Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Green hydrogen production: Analysis for different single or combined

large-scale photovoltaic and wind renewable systems
Domenico Mazzeo a, *, Münür Sacit Herdem b, c, Nicoletta Matera a, John Z. Wen d
a
Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering (DIMEG), University of Calabria, Rende, CS, 87036, Italy
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman, 02040, Turkey
c
Waterloo Institute for Sustainable Energy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
d
Department of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hydrogen is a promising energy carrier to provide sustainable energy use throughout the world. Researchers and
Green hydrogen policy-makers have focused on investigations in three areas of hydrogen-related technologies in the energy
Renewable-based system market: (1) alternative fuel production based on hydrogen and carbon dioxide; (2) hydrogen injection to the
Photovoltaic
natural gas pipeline networks; (3) usage of hydrogen in transportation applications. One of the most important
Wind
Water electrolysis system
challenges facing hydrogen technology development is the production of green hydrogen, which can be achieved
Grid-connected system through water electrolysis coupled with renewable power generation. Although many studies have been con­
ducted, there is still a need for further development, which requires open-source big data and models and
standardization of the processes to compare different renewable-based hydrogen production systems. To fill this
research gap, the performance of a grid-connected hybrid wind turbine and solar photovoltaic-based water
electrolysis systems for large-scale green hydrogen production were investigated. The objective is to propose an
accurate methodology to compare wind and solar systems, or hybrid ones, for green hydrogen production
worldwide. A large dataset describing the hybrid wind turbine-photovoltaic hydrogen production in various
locations was created by performing dynamic simulations using TRNSYS and analyzed using MATLAB and Excel.
Several dimensionless indicators were employed and assessed for standardizing the performance evaluation
procedure of renewable-based hydrogen production systems, including the electrolyser load portion satisfied by
the wind turbine and photovoltaic, the generated wind turbine and photovoltaic energy portion supplied to the
electrolyser load and the quantity of energy exported to and imported from the grid. The annual and monthly
values of these indicators together with the total amount of green hydrogen production were estimated for 28
global locations. The procedure applied can be easily used to test small-scale applications like residential users or
large-scale applications like industrial users, as well as for any hydrogen demand and climatic conditions.

presents a promising solution. This would compensate for their inter­

1. Introduction
The most effective solution for decarbonization of the energy in­
dustry is to increase the use of renewable energy sources, specifically
wind and solar energy [1,2]. However, there are several challenges to
the widespread implementation of renewable energy sources in the
energy industry for various applications. One of the most important
challenges regarding renewable energy integration into the current en­
ergy infrastructure is the variability, particularly for solar and wind
energy [3]. Although there are several technical barriers to the process
of harnessing green hydrogen [4], coupling solar and wind energy sys­
tems with water electrolysers for renewable-based hydrogen production
mittency [5] and contribute decarbonization of energy for various ap­
plications. Renewable-based hydrogen can be used for various
applications of clean energy production, including transportation and
industrial processes, such as steel production and petroleum refinery or
production of different chemicals, such as ammonia or methanol. The
usage of hydrogen for numerous applications has been discussed in
terms of different aspects in recent papers.
One of the most attractive opportunities for the usage of renewable-
based hydrogen is to produce ammonia since ammonia is a critical
substance in fertilizer. In addition, the current production methods of
ammonia are energy-intensive and cause around 1–2% of global CO2
emissions [6]. The ammonia sector can be decarbonized by using

