Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Techno-economic optimization of novel stand-alone renewables-

based electric vehicle charging stations in Qatar
Abdulla Al Wahedi*, Yusuf Bicer
Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: One of the main challenges of e-mobility roll-out is securing the required charging demand without
Received 29 March 2021 stressing the existing power grid. The electrical source must be non-conventional to achieve the ultimate
Received in revised form eco-friendly goal. This study conducts a techno-economic assessment for a novel stand-alone renew-
19 October 2021
ables-based charging station to determine the optimal configuration to generate the required daily
Accepted 22 December 2021
charging demand. The optimization is accomplished through modeling and simulating of the proposed
Available online 27 December 2021
design using HOMER software in four cities of Qatar to investigate various geographical locations and
metrological conditions. The optimal solution is compared with the grid extension option in each
Keywords:
Ammonia
location using a comprehensive economic criterion. The results showed that 250 kW wind turbine with
Energy Storage 60 m hub height, 450 kWp CPV/T system, 500 kW electrolyzer, 100 kW H2 and NH3 FCs, 15 kW bio-
Environmental generator, 200 kg chemical storage tank, 304e324 kW Li-ion battery storage and 299e335 kW con-
Hydrogen verter combination is the optimal stand-alone configuration for the selected sites. The optimum cases'
Solar net present cost ranges between $2.53 M to $2.92 M, and the cost of electricity ranges between $0.285 to
Wind $0.329 per kWh. The proposed optimization methodology is suitable for applications in any location,
considering the metrological conditions of the site under study.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction transformer saturation, increased electrical losses, and voltage

Due to its significant contribution in reducing harmful emis-
sions [1], electric vehicle (EV) global adoption has increased
remarkably during the last decade [2]. The number of EVs world-
wide has increased from 17,000 EVs in 2010 to 7.2 million in 2019
[3]. To further increase EV global expansion, the public's perception
to adopt EVs shall be enhanced through wide distribution of EV
charging stations (EVCS) to ensure EV owners can confidently travel
long distances with comfortable access to charging facilities
whenever needed [1].
However, supplying the accelerating number of EVCS with the
required electricity from the existing grid will introduce multiple
challenges. Due to substantial electrical load demand increase [4],
the system will experience additional load peaks [5], leading to
voltage limit violations, transformer and feeder overloads at vary-
ing voltage levels, and negative impacts on the grid [6]. Distribution
networks will be threatened by stress and negative impacts such as
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: amalwahedi@hbku.edu.qa (A. Al Wahedi), ybicer@hbku.edu.
qa (Y. Bicer).
fluctuations, leading to inconsistent and unsafe service [7]. It would
be possible to resolve the issue by installing transformers with
higher capacities, but this is an expensive and non-eco-friendly
approach [4].
As electricity is mostly produced from fossil fuels [8], the huge
growth in the energy demand will exhaust the fossil fuel resources
[9], leading to fuel cost increase, heavy environmental impacts, and
deficiency in future energy supply [10]. Since the supplied elec-
tricity must be generated from carbon-free resources to achieve the
ultimate eco-friendly goal [11], rolling out stand-alone and
renewable energy sources (RES) based charging stations would be
an appropriate solution to meet the required demand reliably.
RES can decrease technical concerns, costs, and environmental
impacts compared to grid extension if optimal configurations from
the technical, economic, and ecological perspectives are carefully
considered [12]. Due to power distribution and transmission cost
elimination while implementing distributed generation plants and
cost reduction of RES and energy storage, the price of the electricity
generated from distributed systems is reduced and achieved grid
parity in many projects worldwide [13]. RES are suitable substitutes
for conventional resources to fulfill the growing electricity demand,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.123008
0360-5442/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer
but when they are employed separately, their intermittent nature
makes them unreliable sources of energy with relatively high
capital costs [14]. Mixing two or more RES such as wind turbine
(WT), concentrated photovoltaic thermal (CPV/T), or hydro pro-
vides a steady energy supply compared to single RES [15]. Hy-
bridization of multiple RES and energy storage options increases
the overall proposed system's production capacity, reliability, and
efficiency. The net present cost (NPC) and cost of energy (COE)
should be competitive compared to fossil fuel-based systems to
promote the penetration of RES in the transport sector [16].
Due to RES’ dependence on renewable resources, which vary by
location, the main challenge remains in devising a comprehensive
techno-economic approach to determine the optimal location,
configuration, and operation strategy for a hybrid EVCS. Therefore,
the objective of this study is to develop a novel techno-economic
methodology to determine the optimal site-specific stand-alone
EVCS configuration to increase the pace of integrating RES with EV
charging infrastructure in an eco-friendly and cost-effective
manner.
1.1. Literature review
Different studies were conducted in the literature to assess on-
grid and off-grid hybrid systems to generate electricity using
different techno-economic methods and tools. Among many works
that investigated the off-grid generation options, only a few have
considered calculating the break-even grid extension distance,
which is the minimum grid distance that makes the RES-based
stand-alone electricity generation option more feasible than grid
extension. Out of 85 stand-alone papers presented by Bahramara
et al., only 12 listed in Table 1 have calculated the break-even grid
extension distances where Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric
Renewable (HOMER) software was used [14].
Both grid-connected and stand-alone charging stations (CS)
composed of photovoltaic (PV) for EV charging are well established,
however, at a relatively smaller scale with moderate reliability [28].
Few studies have investigated the deployment of large-scale off-
grid hybrid RES to supply electricity for EVCS [29]. Those studies
have emphasized the positive technical advantages of deploying
stand-alone EVCS to safeguard the existing network with less focus
on economic feasibility [1]. Limited combined technical and eco-
nomic optimization studies were conducted for off-grid configu-
rations, out of which rare have calculated the break-even grid
extension distance. None have included the payback period, prof-
itability index (PI), and internal rate of return (IRR).
Ekren et al. used HOMER software to design and optimize an off-
grid hybrid solar PV and WT to generate electricity for an EVCS in
Izmir city in Turkey [2]. Their results showed that 250 kW solar PV
and a 200 kW WT are the optimal sizings for the proposed
configuration where COE and NPC were found 0.064 $/kWh and
$697,704, respectively. Domínguez-Navarro et al. used the Monte
Carlo method to model and simulate EV demand and RES output.
The Genetic Algorithm optimization technique was used to assess
the feasibility of integrating hybrid solar PV and WT RES with a
storage system to generate electricity for a fast EVCS [30]. Based on
the calculated NPC, they concluded that the integration of RES and
battery system decreases the stress on the grid and increases the
economic feasibility of the EVCS. The payback period, profitability
index, and internal rate of return were not considered in this study.
Vermaak and Kusakana developed a stand-alone RES-based
EVCS for rural areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo [31].
Different configurations consisting of PV, WT, battery, and diesel
generator were simulated using HOMER. PV, WT with batteries
were found to be the most economical design where NPC and COE
were calculated as $39,705 and 0.499 $/kWh, respectively. The
2
Energy 243 (2022) 123008
break-even grid extension distance was calculated and found
2.87 km for the case of Mbuji-Mayi. Similarly, this study did not
cover the payback period, PI, and IRR.
Hafez and Bhattacharya investigated the optimal RES-based
configuration and sizing for designing an on-grid and off-grid
EVCS with both electrical and thermal loads, targeting minimum
lifecycle cost and harmful emissions [1]. Using HOMER to assess
both cases' optimal techno-economic design, multiple configura-
tions consisting of PV, battery storage, and a diesel generator were
examined. The break-even grid extension distance was calculated
to serve as an economic reference for selecting among the option of
connecting the EVCS to the grid or going for a RES-based stand-
alone option. Their results showed that a configuration consisting
of PV, battery storage, and a diesel generator is the optimal
configuration for the stand-alone case where the NPC and COE
were found as $945,000 and 0.625 $/kWh, respectively. The same
design was found for the grid-connected case as the optimal one
where NPC and COE were found as $835,000 and 0.551 $/kWh,
respectively. The break-even grid extension distance for diesel
generator-based EVCS, RES-based EVCS, and mix RES and diesel
generator-based EVCS were found 69.9 km, 125 km, and 36.6 km,
respectively. The payback period, PI, and IRR were not included in
that study.
1.2. Motivation and inspiration
Despite the importance of off-grid charging stations, they have
not yet been thoroughly studied and modeled, which requires more
investigation [32]. Based on the literature review, few studies have
assessed and optimized EVCS from technical and economic per-
spectives. Most of the studies in the literature predominantly
focused on the technical aspects of EVCS infrastructure. Therefore,
more optimization studies are needed to promote the integration of
RES with EVCS as grid isolated systems to boost EV penetration in
the transport sector and increase the RES share in global electricity
generation without impacting the grid. This paper's motivation is to
propose a technically and economically balanced optimal off-grid
micropower system consisting of RES and various energy storage
technologies to fulfill the daily electricity demand of a fast EVCS.
The State of Qatar possesses a large portion of the world's nat-
ural gas reserve; nevertheless, the government has committed
through its national vision 2030 to expand renewable energy
sources and reduce reliance on conventional resources aiming for
social, economic, and environmental sustainability. Since Qatar is
located within the Sun Belt region of the world, it receives plentiful
solar radiation throughout the year, which supports the utilization
of solar technology widely. Moreover, based on previous studies, it
was proven that utilizing small to mid-range wind turbines for
electricity generation is viable [33]. This fact gives great potential
for solar and wind technologies deployment expansion in Qatar for
electricity generation purposes.
Transport sector decarbonization to reduce greenhouse gases
(GHG) emissions by promoting electric mobility penetration has
been one of Qatar's main objectives for the last five years. In May
2017, the “Green Car Initiative” was launched to encourage EVs'
adoption [34]. It was announced that 400 EVCS would be installed,
and EVs share will reach 2e4% by 2022 [35]. Qatar will be hosting
FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022, and it was declared that 25% of the
buses would be electric by 2022 to serve as a sustainable transfer
means during the championship. By 2030 all public transport buses
are projected to be electric [36].
Since the successful deployment of EVs is predominantly reliant
on establishing an efficient and reliable EVCS infrastructure to
facilitate the smooth transition to electric mobility, it is essential to
devise a comprehensive optimization methodology to propose a
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Table 1
Breakeven grid distance calculated in previous literature.

