate in situ void ratios during the test.

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Relevant Results from Supporting Testing

Tube samples and oedometer tests on surface samples indicated that the void ratio profile within the cen-
trifuge box was indistinguishable from 1-D consolidated laboratory tests. Settlement data from the con-
solidation stage of the test, in situ void ratios, and dissipation test results all indicated that penetration
testing was conducted on a normally consolidated stratum of soil with a hydrostatic pore water profile,
where head at the base of the sample was kept consistent with the level of surface water on the sample
while spinning.
The T-Bar data for first and last cycles are shown across the cycling interval from 150-170 mm in
Figure 1 for both samples. Assuming a value of NT-Bar = 10, the peak undrained strength ratio for PT
material was 1.10, which is far in excess of the value of 0.18 observed for UT. The result for UT was
consistent with laboratory vane testing, whereas the PT result was significantly higher.
The final remoulded strength ratios of UT and PT materials are essentially identical at ~0.05-0.06
across much of the cycling interval, except near the bottom of the cycling profile where it appears PT
strengths are being affected by reconsolidation. The similar remoulded strengths observed is an inter-
esting result, as the void ratios measured for the two materials were significantly different across all
depths. Based on the higher peak and similar remoulded strength of PT, a significantly larger sensitivity
was indicated – 3.4 for UT vs. 17.3 for PT material. These values correspond well to those predicted for
the two materials by the method based on Liquidity Index suggested by Mitchell & Soga (2005).

443
 
 


 


















 


















Figure 1. Cyclic T-Bar Results

The T-Bar derived estimates of sensitivity calculated above assume a constant NT-Bar factor for the
calculation of undrained strengths. It has been demonstrated that, in relation to vane shear strengths,
NT-Bar is not equal for peak and remoulded testing, but instead appears to vary without a consistent trend
across different materials (DeJong et al. 2011). The authors are not yet prepared to suggest specific NT-
Bar values for the materials considered here. However, to allow an independent assessment of sensitivity
to be developed from each testing method, a constant value of 10 was assumed. The potential limita-
tions of this assumption are acknowledged.

5.2 CPTu Results

Profiles of tip resistance, sleeve friction, and dynamic pore pressure are illustrated in Figure 2 for tests
within both UT and PT materials. The values are shown against depth, although it should be noted that
vertical effective stresses were not the same at a given depth. In fact, the values within UT material
were approximately 7% higher on average, owing to higher unit weights. Given the significant differ-
ences in the results of the two materials, the non-normalized results have been presented graphically for
comparison.

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Figure 2. CPTu Test Results

As indicated above, significantly higher tip resistances and friction sleeve values were observed in
the PT material. Curiously, the PT material showed a dilative response during CPTu penetration. This
is in contrast to typically contractive behavior observed in most laboratory tests conducted, although ap-
pears consistent with the vane and T-Bar testing. While the behavior observed is dilative, the magnitude
of excess pore pressure is consistent with undrained penetration. The impact of a dissipation test con-
ducted at 100 mm depth during both tests is apparent in the results. More variability is evident in the PT
results, presumably a result of sample non-uniformity owing to placement technique. However, sam-
pling of the post-test material did not reveal pockets of anomalous void ratios.
To allow comparison with the cyclic T-Bar testing, a variety of data relevant to the cyclic depth range
of 150-170 mm are presented in Table 3. Undrained shear strength was calculated assuming an Nkt val-
ue of 15, although similarly to NT-Bar this value can vary (e.g., Aas et al. 1986, DeJong et al. 2011), and
is typically taken to be lower if the material is of high sensitivity (Robertson 2009).

Table 3. CPT results within the T-Bar cycling depth range

__________________________________________________________________
Parameter Untreated Polymer Treated
______________________________________UT_______________PT________
Void Ratio* 0.49 0.57
σ’v (kPa)* 158 147
V 201 67
Qtn** 1.1 14.0
Fr – No Cone Bearing Offset (%)** 5.3 1.95
Fr – 30 mm Offset (%) ** 6.5 2.28
fs (kPa)* 9 42
Ic,RW** 3.9 2.8
B q* 1.09 -0.08
Implied su/σ’v 0.08 0.96
Implied sr/σ’v 0.07 0.29
_Implied sensitivity?___ _________________ ~1____________________~3________
* value at 160 mm depth ** average value across 150-170 mm depth