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: domenico.mazzeo@unical.it (D. Mazzeo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.09.057
Received 6 December 2021; Received in revised form 31 August 2022; Accepted 15 September 2022
Available online 30 September 2022
0960-1481/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Mazzeo et al.
Nomenclature
AC Alternating current
DC Direct current
Efg Energy drawn from the grid [Wh]
Etg,pv Photovoltaic energy produced sent to the grid [Wh]
Etg,w Wind turbine energy produced sent to the grid [Wh]
Etl,pv Photovoltaic energy produced sent to the electrolyzer [Wh]
Etl,w Wind turbine energy produced sent to the electrolyzer [Wh]
GEIF Grid energy interaction factor [− ]
Pect Electrolyzer power requirement [W]
Pfg Power from the grid to the electrolyzer [W]
Pg,ren Renewable power generation [W]
Ppv Solar photovoltaic power generation [W]
Ptg Excess power sent from the renewable energy system to the
hydrogen, which is produced for ammonia synthesis from a water
electrolyzer. The electricity would be provided through wind and/or
solar resources. Guerra et al. [7] performed a detailed techno-economic
analysis to understand the economic feasibility of green ammonia in
Chile based on solar-based green hydrogen. They also provided the
electricity requirement of the ammonia synthesis process from renew­
able electricity. The authors considered the transportation of ammonia
from Chile to Japan in their economic analysis. In addition, they also
performed a comprehensive sensitivity analysis to reveal the effects of
the most important parameters on the economic indices of the green
ammonia plant. Allman and Duoutidis [8] studied the formulation of an
optimization problem of a wind-powered ammonia generation system to
minimize annual operating costs. Subsequently, the authors used the
optimal scheduling formulation to understand the variation of operating
costs at different locations with the key design parameters of location
and unit size. Sanchez and Martin [9] formulated a renewable ammonia
production process as a Mixed Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP)
process. They used air separation units to produce nitrogen and a water
electrolyzer unit to produce hydrogen in the system for ammonia syn­
thesis, whose energy requirement was provided using either solar or
wind energy. The other interesting application for the use of
renewable-based hydrogen is to produce several electrofuels (or syn­
thetic fuels) known as carbon dioxide hydrogenation. Schemme et al.
[10] compared the economic feasibility of the production of various
synthetic fuels based on carbon dioxide hydrogenation. Different aspects
and recent advances in CO2 hydrogenation can be found in detail in a
recently published review paper by Saeidi et al. [11]. Renewable-based
hydrogen may also play an important role in the decarbonization of
transportation in the future, although there are currently critical ob­
stacles to the use of hydrogen transportation. Hänggi et al. demonstrated
that fuel cell vehicles have obvious advantages over vehicles powered by
methane, methanol, or Di-Methyl Ether [12]. Cano et al. concluded that
hydrogen fuel cells, which can be refuelled quickly and are
grid-compatible, are suitable for high-efficiency transportation and
long-range electric vehicles [13]. Furthermore, they suggest that
lithium-ion batteries are best suited for certain electric mobility appli­
cations, and as a result, a mix of battery and fuel-cell-powered EVs will
increase the likelihood of achieving sustainable transportation.
Opportunities and challenges of renewable-based hydrogen for
decarbonization of different sectors, specifically in European regions,
have also been reported in several technical reports and papers. In a
report by the Energy Transitions Commission, it is suggested that clean
hydrogen will play an increasingly critical role in the transition to net
zero. There are many potential uses of hydrogen in low-carbon econo­
mies, which could reach 500–800 Mt per year in the next half-century
361
Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378
grid [W]
Ptl Power sent to the electrolyzer [W]
PV Photovoltaic
Pw Wind power generation [W]
UF Utilization factor [− ]
SLF Satisfied load fraction [− ]
SLFpv PV satisfied load fraction
SLFw Wind satisfied load fraction
UFpv PV utilization factor
UFw Wind utilization factor
WT Wind turbine
ηAC/DC AC/DC rectifier efficiency [− ]
ηDC/DC DC/DC converter efficiency [− ]
[14]. An initial 11600 km pipeline network connecting hydrogen val­
leys might be installed by 2030 in ten European countries, according to
Jens et al. ‘s report [15]. By 2040, the hydrogen infrastructure could
grow to a 39700 km long pan-European network. The Hydrogen Council
discussed advancements in the hydrogen ecosystem, deployments of
hydrogen solutions, investment potential, and cost competitiveness of
hydrogen applications and technologies [16]. A background briefing on
the clean hydrogen industry was drafted by HydrogenOne Capital LLP,
founded by JJ Traynor and Richard Hulf in 2020 as a specialist invest­
ment manager in clean hydrogen, carbon capture, and grid-scale energy
storage [17]. Kouchachvili and Entchev discussed and reviewed the
impact of hydrogen on the existing natural gas grid, the importance of
power-to-gas technology for energy storage, and the effects of hydro­
gen/liquid natural gas blends on the end-use equipment’s performance