Stand-alone hybrid configuration Location Break-even grid distance (km) LCOE Reference

PV/LPG generator/battery North of Cameroon 37.4 0.576 V/kWh [17]

Micro-hydro/LPG generator/battery South of Cameroon 15.4 0.576 V/kWh
PV/WT/battery Bangladesh 17 0.363 $/kWh [18]
PV/biogas generator/battery North of Cameroon 15.2 0.396 V/kWh [19]
Pico-Hydro/biogas generator/battery South of Cameroon 12.9 0.352 V/kWh
Micro-hydro/PV/diesel generator/battery Cameroon 3.3 0.278 $/kWh [20]
PV/WT/battery Portugal 31.6 0.650 V/kWh [21]
Grid Iran 5.92 0.100 $/kWh [22]
Grid/WT 0.144 $/kWh
Grid/PV 0.170 $/kWh
Grid/PV/WT 0.214 $/kWh
Diesel generator 0.369 $/kWh
WT/battery/diesel generator 0.409 $/kWh
Battery/diesel generator 0.411 $/kWh
PV/WT/battery/diesel generator 0.422 $/kWh
Diesel generator Canada 153 0.902 $/kWh [15]
PV/WT/battery/micro-hydro 0.639 $/kWh
PV/WT/battery/micro-hydro/diesel generator 0.278 $/kWh
Grid/micro-hydro 0.071 $/kWh
PV/WT/battery Bangladesh 10.10 0.470 $/kWh [23]
PV/WT/battery 0.630 $/kWh
PV/WT/battery 0.666 $/kWh
PV/micro-hydro/battery South Africa 3.07 0.197 $/kWh [24]
PV/WT/battery/diesel generator with .5 MW load United Arab Emirates 31 0.260 $/kWh [25]
PV/WT/battery/diesel generator with 1 MW load 38 0.190 $/kWh
PV/WT/battery/diesel generator with 5 MW load 180 0.190 $/kWh
Hydrokinetic turbine South Africa 1.1 0.330 $/kWh [26]
PV 0.601 $/kWh
Diesel generator 1.330 $/kWh
Hydrokinetic turbine/diesel generator 0.265 $/kWh
PV/diesel generator 0.505 $/kWh
Hydrokinetic turbine Kwazulu Natal 1.76 0.330 $/kWh [27]
PV Western Cape 1.1 0.601 $/kWh
WT 7.972 $/kWh
Diesel generator 1.330 $/kWh
Hydrokinetic turbine/PV 0.335 $/kWh
Hydrokinetic turbine/diesel generator 0.265 $/kWh
PV/diesel generator 0.505 $/kWh
Hydrokinetic turbine/PV/diesel generator 0.271 $/kWh

sustainable EVCS design and investigate it technically and each step is elaborated subsequently.
economically.
The main novelties and objectives of the present work are
summarized below:
2.1. Proposed preliminary design

