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Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art

Conference Paper · March 2010

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138  Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art
 

Wind power and energy storage technologies –

State of the art
Raúl Sarrias1, Luis M. Fernández1, Carlos A. García1, and Francisco Jurado2
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Cadiz, EPS Algeciras,
Avda. Ramón Puyol, s/n. 11202 Algeciras (Cádiz), Spain
e-mail: raul.sarriasmena@alum.uca.es, luis.fernandez@uca.es, carlosandres.garcia@uca.es

2
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaen, EPS Linares,
C/ Alfonso X, nº 28. 23700 Linares (Jaén), Spain
e-mail: fjurado@ujaen.es

Abstract. Renewable resources rise as the principal alternative to traditional fossil fuels based energy
generation methods, and among them, wind power stands out. Natural resources supply a cleaner
energy, although it is necessary to solve the problems they cause on the electricity grid. The inherent
variability and unpredictability of wind affect the stability of the power system. Energy storage
systems appear to overcome some of these difficulties, since they allow the decoupling between
production and demand. Many investigations are being carried out in the field of storage systems. This
work will do a review of the most important devices, describing their main characteristics and
comparing their ability to operate under different conditions.

Key words: Energy storage, wind power, battery, supercapacitor, flywheel, superconducting magnetic
energy storage, hydrogen energy.

1. Introduction.
In an attempt to find less environmentally hazardous resources, renewable energies are supported by
authorities and organisations in most of the industrialised countries. Energy storage appears to
overcome some of the problems presented by these means of generation. The possibility of keeping
energy stored, and releasing it as electricity subsequently, solves the drawbacks of wind power
generation, such as random variability, or low accuracy wind forecasts.
In this study, several technologies are analysed. Electrochemical batteries, redox flow batteries,
sodium sulphur (NaS) batteries, flywheel, supercapacitor, superconducting magnetic energy storage
systems and the hydrogen technology are described and compared in order to state whether one or
another is preferable under certain working requirements, indicating the conclusions drawn from the
research in the last section.

2. Storage technologies.
The most remarkable energy storage technologies currently in use are analysed in this section.
2.1. Electrochemical Batteries.
Attending to their physical structure, electrochemical accumulators are comprised of an arrangement
of cells, which are formed basically by electrodes, electrolyte and electrical insulator. Energy is stored
in a chemical form when supplying energy to the battery. When necessary, this energy is released as
 
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 Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art 139
 

electricity by connecting a load to the electrodes. Therefore, reversible chemical reactions take place,
charging and discharging the battery respectively, by electrons transference. Among the vast variety of
electrochemical batteries, lead-acid and lithium-ion stand out.
Lead dioxide and sponge lead are used as positive and negative electrode respectively in lead-acid
batteries. Both electrodes are immersed in a sulphuric acid solution which works as electrolyte, while
a micro-porous material provides electrical insulation [1].
With large appliance in the field of portable devices, the Li-ion type is currently the most remarkable
among the lithium-based batteries. Li-ion batteries consist of a positive electrode made up of a
lithium-metal oxide and graphitic carbon as negative electrode, using lithium salts for the electrolyte.
2.2. Redox Flow Batteries.
Its working technique differs from that of the electrochemical batteries. Redox flow batteries are also
known as simply flow batteries. The system consists of two tanks where the electrolytes are stored
separately. When necessary, both electrolytes are pumped to a cell, where the electrodes and an ion-
selective membrane allow the ion exchange between the electrolytes. One of the most outstanding
features of this technology is the ability to decouple the energy and power capacities, since energy
supply depends on the volume of the reservoir tanks, whereas the power rates are limited by the ions
transfer speed through the selective membrane.
2.3. Sodium Sulphur Batteries (NaS).
Sodium sulphur batteries present a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte, which is surrounded by
molten sulphur in its external surface to form the positive electrode. In the internal surface, the
electrolyte contains molten sodium as the negative electrode. A high temperature, from 300 to 350ºC,
is needed in order to maintain sulphur and sodium in liquid state. Therefore, to start the reaction heat
must be provided; however, once it is running, the heat produced by continuous charging and
discharging cycles is enough to maintain temperature in the required range [2], thus avoiding the need
for an external heat supply.
2.4. Flywheel.
The flywheel system stores energy in the kinetic form in a rotating mass (Fig. 1). The quantity of
stored energy is a function of the spinning velocity of the rotor and its moment of inertia. Attending to
the former, these devices can be classified into low or high speed flywheels. Low-speed rotors, made
mainly of steel and metal alloys, are much heavier than the high-speed ones, where composite
materials are used. In order to reduce internal losses and self-discharge rates, the rotating mass is kept
in a vacuum enclosure, what reduces air friction. With the same aim, magnetic bearings are utilised,
hence avoiding shaft friction and the subsequent need for cooling the system.