[18]. Instead, Mesfun et al. investigated the potential for integrating
renewable systems into the energy system of the Alpine region, focusing
on the quantification of power over-generation potentials as a result of
large-scale integration of renewable energy systems [19]. Finally, Car­
roquino et al. studied an isolated PV-battery system used to supply part
of the power demand in a winery [20]. In addition, the hydrogen pro­
duction and refuelling plants were properly designed and manufactured.
Renewable-based hydrogen production at the industrial scale has
been investigated in numerous recently published papers because of its
possible role in the decarbonization of different energy sectors
mentioned above. Alavi et al. [21] studied the feasibility of wind turbine
(WT) power hydrogen production for five locations in Southeast Iran. In
the study, the authors investigated the effects of different WTs, rated
powers and characteristics of hydrogen production. Bhattacharyya et al.
[22] conceptually designed a solar photovoltaic (PV) and alkaline water
electrolyzer system for hydrogen production and performed an energy
analysis of the system. Rahmouni et al. [23] conducted a study to esti­
mate the potential for green hydrogen production from solar PV sources
and wind in Algeria. The authors first analyzed the availability of solar
and wind resources in Algeria using a Geographical Information System
(GIS). Then, they evaluated the potential of these sources for green
hydrogen production in Algeria. Touelli et al. [24] performed a
techno-economic analysis to calculate the cost of hydrogen produced
from solar in Morocco. The authors estimated the cost of hydrogen using
data from 76 sites scattered all over Morocco. Gondal et al. [25] studied
the potential of hydrogen production from various renewable sources
available in Pakistan, which included solar, wind, geothermal, biomass
and municipal solid waste to develop a hydrogen economy or
power-to-gas system in Pakistan. Ayodele and Munda [26] presented a
techno-economic analysis to determine the viability of green hydrogen
production in South Africa by wind-energy powered water electrolysis.
D. Mazzeo et al.
As well, Glenk and Reichelstein [27] developed a model to estimate the
cost of hydrogen production from renewable power. The authors applied
their model to wind parks in Germany and Texas to determine the
viability of industrial-scale renewable hydrogen production. The au­
thors demonstrated that renewable hydrogen production is
cost-competitive in niche applications under current economic param­
eters. They also found that hydrogen production on an industrial scale
might be cost-competitive in the future by reducing the cost of the
technologies used for renewable hydrogen production.
Additionally, recent studies have comprehensively investigated
different scenarios and optimal designs of renewable-based hydrogen
production systems. In particular, solar and wind resources have been
studied to reveal the effects of different scenarios on green hydrogen
production. Marino et al. [28] studied a stand-alone PV system con­
sisting of a PV generator, an electrolyzer, a hydrogen storage tank,
batteries, and fuel cells. They used the HOMER software to perform an
energy analysis of the system. They also optimized the sizing of the
system elements to produce enough electricity at any time for the
electric load. Mallapragada et al. [29] developed a model to investigate
the cost of hydrogen-based off-grid PV-battery and hydrogen storage
systems for 2030 technology projections. They evaluated the cost of
hydrogen produced from the system at high irradiance locations in the
United States. They reached a similar conclusion to Glenk and Reich­
elstein [27] regarding the future cost of renewable hydrogen. Yates et al.
[30] also developed a model to estimate levelized costs of hydrogen
from a solar PV electrolyzer system. They identified key cost drivers,
which are system size, capital costs, electrolyzer energy efficiency and
location by using a Monte Carlo approach. Tebibel [31] analyzed and
optimized an off-grid wind hydrogen production system that consists of
WTs, a battery bank, a water electrolyzer, power converters and a
hydrogen tank. The author in Ref. [31] also developed a mathematical
model to estimate the remaining lifetime of the battery and the elec­
trolyzer in the system. Schulthoff et al. [32] evaluated the performance
of solar and wind-based hydrogen production systems with several en­
ergy storage options. They also investigated the cost of hydrogen pro­
duced from renewable energy sources (solar and wind) under current
cost projections. Koleva et al. [33] proposed a framework for the optimal
design of solar-driven hydrogen production systems. They also per­
formed a techno-economic assessment of the solar-driven hydrogen
production system, while considering six different scenarios based on
off-grid and on-grid conditions of the system. The authors assumed that
the system was located in California to estimate the cost of the
solar-driven hydrogen. Their results indicated that the cost of produced
hydrogen can be the US $ 2.6 per kg of hydrogen for a full wholesale
market participation scenario (this scenario includes the purchase and
sale at wholesale).
Based on the comprehensive literature search above, it can be un­
derstood that numerous system configurations have been proposed for