Introducing a robust methodology to assess the optimal techno-
economic configuration and sizing of a stand-alone fast EVCS A novel stand-alone EVCS design consisting of integrated RES
with hybrid RES and multiple energy storage options capable of with alternative storage systems was proposed by the author in
fulfilling daily EV charging demand reliably. previous studies [29,37], where the thermodynamic analysis was

Modeling, simulating and optimizing the proposed hybrid sys- conducted for the proposed design, and the energy and exergy ef-
tem using technical and economic data of the incorporated ficiencies were found 45% and 19%, respectively. The proposed
components and site-specific metrological inputs for four design is configured of the following main components:
different locations in the State of Qatar to assess the optimal
cost-effective and technically feasible configurations.
Integrated solar CPV/T and WT systems as two main RES.

Conducting sensitivity analysis to examine the resilience of the
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer to produce H2
selected configuration against selected uncertain parameters. from water.

Devising economic comparative analysis method to assist in
favoring stand-alone or grid connection options on a case-by-
case basis.

Although the devised methodology is used for a case study in

Qatar, it is valid for application in any country where the site-
specific metrological conditions must be applied.

2. Methodology

This study's methodology flow is demonstrated in Fig. 1, where Fig. 1. Methodology flowchart.

3
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Air separator to produce N2 from the air through the cryogenic
process.

Haber-Bosch plant for NH3 synthesis through the produced H2
and N2.

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery storage system (BSS) and chemical
storage system.

H2 and NH3 fuel cells (FC) produce electricity during nighttime
and unfavorable weather conditions.

DC-DC, AC-DC, and DC-AC converters.

Back up biodiesel generator for use during energy cases only
when the other energy sources are not available.
Since Qatar is located on the Sun Belt, solar technology is inte-
grated into the proposed design to harvest solar energy throughout
the year for electricity generation. Moreover, space requirements
are low for small scale generation plants. Compared to other
renewable energy options, construction time is short as well. In
recent years, solar technology has become competitive due to its
efficiency and dramatic cost reduction.
The following equation is used to calculate the output of the
CPV/T [14]:


GT   
PPV ¼ YPV fPV 1 þ ap Tc  Tc;STC (1)
GT;STC
where.
YPV ¼ the rated capacity of the PV array [kW]
fPV ¼ the PV derating factor [%]
GT ¼ the solar radiation incident on the PV array [kW/m2]
GT;STC ¼ the incident radiation at standard test conditions
[1 kW/m2]
aP ¼ the temperature coefficient of power [%/ C]
TC ¼ the PV cell temperature [ C]
TC;STC ¼ the PV cell temperature under standard test conditions
[25  C]
A wind turbine is incorporated in the proposed design to sup-
plement the solar system during night times and overcast days.
With an average wind speed of 5.6 m/s in Qatar, there are enough
wind turbine models on the market to generate electricity at lower
wind speed ranges. Space requirement for the small-scale plant is
low. Compared to other renewable energy options, construction
time is short. Globally, wind turbine efficiency has increased, and
the cost has reduced in recent years.
The following equation is used to calculate the wind speed at
hub height [14]:


Zhub a
Uhub ¼ Uanem , (2)
Zanem
PWTG;STP ¼ the WT power output at standard temperature and
pressure [kW]
r ¼ the actual air density [kg/m3]
r0 ¼ the air density at standard temperature and pressure
(1.225 kg/m3).
Biodiesel generator is integrated into the proposed design as a
backup source in case main energy sources and storage systems fail
to meet demand. Biodiesel has a higher heating value (HHV) of
40,700 kJ/kg, which is only 9% less than petroleum diesel. Restau-
rant waste oil and animal fat can be processed locally to produce
the required quantities instead of using conventional diesel.
In addition to the batteries, H2 and NH3 chemical storage sys-
tems are incorporated to diversify surplus energy storage methods
and increase battery lifetime by reducing its charging and dis-
charging cycles. Compared to Li-ion batteries, H2 and HN3 have
relatively higher gravimetric and volumetric energy densities. H2
and NH3 fuel cells units are incorporated since small-scale H2 FC
and NH3 FC is already implemented.
In Qatar, geothermal energy (hot water/steam) and hydropower
are unavailable due to the country's geography and its site-specific
conditions.
The authors conducted a technical assessment of the proposed
design in another study [38]. The technical viability of the proposed
design for fast charging 50 EVs per day in Qatar was examined. The
results showed that the proposed design could fulfill the daily
charging demand throughout the year reliably.
Since it is vital to assess the proposed system's economic
feasibility and compare it to the alternative grid-connected option,
this study's scope covers the above uninvestigated essential
elements.
2.2. Techno-economic and optimization tool selection
Based on the literature reviewed in this study, HOMER software
developed by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is a
powerful and reliable tool used by many researchers to conduct
techno-economic assessment studies for optimal sizing of the
components containing in their proposed hybrid RES systems.
HOMER modeling and simulation can provide accurate and reliable
results having similar charecteristics with RETScreen [39] software,
based on which profound decisions can be made [40]. Also, it avoids
needless, complex, lengthy calculations used by PV DesignPro [41],
PV*SOL [42], and Hybrid2 [43] software which increases the
simulation process timing dramatically with negligible result
improvement [40]. As per review paper results conducted by
Bahramara et al., HOMER is a commonly applied tool by many re-
searchers, particularly in developing countries, to assess RES sys-
tem configurations [14].