Fig. 1 Flywheel Scheme [2]

 
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140  Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art
 

A reversible motor/generator couples the rotating system and the electricity grid. When storing energy,
the reversible device works as a motor to accelerate the rotor. On the other hand, it generates
electricity decelerating the rotor when discharging. As seen in Fig. 1, the rotor and the motor/generator
are coupled to the same shaft.
2.5. Supercapacitor.
A supercapacitor stores energy in the electric field created between two electrodes, which are
separated by a thin liquid electrolyte layer of only a few Å. Hence, supercapacitors follow the same
principles as common capacitors. Nevertheless, specific electrode structures and materials allow high
rates of capacitance per unit volume. They present a longer lifespan than batteries when operating
under frequent charge/discharge cycles, due to the fact that no chemical reactions are needed to store
or release energy. Among the different types, it is the Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor
(EDLC) that stands out.
2.6. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES).
Huge magnetic fields store energy that can be released as electricity using the SMES system. Complex
processes and equipment are needed to create and maintain magnetic fields that can range up to
several Tesla. The device is based on the principles of electromagnetism, using a direct current flow
through a superconducting coil to generate magnetic fields. A cooling system is needed for the
superconducting material to be kept at about -270ºC. Liquid helium in a vacuum enclosure is used to
reach this exigency. In this operation, the cooling system consumes considerable amounts of energy,
what increases the running costs of the whole system, thus reducing its economic competitiveness
against other technologies.
2.7. Hydrogen Technology.
Three main stages can be distinguished. These are hydrogen production, hydrogen storage and
electricity generation. These stages require specific equipment and can be developed in different
locations.
An electrolyzer splits hydrogen and oxygen from water when supplying electric energy. As a
consequence, oxygen is released to the atmosphere and hydrogen is stored, which is the second stage
of the process. Currently, four storage technologies are available [2]: Hydrogen pressurisation and
adsorption in metal hydrides are more developed, while liquefaction and adsorption on carbon
nanofibres are still under research. In a final stage, stored hydrogen reacts with oxygen in a fuel cell,
generating electricity via inverse electrolysis. As a result, water is wasted without hazardous effects on
the environment. Fuel cells consist of a two electrodes-electrolyte structure. Depending on the
materials utilised, different types exist.
The hydrogen technology is expected to be largely used in massive wind power generation. In Fig. 2, a
combined wind-hydrogen scheme is shown.

Fig. 2 Combined Wind-Hydrogen Scheme [3]

 
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 Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art 141
 

As seen in Fig. 2, a combined wind-hydrogen system can operate either connected to grid or isolated.
Moreover, hydrogen can be stored and consumed in a fuel cell, completing the whole energetic cycle
in the same wind farm; or otherwise, transported to a different location and used in an external system.

3. Working requirements.
In order to choose the most suitable storage system for a certain application, it is necessary to clarify
the requirements needed for the devices to have an appropriate performance. As a consequence, the
following classification settles the basic working features for large-scale energy storage devices:
 Power Quality: By this application, a proper quality in the electricity supplied to the consumers is
ensured. Stored energy is released to the grid for only a few seconds or less. Due to the fast
response, short-term fluctuations produced in wind power generation can be easily reduced when
using storage for this application.
 Bridging Power: The stored energy is used as an emergency buffer able to release energy ranging
from seconds to a few minutes when switching between different energy sources.
 Energy Management: The basic idea is to store energy when generation exceeds consumption, being
available subsequently when required. Energy is released for a longer period of time, typically
ranging from several minutes to hours. This technique allows decoupling the stages of energy
generation and consumption, which is also known as load levelling. Therefore, a profit can be made
by storing energy during off-peak hours, when the cost of electricity is lower, and then releasing
during peak hours, obtaining economic surpluses in the process. This alternative will solve some of
the complications caused by the long-term variability of wind, being especially useful for isolated
wind generation, and enhancing the advantages of wind power connected to network as well.
In Table I [4] is shown the importance of a few parameters, in order for the devices to be used in a
power or energy application.
POWER ENERGY
Large storage capacity - +
Large power capacity - +
Power gradient ++ -
Calendar lifetime + +
Access time ++ -
Low self-discharging - +
++ very important + important - less important
Table I. Energy and Power Requirements [4]

As seen, for energy usages it is essential for the device to have a large storage capacity. As well, low
self-discharging rates and long lifetime are desirable. On the other hand, a short access time and a high
power gradient are crucial if the device is expected to have a proper performance under power quality
requirements.
4. Comparison of the technologies.
It is necessary to compare the performance of the storage systems. Attending to their behaviour, one
device or another will be more suitable for each use. In this section the main characteristics of the
systems will be analysed in detail, in order to state the application that better adapts to their
possibilities.
 