renewable-based hydrogen production systems. It is important to use a
tool for the standardization and comparison of renewable-based
hydrogen production systems. In addition, it is critical to understand
how different parameters, such as solar radiation and wind speed, can
affect the performance of the system. Furthermore, the renewable-based
hydrogen production systems should be analyzed annually, monthly and
weekly for scheduling, planning and optimization of the systems. For
this scope, it is essential to provide a tool able to simulate dynamically
the different components of the renewable-based hydrogen production
system taking into account the load trend. Most of the research found is
relative to specific climatic conditions without providing a worldwide
overview of current potential hydrogen production from solar and wind
sources. This investigation has revealed that many studies are available
worldwide; however, most of them are related to specific climatic con­
ditions. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no previous papers
addressed a dynamic and energy analysis of different PV and wind
renewable-based hydrogen production systems worldwide, taking into
account all continents and Koppen-Geiger climates. Another gap to be
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Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378
overcome is the absence of a proper tool able to correctly and accurately
compare and choose, from an energy point of view, the best renewable
PV-WT system configuration (with a single renewable source or hybrid
sources) in a specific locality for a known load trend. Based on their
continuous decrease in purchase costs over the years and considering the
current and predicted diffusion worldwide, solar and wind systems,
among others, are considered the most promising for green hydrogen
production.
The objective of this paper is to propose an accurate methodology to
compare, from an energy point of view, wind and solar systems, or
hybrid ones, for green hydrogen production worldwide. The procedure
is proposed as a general tool for the dynamic simulation and yearly
analysis of green hydrogen production systems based on wind and PV
systems. The procedure is valid for any PV and WT system type and size
and can be applied to any climatic condition and load trend. In addition,
the procedure proposes a way to summarize the performance on a
monthly and yearly basis proposing some performance indicators. Three
on-grid renewable-based large-scale hydrogen production systems were
investigated: (1) wind-solar hybrid on-grid water electrolyzer system;
(2) solar PV on-grid water electrolyzer system; and (3) WT power plant
on-grid water electrolyzer system. The performances of the systems were
evaluated for 28 different locations worldwide. The locations were
selected while considering Koppen Climate Classifications. The annual,
monthly and weekly results of the systems were estimated by using
TRNSYS software. Three dimensionless performance indicators, which
are the Satisfied Load Fraction (SLF), the Utilization Factor (UF), and the
Grid Energy Interaction Factor (GEIF) were used for standardization and
comparison of these systems. The procedure is proposed as a general tool
for the dynamic simulation and yearly analysis of green hydrogen pro­
duction systems based on wind and PV systems. The procedure is valid
for any PV and WT system type and size and can be applied to any cli­
matic condition and load trend. In addition, the procedure proposes a
way to summarize the performance on a monthly and yearly basis
proposing some performance indicators. The results obtained in this
study will be a guide for researchers to design their systems and un­
derstand the effects of different parameters such as system size, solar
radiation, and wind speed on renewable hydrogen production.
2. Methodology and materials
Information regarding the systems studied and input parameters for
the simulations of the systems are given in detail in Section 2. In addi­
tion, energy analysis of the systems studied and dimensionless indicators
for the evaluation of the performance of the wind-solar hydrogen sys­
tems are explained in Section 2.
2.1. Systems description
The systems studied in this work are illustrated in Figs. 1–3. In this
work, three grid-connected renewable plants of equal nominal capacity
of 100 MW are considered. Three configurations of the plants studied
are: (i) Renewable hybrid plant, consisting of a PV system and a WT
system, considering a nominal output of 50 MW for each system (Fig. 1),
(ii) plant consisting only of a 100 MW PV system (Fig. 2), and (iii) plant
consisting only of a 100 MW WT system (Fig. 3). The systems also
include a 24 MW alkaline water electrolyzer unit for hydrogen pro­
duction. In addition, the systems include rectifiers (AC/DC) for the WT
system and electrical grid, as well as a stabilising converter (AC/DC) for
the solar PV system.
2.2. Simulation of renewable based hydrogen production systems
The systems, which are shown in Figs. 1–3, were simulated using
TRNSYS 17 [34]. The data from the TRNSYS were extracted and orga­
nized using EXCEL. The simulations for the systems were performed in
28 different locations around the world. The locations selected are
D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 1. Hybrid wind-photovoltaic on-grid hydrogen production system. Dotted lines indicate electricity flow. AC, alternating current; DC, direct current.