where: 2.3. Objective function, constraints, and decision variables

Uhub ¼ the wind speed at the hub height of the wind turbine [m/
s] Optimization analysis and results are based on three main ele-
Uanem ¼ the wind speed at anemometer height [m/s] ments, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Zhub ¼ the hub height of the wind turbine [m] In this study, the objective function is to determine the sizing
Zanem ¼ the anemometer height [m] and operation scenario with minimum installation and lifetime
a ¼ the power-law exponent. operating cost among all technically feasible configurations
The following equation is used to calculate the power output of meeting EVCS daily demand. HOMER calculates both the NPC and
WT [14]: COE for each possible combination, sizing, and operation scenario
based on which the least NPC and COE configuration can be

a
r selected as the optimal solution.
PWTG ¼ ,PWTG;STP (3)
r0 NPC is the present value of all investments and lifetime costs of
building an electricity generation plant less the present value of all
where: revenues generated by the same plant during its life span. It is
PWTG ¼ the WT power output [kW] calculated using Eq. (4).
4
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

configurations, HOMER models defined loads and incorporated

components. In grid-connected configurations, HOMER models the
grid in addition to the loads and integrated components.
Since there are less than fifteen public charging units in Qatar
with a minimal number of EVs, EVCS's daily demand load profile
must be forecasted. Accordingly, the daily EV demand profile from
the research paper [44] is used in this study after extrapolating the
data using the probability density function to represent 50 Evs'
daily demand. To represent a realistic demand, 10% day-to-day and
20% timestep randomness is added to the EV load data to represent
10% daily and 20% monthly variance.
Qatar's climate is a hot desert with less than 3-inch rainfall
throughout the year. As per Ko €ppen-Geiger's climate classification,
Fig. 2. Optimization analysis main elements.
it is classified under group B (dry arid climate) and sub-group BWh
(desert hot arid). As per extended global trends and projected
climate change scenarios, Qatar's climate classification will remain
Ctotal annual unchanged until 2100 [45]. Since the output of hybrid RES is
NPC ¼ n (4)
ið1þiÞ
n
dependent on selected sites, four locations with relatively high
ð1þiÞ 1
populations in the east, west, north, and south of Qatar are
considered in this study. Those locations are Al Rayan (between
where.
2518.90 northern latitude and 5126.30 eastern longitude), Dukhan
Ctotal annual ¼ the total annualized cost [$]
(between 25 27.80 northern latitude and 50 46.40 eastern longi-
n ¼ the economic operational lifetime in years
tude), Al Shamal (between 26 8.50 northern latitude and 5116.00
t ¼ the year (1, 2, … n).
eastern longitude) and Mesaieed (between 24 57.40 northern lati-
COE is the present value of total costs associated with building
tude and 5135.00 eastern longitude) and are in east, west, north,
and operating an electricity generation plant per total unit of
and south of Qatar, respectively. Al Rayan's population is 272,465
electricity generated by the same plant during its life span. It sug-
annum, Dukhan is 7250 annum, Al Shamal is 5267 annum, and
gests the average cost per kWh of each proposal to supply the
Mesaieed is 5769 annum [46]. Their geographical locations are
demand and is calculated using Eq. (5).
indicated in Fig. 3.
P The four selected locations' solar irradiation, temperature, and
I0 þ nt¼1 At t
ð1þiÞ wind speed data are obtained from the NASA Prediction of
COE ¼ Pn M (5)
el
t¼1 ð1þiÞt
Worldwide Energy Resources (POWER) database [47] included in
HOMER Pro software. The monthly average solar Global Horizontal
where. Irradiance (GHI) data is for over 22 years from July 1983 to June
I0 ¼ the investment expenditures [$] 2005. The monthly average air temperature and wind speed data
At ¼ the annual total costs in year t [$] are for more than 30 decades from January 1984 to December 2013.
Mel ¼ the produced quantity of electricity in the respective year The wind speed is measured at 50 m height. Biodiesel data such as
[kWh] density and Lower Heating Value (LHV) used by the bio generator
i ¼ the real discount rate [%] are extracted from the HOMER library.
n ¼ the economic operational lifetime in years
t ¼ the year (1, 2, … n). 2.5. Economic data
The objective function must be optimized based on predefined
constraints. The constraints considered in the study are the Since the economic analysis in HOMER is determined by
maximum allowable space for installing a solar system, which assessing the lifecycle cost of a system, each component's
should not exceed 1500 m2 to match typical fuel station size,
1750 kWh daily electricity production to charge a minimum of
50 EVs with 35 kWh capacity daily, 0 kWh annual allowable power
shortage, minimum of 95% renewable yearly share.
Since appropriate charging strategy selection is a key player to
minimize RES output fluctuation, whether load-following (LF) or
cycle-charging (CC) dispatch strategy for charging the battery
storage to be adopted in the system are among the predefined
decision variables. In the former strategy, the battery system is
charged by renewable sources but not by the incorporated bio
generator, while in the latter strategy, the bio generator serves both
the load and storage battery charging. Other decision variables
examined in this study are the sizes of the incorporated compo-
nents such as WT hub height, battery storage, electrolyzer, chem-
ical storage tank, convertors, H2, and NH3 FCs.

2.4. Technical data

The system simulation process initially requires the entry of

multiple input data for modeling purposes. In stand-alone Fig. 3. The geographical location of the four selected sites in Qatar.

5
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

associated costs within the project lifetime are reflected in Table 2,
where the project lifetime is considered 25 years and a 5.7% dis-
count rate with a 0.55% inflation rate are used in this study [48].
3. Results and discussions
In this section of the study, the modeling, simulation, and
optimization process in HOMER Pro will be elaborated, based on
which the results will be analyzed and discussed.