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142  Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art
 

In this work the devices are compared in terms of the key factors that make the difference between a
power or energy application. For the chosen storage systems, the value of these parameters is shown in
Table II.
Electro- Super-
Redox Flow NaS Flywheel SMES Fuel Cell
chemical capacitor
Storage
Capacity 0.5 - 104 500 - 105 up to 2·105 1 - 30 0.1 - 0.6 10 - 50 several 103
[kWh]
Available
Power 0.5 - 103 10 - 3·104 10 - 8·103 1 - 104 0.9 - 200 103 - 2·105 5 - 104
[kW]
Discharge
sec - hours min - days sec - hours sec - min seconds sec - min min - days
Time
Lifespan
5 - 15 15 15 20 15 20 10
[years]
Access
Time 20 1 5 - 15 2-5 0.5 0.5 - 5 20
[ms]
Self- 2% - 5% per 20% per 14% per Cooling 3% per day
None None
discharging month hour month power (tank)
Table II. Storage technologies characteristics

In the wide group of electrochemical batteries, only lead-acid and Li-ion batteries have been
considered, since the rest have not shown an adequate behaviour in industrial usages yet. Lead-acid
batteries are currently the most mature storage technology. They have been used with positive results
in both energy and power applications. Their massive use is based on the low self-discharge rates they
present, as well as their long experience. Nevertheless, their relatively short lifespan limits their use
when continuous charge/discharge cycles are required. The Li-ion technology has proved to be an
interesting alternative to lead-acid. Li-ion batteries are lighter and present a higher energy-volume rate
than lead-acid ones. In addition, their superior efficiency, close to 100%, makes them the most popular
choice for portable devices. A more extensive use of this technology is hindered by the remarkably
high costs they deal with, reaching values up to 4,000$/kWh, in contrast to a maximum of 1,000$/kWh
for lead-acid [5]. Moreover, these batteries may suffer serious damages under certain conditions –i.e.
deep discharge. This electrical fragility prevents their use as a large-scale storage system.
Two new options appear with redox flow and sodium sulphur batteries, which are already in use as an
alternative to the traditional large-scale storage systems. Both are still growing technologies and need
to improve their performance to reach a higher commercial penetration. Sodium sulphur batteries are
able to provide a power pulse in a short instant, or otherwise, an energy supply for a longer period
with high efficiency. This feature, together with a short access time, makes them suitable for reducing
wind power fluctuations. Their main shortcoming is the need for frequent heat supply to maintain
electrolytes molten, thus increasing running costs. Flow batteries present notable energy and power
capacity, furthermore, it is essential to highlight their ability to decouple these two features in the
design stage. A long discharge time, the lack of self-discharge and total absence of deep discharge
damaging, are their major advantages to operate as long duration storages. However, the need for
pumping the electrolytes involves considerable running costs that hamper a broader development of
this system.
Hydrogen technology is currently under intensive research. It is considered to be an adequate energy
supply for the near future, since fuel cells are able to provide electricity for a few days time, producing
 
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 Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art 143
 