Fig. 2. Photovoltaic plant on-grid hydrogen production system. Dotted lines indicate electricity flow. AC, alternating current; DC, direct current.

Fig. 3. Wind turbine on-grid hydrogen production system. Dotted lines indicate electricity flow. AC, alternating current; DC, direct current.

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Table 1
Selected localities for renewable on-grid hydrogen production systems.

Fig. 4. Box plot of solar radiation data for each location.

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D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 5. Box plot of wind speed data for each location.

Fig. 6. Box plot of air temperature data for each location.

characterized by very different air temperature, solar radiation and
wind speed intensity. As a result of the selection ratio, one location is
selected for each group of the Koppen-Geiger climate classification,
there is a wide variation of latitude, and the locations are spread out
evenly across all continents. The information regarding the localities in
this work is presented in Table 1. The weather data that includes wind
speed, solar radiation and temperature for each location are obtained
from Meteonorm files in the TRNSYS. Box plots of the climate parame­
ters, including solar radiation, wind speed and temperature for each
location are illustrated in Figs. 4-6.

365
D. Mazzeo et al.
Wind speed and solar radiation are essential quantities for calcu­
lating the power generated by WT and PV systems, respectively. Air
temperature, on the other hand, is needed to assess the performance of
the systems. Figures highlight a wide difference between the three main
climatic variables in the various localities considered, with some local­
ities characterized by very low values of temperature, others by low
levels of solar radiation or wind speed, and others characteristic of very
hot or very sunny or windy climatic conditions. Furthermore, there is a
clear difference in the overall yearly excursions of climatic variables
among different localities, with some showing very huge variations and
others being more stable. The selected WT for this study is the ENERCON
E40 with a nominal power of 500 kW [35]. Type 90 in TRNSYS was used
to estimate the power output of the wind generator in each location as
shown in Table 1. This subroutine dynamically calculates the electrical
power produced by the WT using the characteristic turbine power curve
as a function of the wind speed. The power curve is instantaneously
corrected as a function of the air density. The Mitsubishi Electric
MLU250 module, which is a nominal power of 250 W [36], was used for
solar PV in this work. Type 94 in TRNSYS was used for the simulation of
the PV power plant. This subroutine employs a 5-parameter model to
detect the current-voltage characteristic curve instantaneously as a
function of the incident solar radiation and air temperature.
The equation toolbox in TRNSYS was used to estimate the power
output at the AC/DC rectifier and the DC/DC stabiliser converter. The
rectifier efficiency was assumed as 90%, thus the power produced was
reduced by 10% at the exit of the rectifier, while the converter efficiency
was assumed as 94%. The electricity consumption of the alkaline water
electrolyzer unit was considered for this simulation. Indeed, the
required data and the simulation strategy were also used in our previous
published paper [37] for the current work. The details about the equa­
tions used in TRNSYS types and other details about the simulation and
modelling can be found in Refs. [36–38].
2.3. Energy analysis
Time-dependent power estimation for the WT and the PV plant for
each location was calculated using the TRNSYS software. The net power
generated from the WT and the PV power system is:
Pg,ren (t) = Ppv (t)ηDC/DC + Pw (t)ηAC/DC
Where Ppv(t) shows the power generation from the PV system at time
t, while Pw(t) shows the power generation from the WT at time t. In
addition, ηDC/DC and ηAC/DC indicate the efficiencies of the DC/DC
converter and AC/DC rectifier, respectively.
Three cases are considered in the simulation to control the energy
flow of the system components. These cases are as follows:
Case 1 In the first case, the power generated from the system is lower
than the power required by the electrolyzer system. The addi­
tional power for the electrolyzer is drawn from the grid in this
case (Pfg(t) = Power from the grid at time t).
Pect (t) > Pg,ren (t)
Pect (t) = Pg,ren (t) + Pfg (t)
Case 2 In the second case, the power generated from the renewable
power generation system is greater than the power requirements
of the electrolyzer. The excess electricity is sent to the grid in this
case.
Pect (t) < Pg,ren (t)
Pect (t) = Ptl (t)
Pg,ren (t) = Ptl (t) + Ptg (t)
Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378