2.6. Sensitivity and break-even analysis

Values of certain factors beyond control may vary throughout
the plant's life cycle, alternating the optimal solution under those
scenarios. Hence, it is essential to examine the range of possible
values for those factors through simulation and optimization and
determine the optimal solutions under those circumstances. Wind
speed and solar radiation are two examples where changes in their
values will directly impact incorporated RES, affecting the config-
uration mix, equipment sizing, and optimal results. Therefore,
sensitivity analysis must be conducted to examine the system's
resilience under investigation where the best configuration would
be the one with optimal results under most circumstances.
In this study, sensitivity analysis is conducted against wind
speed considering different WT hub heights. However, other un-
certain parameters can be evaluated following the same method as
found appropriate by the assessor. In some cases, the optimal
configuration might change if the system is examined under a
range of uncertain parameters. Still, the overall optimal design is
considered the one with minimum NPC and COE under most
circumstances.
While investigating the economic feasibility of a stand-alone
RES EVCS against grid-connected EVSC, it is essential to calculate
the break-even grid extension distance limit. If the grid infra-
structure is available closer than this limit, it is more economical to
go for the grid-connected EVCS option but not from technical or
environmental perspectives. However, if the grid is available
beyond this limit, the off-grid option would be technically,
economically, and environmentally optimal.
The proposed methodology has numerous advantages, such as:
1. A systematic approach to comprehensively examine the techno-
economic aspects of the proposed novel stand-alone fast EVCS
with precise results.
2. Flexibility to investigate different technologies within a system
to determine the optimal combination that meets technical re-
quirements cost-effectively.
3. Hourly-based modeling and simulation capability to precisely
analyze the amount of energy generated and consumed by in-
tegrated subsystems and components throughout the project's
lifecycle.
4. Accessibility to rich technical and metrological data from reli-
able resources embedded in the HOMER library.
5. Sensitivity analysis by changing the values of selected inputs
and observing the performance of the subsystems and overall
system.
3.1. Load demand and metrological data modeling
HOMER performs hourly modeling for all the inputs for an entire
year based on the data either fed into HOMER or selected from the
HOMER library. This stage is essential to simulate all possible sys-
tem combinations to reach the configuration that meets the de-
mand and technical requirements at the lowest lifecycle cost.
Accordingly, the EVCS load demand is modeled in HOMER Pro,
as illustrated in Fig. 4, where the daily and seasonal stochastic EV
demand profiles are indicated.
The average monthly solar Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)
and clearness index for the four selected locations are modeled in
HOMER. Solar radiation is found available throughout the year in
Qatar, where a significant quantity of solar energy can be acquired.
Moreover, the four selected locations' annual solar radiation and
clearness index are found similar, where the average annual solar
radiation is found 5.33 kWh/m2 per day.
Likewise, the temperature of the four selected locations is
modeled where the four selected locations' temperature is
observed similar throughout the year with an annual average
temperature of 27.48  C.
Similarly, the four selected locations' annual wind resource data
is modeled. The yearly average wind speed in the four selected
locations is similar and equals 5.61 m/s at 50 m height.
Based on the obtained modeling results from HOMER, the four
selected sites' metrological data are similar throughout the year
despite being located in four different zones because Qatar's total
land size is relatively small, with a total area not exceeding 11,500
km2 [53].
3.2. System design configuration in HOMER
The initial step is constructing the proposed design in HOMER,
for which the values of the decision variables under investigation
must be specified. The incorporated components’ values used in the
HOMER simulation process are shown in Table 3. The decision
variables for each component and uncertain parameters against
which the sensitivity analysis is conducted are indicated.
Few components have predefined parameters, others have a
range of parameters to be investigated, and the HOMER optimizer
determines others. The proposed design configuration is built in
HOMER and reflected in Fig. 5.

Table 2
Life cycle cost of main components.

Component Capital Cost ($) Replacement Cost ($) O&M Cost ($) Fuel Cost ($/L) Lifetime Reference

1 kW CPV/T 1000 300 25/y e 25 y [49]

250 kW WT 250,000 250,000 1000/y e 25 y [49]
1 kW NH3 FC 3000 1500 0.010/h 0.19 5000 h [50,51]
1 kW H2 FC 3000 1500 0.010/h e 5000 h [50]
1 kWh Li-ion Battery 550 550 10/y e 15 y [49]
1 kW Converter 300 300 e e 15 y [49]
1 kW Bio Generator 200 200 0.030/h 0.50 15,000 h [49]
1 kW Electrolyzer 380 95 20/y e 7y [52]
1 kg Storage tank 700 700 e e 25 y [49]

6
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Fig. 4. EV demand generated by HOMER (a) daily and (b) seasonal.

Table 3
Components and parameters investigated in the study.

Component Decision variables values Remarks

CPV/T 450 kWp Determined using PVSyst [54] software based on space limitation of 1500 m2
WT 250 kW Determined considering space limitation and WT blade dimensions
H2 and NH3 FCs 100 kW/200 kW Both sizes are simulated for each FC
BSS and Converter e Calculated and selected by HOMER Optimizer
Bio Generator 15 kW Small capacity used as a backup emergency supply
Electrolyzer 100 kW/500 kW Both sizes are simulated
Chemical storage tank 50 kg/100 kg/200 kg Both sizes are simulated
BSS charging strategy LF/CC Both strategies are simulated
WT Hub Height 40 m/50 m/60 m Sensitivity analysis is carried out

found feasible. In contrast, 3040 were found infeasible due to ca-

pacity shortage constraints where the required power capacity is
found relatively more than the actual power capacity that the
system can deliver.
For each WT hub height sensitivity case, the optimal configu-
ration of different possible combinations is identified. As the list of
all technically viable options are obtained for the east location,
where the integrated stand-alone RES and storage alternatives can
deliver the daily required EVCS electricity demand annually in a
reliable manner, the rest of the study focuses on conducting a
comparative analysis to determine the optimal configuration from
the technical and economic perspectives jointly for this location.
Following the same approach, the optimal designs for the
remaining three locations are determined as well.

3.4. Technically viable designs’ economic assessment

Economic assessment and optimization of the proposed designs

Fig. 5. System design configuration in HOMER.
3.3. Design simulation and optimization results
Considering the incorporated components' technical parame-
ters and their unit costs and lifetime span, the proposed hybrid
RES-based system is simulated each 1-h time step for a year in
HOMER Pro, where the hourly supplied power by RES is compared
with the hourly demand load. Whenever there is excess power, it is
stored in the available multiple energy storage means. Whenever
there is a power shortage, the bio-generator gets in to fulfill the
shortage.
All viable solutions considering different configurations, sizes,
dispatch strategies, and sensitivity parameters to meet the targeted
load demand are investigated through the simulation process.
Based on the predefined decision variable ranges and sensitivity
parameters in Table 3, all feasible options are simulated in HOMER
Pro to determine the east location's optimal configuration.
Accordingly, 4236 solutions are simulated, out of which 908 were
7
are among the main objectives of this study to determine the
optimal economic configuration among the available technically
viable options from the financial perspective, which is an essential
criterion for EVCS owners to decide on investing in off-grid RES
based EVCS. HOMER Pro performs economic analysis by conducting
precise mathematical calculations for a set of crucial financial in-
dicators for all the determined technical viable configurations
through the modeling and simulation process. The optimal
economical option for each unique combination is determined by
identifying the minimum NPC and COE of all possible options,
which is calculated based on the net present value method, where
the capital investment and all other associated costs throughout
the life span of each integrated component such as replacement,
operation, maintenance, and fuel consumption costs as well as the
project selvage value by the end of the project lifetime are calcu-
lated considering predefined inflation rate and discount rate.
The techno-economic analysis compares NPC, COE, and unmet
demand among all the selected optimal configurations. As a result,
the optimal design with minimum NPC and COE for each WT hub
height for the east location is given in Table 4.
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Table 4
Optimal configuration for each WT hub height in east location.