no polluting wastes. However, this technology is not recommended for power applications, since
impurity in hydrogen may appear if operating under constant switching charge/discharge cycles.
Among its main drawbacks, the low efficiency it presents is remarkable, approaching 40% for the
entire system. Besides, high capital costs are required when installing the system. These shortcomings
prevent from a wider expansion of this technology. Nonetheless, as stated in [6], fuel cells show
acceptable performance for mid-power utilities in isolated areas.
With regard to the power applications, there are different options which present better performance
than the previously indicated devices. These are mainly the supercapacitors, the SMES system and the
flywheels, since they are able to supply high power rates for a short period of a few minutes as
maximum. These three devices are especially suitable to curtail the effects of wind power fluctuation,
due to their fast response.
Supercapacitors possess an exceptional power density –up to 10,000 W/kg [2]– and energy density,
what compensates for their low storage capacity and power availability. They appear as a good option
for peak power supply, when sudden power demands occur [2]. However, this technology is still under
development and deals with excessively high costs, what sometimes hamper its broader utilisation.
With regard to SMES systems, their fast response and notable overall efficiency are remarkable. This
device is especially recommended when complete charge/discharge cycles are required on a
continuous basis [6], due to the fact that its lifespan is not affected by frequent and deep discharges. In
addition, their ability to operate for a few minutes time, allows small-scale energy supply, as well as
power quality control with intermittent sources, such us wind power generation. However, cryogenic
temperatures are needed in the system. This requires a considerable energy consumption that affects
negatively, due to the operational costs it involves. Moreover, the huge magnetic fields produced are
sometimes unstable, and demand special infrastructures –i.e. underground location. These drawbacks
make the SMES be less used than other more developed technologies.
Flywheels have shown proper performance in a number of industrial applications, being currently the
leading technology in the field of power quality control and power back up for renewable generation.
Their principal advantages remain in a short access time, remarkable power rating and long lifetime.
Even though capital costs for high-power flywheels are lower than for supercapacitors or SMES
systems, a reduction is still needed for them to be able to compete with other more mature
technologies.

5. Conclusions.
It has been deduced from the analysis that energy storage is already physically feasible and
economically affordable in the majority of the cases [6]. Moreover, it is an alternative that will grow in
the future as the technology develops.
As concluded in many of the references utilised, lead-acid batteries are the chosen device in most of
the applications, either under power or energy requirements. This preponderance is based on the large
experience acquired with this technology, which allows reduced investment costs as well.
For energy management applications, an attempt to substitute lead-acid with other devices is being
done. In this respect, the hydrogen technology, and redox flow and sodium sulphur batteries are better
positioned. Nevertheless, further R&D work must be done for all these options. NaS and flow batteries
need to reduce running costs by improving operation techniques. In the case of hydrogen, it is

 
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144  Wind power and energy storage technologies – State of the art
 

necessary to improve in efficiency. Its weak development leads to an expensive system as well.
Therefore, a costs reduction is essential for this technology to become commercially affordable.
In the field of power applications, flywheels, SMES and supercapacitors will replace lead-acid as soon
as they become more economical, since they are more reliable and long-durable technologies
compared to the latter. Flywheels present larger experience, showing satisfactory results in industrial
applications. On the other hand, supercapacitors perform extraordinarily with frequent and deep
charge/discharge cycles. Both these technologies are currently more spread than SMES, which faces
considerable difficulties with the use of large magnetic fields. The stability problems produced by
magnetism may be solved by improving the power electronics used in these systems. In addition, more
economically attractive options must be found for this technology to be utilised broadly.
When the storage is designed to work in bridging power applications, a mixture of all the previously
indicated characteristics would be the ideal situation. However, since none of the devices presents a
high performance in all these aspects, it is necessary to couple two or more systems in order to
compensate for each other deficiencies. Therefore, flow batteries and SMES or flywheels are able to
operate together. Especially in wind farms, coupled systems optimise electricity generation, due to the
number of storage possibilities and the ability to release energy during long periods or short instants.
Besides, a more efficient use of wind resources reduces generation costs as well, hence becoming
wind power a more economically competitive source.
In conclusion, wind power generation penetration will increase as the different storage technologies
develop. The costs of electricity production, based on renewable energies, are reduced by energy
storage, since the use of these devices, either alone or coupled, optimises the use of the available
resources. The systems here described have proved to be the most suitable alternatives for the working
features considered. Nevertheless, strong investment in R&D is required. At the same time, further
fieldwork is necessary to gain in experience and knowledge of the performance of the storage systems
presented in this study under real operating conditions.

References.
[1] K. C. Divya and J. Østergaard, “Battery energy storage technology for power systems – An overview”,
Electric Power System Research 79 (2009), pp. 511-520.
[2] I. Hadjipaschalis, A. Poullikkas and V. Efthimiou, “Overview of current and future energy storage
technologies for electric power applications”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (2009), pp.
1513-1522.
[3] S. A. Sherif, F. Barbir and T. N. Veziroglu, “Wind energy and the hydrogen economy - Review of the
technology”, Solar Energy 78 (2005), pp. 647-660.
[4] E. Spahić, G. Balzer, B. Hellmich and W. Münch, “Wind energy storages - Possibilities”, PowerTech 2007,
pp. 615-620.
[5] http://www.electricitystorage.org
[6] H. Ibrahim, A. Ilinca and J. Perron, “Energy storage systems - Characteristics and comparisons”, Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (2008), pp. 1221-1250.

 
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