Where Ptl(t) is the power sent to the electrolyzer at time t and Ptg(t) is
the excess power sent from the PV-WT system to the grid at time t.
Case 3 In the third case, Pect(t) (electrolyzer power requirement) is
completely satisfied by the renewable power generation system.
When the grid cannot absorb all surplus electricity from the system,
the further electricity in excess must be dissipated. In contrast, if the grid
is unable to provide all the necessary electricity, the electrolyser can
absorb lesser quantities of electricity and cannot produce all the
hydrogen required. For the complete analysis of the system configura­
tion under investigation, the missing produced hydrogen because of grid
saturation should be calculated.
Monthly and annual corresponding energies are calculated via the
integral of the corresponding powers (see Eq. (7)). The calculated cor­
responding energies are: (a) WT energy produced sent to the electrolyzer
(Etl,w), (b) produced PV energy sent to the electrolyzer (Etl,pv), (c) Energy
drawn from the grid (Efg), (d) PV energy produced sent to the grid (Etg,
pv); and (e) WT energy produced sent to the grid (Etg,w).
∫ ∑n
E = P(t)dt = i=1
Pi Δt (7)
t
2.3.1. Dimensionless performance indicators
Three dimensionless performance indicators were defined after the
energy analysis of the hybrid system was conducted. These indicators
are Satisfied Load Fraction SLF Eq. (8), Utilization Factor UF Eq. (9), and
the Grid Energy Interaction Factor GEIF Eq. (10).
Etl Etl,pv Etl,w
SLF = = + = SLFpv + SLFw (8)
Eect Eect Eect
UF =
Etl
=
Etl,pv
+
Etl,w
= UFpv + UFw (9)
Eg,ren Eg,ren Eg,ren
Efg + Etg Eg,ren
GEIF = = (1 − SLF) + (1 − UF) (10)
Eect Eect
The SLF is obtainable as the sum of the PV and WT satisfied load
fractions, SLFpv and SLFw, while the UF as the sum of the PV and WT
utilization factors, UFpv and UFw. Energy analysis and the dimensionless
(1)
indicator factors (SLF, UF, and GEIF) should be evaluated together to
understand exactly how the system is effective for renewable-based
hydrogen production. The dimensionless indicator factors are also use­
ful to compare different renewable-based hydrogen production systems
and optimize the system size.
SLF is the ratio of the energy generated from the WT and the PV
system sent to the electrolyzer, while UF is the ratio of the energy sent
from the hybrid system to the electrolyzer and the energy produced from
the hybrid system. In addition, SLF identifies the green hydrogen pro­
duction part. In addition, GEIF quantifies the interaction of the hybrid
system and the electrolyzer with the grid. SLF and UF vary between
0 and 1. When SLF is equal to 1, it guarantees that all the electrical
energy required by the electrolyzer is provided by the solar PV and WT
(2)
systems. Furthermore, if UF is equal to 1, there is no excess energy sent
from the hybrid system to the grid. In other words, all the electrical
(3)
energy generated by the renewable energy system is sent to the elec­
trolyzer system. GEIF can be minimized while increasing the value of
SLF and UF (see Eq. (10)). The PV and WT contributions in the calcu­
lation of SLF and UF are useful to identify which of the two sources is
more suitable in a specific locality.
3. Results and discussion
(4)
The results of the on-grid renewable-based hydrogen production
(5)
systems for different locations in the world are presented in this section.
(6) The grid was considered as a battery of infinite capacity to compare the
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D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Table 2 Etl,pv) going to the electrolyzer from the WT and PV system is provided in
Monthly and annual hydrogen production and electrical consumption required. Puerto Williams and Wellington. Annual energy drawn from the grid
Month H2 production (Nm3) Electrical load (MWh) (Efg) to provide the annual energy requirement of the electrolyzer is
around 76727 MWh in Puerto Williams, while it is approximately 63178
Jan 3469867.2 17856
Feb 3134073.6 16128 MWh in Wellington. However, the annual energy sent to the grid from
Mar 3469867.2 17856 the hybrid PV-WT system is around 63161 MWh in Puerto Williams,
Apr 3357936.0 17280 while it is about 80072 MWh in Wellington. It can be understood from
May 3469867.2 17856 these results that continuous hydrogen production, without energy
Jun 3357936.0 17280
Jul 3469867.2 17856
being drawn from the grid, can be provided by slightly increasing the
Aug 3469867.2 17856 system size for Puerto Williams. On the other hand, for Wellington,
Sep 3357936.0 17280 continuous hydrogen production without energy being drawn from the
Oct 3469867.2 17856 grid can be provided by slightly decreasing the size of the hybrid system.
Nov 3357936.0 17280
It can be seen from Fig. 7 that the highest amount of energy will be
Dec 3469867.2 17856