WT Hub Hight Electro-lyzer Chemical Storage Dispatch Li-Ion Battery Con-verter H2 FC NH3 FC Bio Gen NPC (Mill- COE Un-met load
(m) (kW) Tank (kg) Strategy (kWh) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) ion $) ($) (%)

40 500 100 CC 3591 365 100 100 15 5.401 0.608 0.051

50 500 200 CC 2095 415 100 100 15 4.148 0.467 0.051
60 500 200 CC 359 299 100 100 15 2.531 0.285 0.025

Similar modeling, simulation, and optimization exercise are
conducted using HOMER on the remaining three locations. The
optimal configurations with minimum NPC and COE for each WT
hub height in west, north, and south locations are given in Table 5,
Table 6, and Table 7, respectively.
Accordingly, the overall optimal configuration with minimum
NPC, COE and unmet demand percentage for all the four locations
comprises of 60 m hub height WT, 450 kWp CPV/T system, 500 kW
electrolyzer, 100 kW H2 and NH3 FCs, 15 kW bio-generator, 200 kg
chemical storage tank, Li-ion battery storage, and converter com-
bination. The optimal configurations operate on the CC dispatch
strategy in east, north, and south locations, while the west location
operates on the LF dispatch strategy.
Specifications of CPV/T, wind turbine, batteries, inverter, and
storage tank selected for the proposed configuration are reflected
in Table 8.
3.5. Optimal configurations’ NPC assessment
The optimal configuration component level NPC breakdown
based on expenditure type for east location is illustrated in Table 9.
The overall system NPC is calculated by summing up the NPC of
each.
The optimal configuration’ NPC at the east location is $2.53 M.
Similarly, the optimal configurations’ NPC at west, north, and south
locations are $2.63 M, $2.92 M, and $2.53 M, respectively.
Fig. 6 is a graphical illustration of the NPC amount of each
expenditure type of the optimal configurations selected for east,
west, north, and south locations.
3.6. Optimal design's technical analysis
Based on the results obtained from HOMER and reflected in
Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, and Table 7, the detailed technical com-
ponents capacities of the most optimal configuration for each of the
four locations are extracted and reflected in Table 10. The four lo-
cations have identical values for most components with minimal
variance in Li-ion battery and converter capacities.
The total electricity produced by the system throughout the year
at east, west, north, and south locations is 1.003 GWh, 967 MWh,
984 MWh, and 1.003 GWh. The detailed contribution of each of the
energy sources in each location is illustrated in Table 11.
It is observed that WT has the dominant production contribu-
tion followed by the CPV/T system with a total of 77.9%, 79.2%,
77.2%, and 77.9% for east, west, north, and south locations, respec-
tively, while the rest 22.1%, 20.8%, 22.8%, and 22.1% are distributed
among the remaining incorporated multiple storage systems and
FCs. It is observed that the bio generator contributes throughout the
year with only 1.10%, 0.04%, 1.54%, and 1.10% in east, west, north,
and south locations, respectively, to backup during emergencies.
It is noticed by comparing the monthly generation profiles, and
volumes of all the four locations are similar due to the similarity in
the metrological resources driving the integrated RES in the system,
which have the majority generation share.
It can be concluded that the overall proposed off-grid RES-based
system is technically viable, and the daily EVCS charging demand is
fulfilled reliably in all four locations.
3.7. Comparative analysis with grid connectivity option
Although a bulk number of fast EVCS connections to the existing
grid will stress the network and negatively impact the power
supply's security, it is worth analyzing from the economic
perspective whether it is feasible to go for a stand-alone or grid-
connected EVCS. Therefore, the break-even distance is calculated
in all the four selected locations to determine the maximum
allowable network distance beyond which stand-alone EVCS would
be more feasible.
Distance-based sensitivity analysis is performed in HOMER Pro
to calculate the NPC for connecting to the grid considering multiple
distances ranging from 0 to 30 km. Table 12 indicates the param-
eters used in the grid-based EVCS simulation and optimization
process in HOMER. The indicated grid costs are actual costs ob-
tained from Qatar's sole power utility service provider [57], while
the carbon price is assumed to start with US $10 per ton in the first
year and reach the US $30 per ton in ten years [58].
Unlike NPC of a stand-alone EVCS, which depends on the inte-
grated components associated lifetime costs to generate the
required electricity to meet the demand, NPC of grid-tied EVCS
depends on the associated cost to secure the required power
infrastructure inclusive of cable extension cost from the grid to the
EVCS, power purchase cost, and carbon emission prices. Since
natural gas is the sole grid electricity generation source, HOMER
found CO2 emissions from grid-connected configurations equals
418 tons per year.
Table 13 illustrates the break-even distance at which both grid-
connected and off-grid optimal design EVCS NPCs are the same for
each of Qatar's four selected locations based on the results obtained
from HOMER.
From the economic perspective, if the distance between the
selected EVCS location and the available grid is equal to or more
than the break-even distance, then RES based hybrid stand-alone
system option is preferred. On the other hand, if it is less, then
the grid-connected EVCS option is preferred more.

Table 5
Optimal configuration for each WT hub height in west location.

WT Hub Hight Electro-lyzer Chemical Storage Dispatch Li-Ion Battery Con-verter H2 FC NH3 FC Bio Gen NPC (Mill- COE Un-met load
(m) (kW) Tank (kg) Strategy (kWh) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) ion $) ($/kWh) (%)

40 500 200 CC 3153 365 100 100 15 5.411 0.609 0.051

50 500 100 CC 2661 401 100 100 15 4.855 0.546 0.052
60 500 200 LF 446 316 100 100 15 2.631 0.296 0.030

8
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Table 6
Optimal configuration for each WT hub height in north location.