445
 Fr has been calculated both with and without a cone bearing offset. The high gradient of vertical
stresses within a centrifuge, and therefore increase in measured values (assuming constant material),
would likely increase the importance of applying a cone bearing offset when compared to 1g conditions.
Therefore, two calculations of Fr are presented for the target zone: no cone offset, and an offset of
30 mm, which is the distance from the center of the friction sleeve to the tip of the cone. Consistent
with the high gradient of vertical stresses, a significant difference in the two calculated Fr values was
observed.
Significant contrast in the CPTu results between the two materials is apparent. Tip resistances, and
hence implied undrained strength estimates, are dramatically higher in PT material. Indeed, the implied
su/σ’v ratios taking a relatively “typical” Nkt factor of 15 are lower than expected for UT and higher than
expected for PT on the basis of laboratory and shear vane tests. With respect to the low results for UT
material, similar results have been observed in the centrifuge testing of other clay-sand mixtures, with
normalized penetrations less than half those of kaolin (Jaeger et al. 2010). In addition, centrifuge CPT
results often require a lower Nkt factor than typical 1g full scale conditions to correlate to laboratory
strengths even in more “typical” materials such as normally consolidated kaolin (for example, Cao et al.
2002). However, despite these issues, a significant contrast of the two materials is clear. Similarly, the
contrast between contractive and dilative responses is evident, and is presumably related to the un-
drained strength ratios obtained.
The low tip resistances measured for the UT material impact all the normalized parameters derived
with tip resistance as an input, in particular, Fr and Ic,RW. Indeed, these values for UT material are well
outside those expected from the material characteristics. Thus, it makes it difficult to draw any major
conclusions from the different values obtained from PT and UT tests. However, the CPTu does indicate
a generally higher sensitivity for the PT material. Also, the Ic,RW result for PT material, “Silt mixtures –
clayey silt to silty clay” (Robertson 1990) corresponds well with index properties of the material.
“Standalone” friction sleeve values, in conventional in situ CPTu testing, have been shown to provide
reasonable first-estimates of residual strength in some cases (Robertson 2009, Farrar 2010). The friction
sleeve results for the soils tests here indicate higher predictions of residual strength for the PT material,
which is inconsistent with the T-Bar, shear vane testing, and in situ density data. It is noted that the ex-
ample site documented as having perhaps the best correlation between residual strength derived from
friction sleeve and that from vane shear testing had a higher clay content and plasticity than the soil test-
ed here (Farrar 2010).
Another important consideration in the use of friction sleeve data, either to estimate remoulded
strength or as an input to various other correlations, is the potential for the viscous pore water within the
PT treated material to influence the results. When the slurry water is treated at 500 g/t, it results in a
higher viscosity pore water. This was still noticeable when the material was loaded into the centrifuge
box. Increased viscosity pore water would have at least two relevant impacts: (i) changes to the rate of
dissipation of excess pore pressure (e.g., Muir Wood 2004) and (ii) possibly a reduction in the friction
sleeve measurements, compared to an identical soil with water as the pore fluid, as observed by Silva &
Bolton (2004).
It is not believed that issue (i) will significantly impact the interpretations made here – consolidation
testing of the PT material used to calculate cv had identical pore water to the centrifuge samples, and
thus the calculation of V for the PT material should be valid. Hence, undrained conditions are still ex-
pected.
Issue (ii) is potentially important, particularly with respect to interpretation of CPTu tests in deposits
of PT slurry in large scale deposition. In the work of Silva & Bolton (2004), it was shown that for two
samples of soil prepared in identical methods, material that was flooded with a higher viscosity fluid ex-
hibited significantly lower friction sleeve readings than an identical soil flooded with water. As the soil
tests were in sands, it seems unlikely that the changes were a result of some impact of the pore fluid on
the surface chemistry of the soil particles. Presumably then, the reduction in friction sleeve values was
owing to some form of lubrication from the viscous pore fluid, as noted by Silva & Bolton (2004).
Turning to hypothetical field conditions, in a deposit developed from PT slurry, this effect may also be
evident, although the viscosity of the pore fluid in situ will likely change over time as environmental

446
processes result in some “flushing” of the deposit. Therefore, all else remaining equal, the friction
sleeve results of two CPTu probes through identical soil samples could be quite different.
In the case of the tests outlined here, further analysis of the pore fluid viscosity is required, perhaps
with some additional laboratory testing, or performing CPTu tests through the viscous pore water itself,
to confidently state whether pore fluid viscosity has impacted the friction sleeve results obtained. De-
spite the fact that the values may have been reduced by this effect, it is again noted that the friction
sleeve values obtained in PT material were in all cases higher than those in UT material.

6 CONCLUSIONS

The use of PT is an emerging technology showing promise in assisting the management of waste slur-
ries. An increasing number of studies are indicating that PT can produce significant impacts on the ge-
otechnical properties of placed material within the resultant deposit, including looser states, faster con-
solidation, and higher sensitivities. Testing on a synthetic slurry developed by the authors with
assistance from BASF, indicated similar impacts on the geotechnical properties from PT to other ob-
served in the literature.
An assessment of the potential for penetration tests, particularly the CPTu, to discern the changes to
geotechnical properties caused by PT was conducted within a beam centrifuge. The results were mixed,
with cyclic T-Bar testing indicating a much higher sensitivity following PT treatment, consistent with
laboratory-scale vane tests. The CPTu, despite the limitations of testing within a centrifuge, indicated a
higher sensitivity for the PT material. However, the peak undrained strengths measured through both
vane and penetration tests in the centrifuge did not correlate well with laboratory values. The residual
undrained strengths derived from CPTu friction sleeve data did not correlate well to values measured
with a vane shear test or those from cyclic T-Bars. The impacts of viscous pore fluid that is associated
with PT on the measured friction sleeve values was deemed of importance for future analysis.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the significant support provided by BASF in supplying polymers, and ad-
vice on the preparation and use of polymers to treat slurries. The assistance provided by the beam cen-
trifuge operators Manuel Palacios and Kelvin Leong is greatly appreciated. Also, the reviewers are
acknowledged for providing useful comments on the draft paper.

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