Annual 40854888.0 210240 drawn in Kiruna and Oymyakon. In addition, the excess energy to be
exported to the grid is very low in these two localities. As shown in the
figure, the annual solar energy generation in Kiruna is very low, while
different systems and localities under the same conditions. The total the annual wind energy generation in Oymyakon is very low. Therefore,
energy consumption of the electrolyzer and the hydrogen production are using a hybrid system to produce hydrogen can significantly increase the
the same for the simulated renewable-based hydrogen production sys­ cost of hydrogen. Using only a PV system in Oymyakon and only a WT
tems in this study. In particular, a flat hydrogen demand is considered in system in Kiruna can provide energy to the electrolyzer instead of using
this application to constantly supply hydrogen to the user. In the specific the hybrid PV-WT system.
application considered, the case of flat demand for hydrogen or elec­ Energy analysis and the dimensionless indicator factors (SLF, UF, and
tricity consumption was considered only to amplify the effectiveness of GEIF) should be evaluated together to understand exactly how the sys­
the procedure comparing the single wind and solar systems in the same tem is effective for renewable-based hydrogen production. The dimen­
conditions without privileging the synchronism of the load trend with sionless indicator factors are also useful to compare different renewable-
one of the two sources considered. There are 6 total modules of the based hydrogen production systems and optimize the system size. The
alkaline water electrolyzer used in the systems. The power consumption dimensionless indicator factors for the six localities shown in Table 3 are
of each module is equal to 4 MW, while the hydrogen production for one illustrated in Table 4. As shown in Table 3, the maximum SLF value is
module is equal to 800 Nm3/h [36]. Therefore, the total power estimated at 0.7 for the windiest locality Wellington; however, the
requirement and the hydrogen production of the alkaline water elec­ lowest value of UF is also for Wellington at 0.65. UF and SLF can be
trolyzer system, equal to 24 MW and 4800 Nm3/h, respectively, are increased by reducing the PV power installed to increase the wind one in
independent of the locality and constant during the year. Table 2 reports Wellington; this is also useful for decreasing GEIF. The results show that
the monthly and annual hydrogen production and electrical consump­ the minimum SLF value is 0.27 and the maximum GEIF is 0.78 for the
tion required. least windy locality, Oymyakon. The size of the PV system can be
It should be noted that 24 MW also includes auxiliary power re­ increased and the wind one decreased to raise SLF and to reduce GEIF for
quirements of the alkaline water electrolyser unit. However, additional Oymyakon, given that most of the energy used to supply the load is from
powers, such as the power to increase hydrogen output pressure from the PV system. On the other hand, Oymyakon is characterized by the
the water electrolyzer, can be considered for future studies. In this work, highest UF being used and the most energy produced that is relatively
the remaining power of the alkaline water electrolysis unit is derived speaking, very low. The performance in Oymyakon can be improved by
from the electrical grid when not enough power from the renewable- increasing the PV power installed and reducing the WT power installed.
based system is available. On the other hand, the integration of the The lowest GEIF of 0.67 is obtained in the least sunny locality, Puerto
renewable power generation system with coal power plants, natural gas Williams, which represents the best trade-off to host the hybrid system
power plants or nuclear power plants can be considered to provide the for hydrogen production. In this locality, the energy generated by the PV
power requirement of the water electrolysis unit in future studies. system and the WT system covers 11% and 53% of the overall electro­
The results of the most critical locations (the least sunny, the average lyzer load, respectively, while 68% of the PV and WT energy generated
sunny and the sunniest locations and the least windy, the average windy, is used to supply the load. A very similar situation is observed in the
the windiest locations - see Table 3) among 28 locations shown in windiest locality, Wellington, with a GEIF of 0.68. In these two local­
Table 1 are illustrated in the manuscript. ities, better performance can be achieved by increasing the WT power
installed at the expense of the PV one. The GEIF indicator is less than 1 in
all localities indicating the energy exchanged with the grid is always
3.1. Grid-connected hybrid renewable hydrogen production system lower than the annual electrolyzer load.