WT Hub Hight Electro-lyzer Chemical Storage Dispatch Li-Ion Battery Con-verter H2 FC NH3 FC Bio Gen NPC (Mill- COE Un-met load
(m) (kW) Tank (kg) Strategy (kWh) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) ion $) ($/kWh) (%)

40 500 200 CC 4158 327 100 100 15 5.983 0.673 0.036

50 500 200 CC 2490 343 100 100 15 4.481 0.504 0.051
60 500 200 CC 767 335 100 100 15 2.923 0.329 0.048

Table 7
Optimal configuration for each WT hub height in south location.

WT Hub Hight Electro-lyzer Chemical Storage Dispatch Li-Ion Battery Con-verter H2 FC NH3 FC Bio Gen NPC (Mill- COE Un-met load
(m) (kW) Tank (kg) Strategy (kWh) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) ion $) ($/kWh) (%)

40 500 100 CC 3232 328 100 100 15 5.401 0.608 0.051

50 500 200 CC 1886 415 100 100 15 4.148 0.467 0.051
60 500 200 CC 323 299 100 100 15 2.531 0.285 0.025

Table 8
Technical specifications of main integrated components.

Component Parameter Model/Value Reference

CPV/T Cell Type GaInP2/GaAs/Ge [54]

Model CX-M500 1.00.086
Manufacturer Soitec
Operating temperature 50  C
Number of PV modules 1 in series and 191 in parallel
Rating 468 kWp
Average daily Profile 1728 kWh
Total Area 1497 m2
Wind turbine Installed capacity 250 kW [55]
Model EWT DW 54-250
Axis type Horizontal
Cut-in wind speed 2.5 m/s
Rated wind speed 7.5 m/s
Cut-out wind speed 25 m/s
Rotor diameter 54 m
Wind turbine lambda (l) 0.65
Inverter Model AGILO 75.0-3 Outdoor [54]
Manufacturer Fronius International
Number of inverters 5 units
Battery Model Powerwall [54]
Manufacturer Tesla
Operating temperature 20  C
Number of units 6 in series x 20 in parallel
Stored energy 654.0 kWh
Total battery weight 13,680 kg
H2 storage tank Tank shape and type Cylindrical - steel [56]
Volume 29 m3
Tank radius 2m
Tank height 2.4 m
NH3 storage tank Tank shape and type Cylindrical - steel [56]
Volume 4.11 m3
Cylindrical tank radius 1m
Cylindrical tank height 1.5 m

Table 9
East location optimal configuration components’ NPC breakdown.

Name Capital Operating Replacement Salvage Resource Total

Bio Gen. 15 kW $4500 $352.54 $1852 $765.93 $28,811 $34,750

Chemical Storage $140,000 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $140,000
CPV/T $450,000 $156,639 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $606,639
Electrolyzer $190,000 $139,234 $73,728 $5840 $0.00 $397,123
H2 Fuel Cell $300,000 $27,638 $0.00 $322.72 $0.00 $327,315
Cycle Charging $300.00 $0.00 $668.04 $0.00 $0.00 $968.04
Li-Ion Battery $197,450 $49,985 $93,339 $18,880 $0.00 $321,894
NH3 Fuel Cell $300,000 $17,599 $0.00 $15,835 $13,227 $314,992
System Converter $89,844 $0.00 $42,472 $8591 $0.00 $123,725
WT 250 kW $250,000 $13,923 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $263,923
System $1.92 M $405,372 $212,059 $50,235 $42,038 $2.53 M

9
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Fig. 6. Optimal configuration total lifetime cost (a) east, (b) west, (c) north, and (d) south.

Table 10
Optimal configuration components capacities in each of the four locations.

Component East location West location North location South location Unit

NH3 Fuel Cell 100 100 100 100 kW

H2 Fuel Cell 100 100 100 100 kW
Bio Generator 15 15 15 15 kW
CPV/T 450 450 450 450 kW
Li-Ion Battery 304 314 314 324 kWh
Wind Turbine 250 250 250 250 kW
System Converter 299 316 335 299 kW
Electrolyzer 500 500 500 500 kW
H2 Storage Tank 200 200 200 200 kg

Table 11
Annual electricity system production per source.

Component East location West location North location South location

Production (kWh/yr) % Production (kWh/yr) % Production (kWh/yr) % Production (kWh/yr) %

WT 410,772 40.9 394,050 40.8 389,160 39.5 410,772 40.9

CPV/T 370,976 37 370,976 38.4 370,976 37.7 370,976 37
NH3 Fuel Cell 90,909 9.06 90,909 9.4 90,909 9.24 90,909 9.06
H2 Fuel Cell 119,682 11.9 110,361 11.4 118,058 12 119,682 11.9
Bio Generator 11,010 1.1 351 0.036 15,151 1.54 11,010 1.1
Total 1,003,349 100 966,647 100 984,253 100 1,003,349 100

Table 12 Table 13
Grid connection-associated costs. Optimal design break-even distance for each of the selected four locations in Qatar.

Description Value Unit Optimal design location NPC ($) COE ($) Break-even distance (km)

Grid tariff 0.1 $/kWh East location 2.531 0.285 10.54

Grid capital cost 121,621 $/km North location 2.923 0.329 12.75
Grid extension distance 0, 3, 5, 7, 10, 15, 30 km West location 2.631 0.296 11.36
Carbon price 10e30 $/ton South location 2.531 0.285 10.54

Fig. 7 is a graphical illustration of break-even distance where the
NPC is relatively low if the grid is available at the EVCS location but
gets high and high as the distance increases.
At a break-even distance, the lines representing grid-connected
10
NPC and stand-alone NPC intersect. Beyond this point, a stand-
alone EVCS option would be more feasible.
Additional economic assessment tools such as payback period,
PI, and IRR must be calculated and compared for stand-alone and
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

Fig. 7. Distance break-even distance for each of the four locations in Qatar.

grid-connected scenarios to achieve a comprehensive economic over the initial investment as per the below equation:
analysis. In addition to the cash outflows indicated in Tables 9 and
12, the selling price of EV charging must be known to calculate the
cash inflows. Since Qatar has a limited number of EVs and EVCS, the PN CFt
t¼0 ð1þrÞt
EV selling price is still not declared. As the unit cost of purchasing PI ¼ (6)
power from the grid in Qatar is 0.1 $/kWh, EV charging selling price I0
is assumed 0.25 $/kWh in this study.
The payback period is a tool to determine the required time for where:
an investment's cash inflows to become equal to cash outflows. CFt ¼ future cash flow [$]
Cumulative cash outflows and inflows for a stand-alone and grid- I0 ¼ initial investment [$]
connected at 5 km and 10 km EVCS are calculated and reflected r ¼ discount rate [%]
in Table 14. t ¼ number of time periods.
The results show that a stand-alone EVCS payback period is 14 Since the calculated PI for a stand-alone EVCS project is more
years, while payback periods for grid-connected EVCS at 5 km than one and equal to 1.2, it is feasible to invest in this project.
distance and 10 km distance from the grid are 16 and 23 years, Similarly, PI for grid-connected EVCS at 5 km distance and 10 km
respectively. distance from the grid are calculated and found 0.97 and 0.70,
PI is calculated by dividing the present value of future cash flows respectively.
The following equation is used to calculate IRR:

Table 14
Stand-alone and grid connected EVCS payback calculations.

11
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer Energy 243 (2022) 123008

The grid break-even distance beyond which a stand-alone sys-

X
t
CFt tem would be more feasible is 10.54 km, 12.75 km, 11.36 km, and
IRR ¼  C0 (7) 10.54 km for east, north, west, and south locations.
t1 ð1 þ rÞt

The profitability index for a stand-alone EVCS project is found
1.2, while for grid-connected EVCS at 5 km distance and 10 km
where:
distance from the grid are found 0.97 and 0.70, respectively.
Ct ¼ net cash inflow during period t [$]

IRR for a stand-alone and grid-connected at 5 km and 10 km
C0 ¼ total initial investment [$]
EVCS are calculated and found 4.67%, 2.75%, and 0.06%,
r ¼ discount rate [%]
respectively.
t ¼ number of time periods.
Finally, IRR for a stand-alone and grid-connected at 5 km and
Although the proposed comprehensive methodology in-
10 km EVCS are calculated and found 4.67%, 2.75%, and 0.06%,
vestigates a case study in Qatar, the same methodology can be
respectively. Since the stand-alone project has a higher IRR per-
employed in any other geographical location where site-specific
centage, it will generate higher returns and is a more preferred
metrological data for wind speed and solar irradiation must be
project economically.
used.

Author contributions
4. Conclusions and future work
Conceptualization, Yusuf Bicer; Methodology, Yusuf Bicer,
This study performs a comprehensive techno-economic Abdulla Al Wahedi.; Software, Abdulla Al Wahedi; Formal analysis,
assessment of a novel hybrid renewable energy-based stand- Yusuf Bicer, Abdulla Al Wahedi; Investigation, Abdulla Al Wahedi;
alone fast electric vehicle charging station. The novel design con- Resources, Yusuf Bicer; Data curation, Abdulla Al Wahedi, Yusuf
sists of a concentrated PV system, wind turbine, converter, elec- Bicer; Writing e original draft Preparation, Abdulla Al Wahedi;
trolyzer, backup bio generator, H2 and NH3 fuel cells hybridized Writing e review & editing, Abdulla Al Wahedi, Yusuf Bicer; Su-
with electrochemical and chemical storage facilities. pervision, Yusuf Bicer.
Based on the minimum cost of energy and net present cost,
HOMER Pro microgrid optimization software is used to model and Funding
simulate multiple system configurations at four diverse
geographical locations in Qatar to determine the optimal combi- The APC of this article was funded by the Qatar National Library.
nation, components sizing, and energy management strategy. This research was funded by Qatar Foundation with student num-
Sensitivity analysis is performed by simulating a range of values ber 210009262.
for selected crucial parameters such as sizes of H2 and NH3 FCs,
electrolyzers and chemical storage tanks, wind turbine hub heights, Declaration of competing interest
and battery storage charging strategies. The HOMER optimizer se-
lects the sizes of the battery storage systems and the converters. The authors declare that they have no known competing
Out of 4236 solutions simulated by HOMER, 908 were found financial interests or personal relationships that could have
feasible from which the optimal stand-alone configuration for each appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
site is determined.
A comprehensive economic criterion is applied to compare the Acknowledgments
proposed optimal stand-alone system against a grid-connected
option. Cable extension costs from the grid to the EVCS selected Authors acknowledge Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU),
location, power purchase cost, and carbon emission prices were Qatar support, Qatar Foundation (QF), Qatar and the help from Engr.
considered while calculating a grid-connected option's NPC and Mazan Al Masri at Qatar Electricity and Water Corporation (KAH-
COE. The payback period, profitability index, and internal rate of RAMAA). The Qatar National Library funded the publication fee of
return were calculated for both options. this article.
The main results of the present work can be summarized as:
Nomenclature

System configuration consisting of 60 m hub height wind tur-
bine, 450 kWp CPV/T system, 500 kW electrolyzer, 100 kW H2 BSS Battery Storage System
and NH3 FCs, 15 kW bio-generator, 200 kg chemical storage tank, CC Cycle Charging
Li-ion battery storage, and converter is found as the optimal COE Cost of Energy
solution based on minimum NPC, COE and unmet demand. CPV/T Concentrated Photovoltaic Thermal

The annual electricity generated by the optimal configurations CS Charging Station
in east, west, north, and south locations is 1.003 GWh, EV Electric Vehicle
967 MWh, 984 MWh, and 1.003 GWh. EVCS Electric Vehicle Charging Station

The optimal combinations in east, north, and south locations FC Fuel Cell
operate on CC dispatch strategy while on west location it GHG Greenhouse gases
operates on LF dispatch strategy. GHI Global Horizontal Irradiance

The NPC of optimal configurations at east, west, north, and south HHV Higher Heating Value
locations is $2.53 M, $2.63 M, $2.92 M, and $2.53 M, respectively. HOMER Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable
Simultaneously, the COE is $0.285, $0.296, $0.329, and $0.285, IRR Internal Rate of Return
respectively. LF Load Following

Wind turbine and CPV/T production contribution is 77.9%, 79.2%, LHV Lower Heating Value
77.2%, and 77.9% for east, west, north, and south locations, Li-ion Lithium Ion
respectively. NPC Net Present Cost
12
A. Al Wahedi and Y. Bicer
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
PEM Proton Exchange Membrane
PI Profitability Index
POWER Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resources
PV Photovoltaic
RES Renewable Energy Sources
WT Wind Turbine
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