The monthly energy analysis of the hybrid system for the localities in
Table 3 is shown in Fig. 7. The figure includes the results of Etl,w, Etl,pv,
Efg, Etg,pv, and Etg,w. As shown in the figure, the highest energy (Etl,w and

Table 3
The least sunny, the average sunny and the sunniest locations and the least windy, the average windy, and the windiest locations shown in Table 1.
Localities Country Climate Koppen classification Annual average Annual average horizontal Annual average wind
air temperature (◦ C) solar radiation (W/m2) speed at 10 m (m/s)

Puerto Williams Chile Subpolar Oceanic ET 5.30 102.23 6.57

Edmonton Canada Humid Continental Dfb 3.31 198.35 3.31
Windhoek Namibia Hot Semi-Arid Bsh 20.43 285.18 1.92
Oymyakon Russia Subarctic Dwd − 16.15 175.08 1.30
Kiruna Sweden Subarctic Dfc − 1.23 108.40 3.70
Wellington New Zealand Temperate Marine Cfb 13.51 179.03 6.80

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D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 7. Energy analysis of the wind turbine solar photovoltaic on-grid system for hydrogen production. The peak generation from the hybrid renewable system is
equal to 100 MW (50 MW wind turbine system and 50 MW solar photovoltaic system). The energy requirement of the electrolyzer is 24 MW.

As shown in Fig. 8, the highest energy sent to the load and grid from the
Table 4
PV system is estimated for Windhoek. The annual energy sent to the
Annual dimensionless indicator factors for the hybrid wind-solar photovoltaic
electrolyzer from the PV system is approximately equal to 84577 MWh
on-grid hydrogen production system.
in Windhoek, while the energy sent to the electrolyzer is approximately
Localities SLFpv SLFw SLF UFpv UFw UF GEIF equal to 82731 MWh. However, the annual energy that must be drawn
Puerto Williams 0.11 0.53 0.64 0.11 0.57 0.68 0.67 from the grid to provide the energy requirements of the electrolyzer unit
Edmonton 0.24 0.16 0.40 0.49 0.32 0.81 0.69 in Windhoek is approximately 125662 MWh. Due to low annual solar
Windhoek 0.33 0.03 0.36 0.76 0.06 0.83 0.72
radiation, the least favourable performance by the PV system to provide
Oymyakon 0.23 0.04 0.27 0.72 0.12 0.84 0.78
Kiruna 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.33 0.51 0.84 0.72 energy to the electrolyzer unit is in Puerto Williams. The annual average
Wellington 0.17 0.53 0.70 0.16 0.49 0.65 0.68 horizontal radiation for Puerto Williams is equal to 102.23 W/m2, while
it is 285.18 W/m2 for Windhoek. In particular, the PV system in Puerto
Williams performs most poorly in June with regard to providing energy
to the electrolyzer unit. The energy sent to the electrolyzer unit and the
3.2. Grid connected solar photovoltaic power system for hydrogen
grid are approximately 1200 MWh and 171 MWh, respectively in June
production
for Puerto Williams, while the energy drawn from the grid is approxi­
mately 16080 MWh. It is clearly understood from the results that using
The monthly energy analysis of the on-grid PV system for hydrogen
only the PV system is not a suitable option for renewable hydrogen
production is presented in Fig. 8. As explained in section 2, the peak
production in Puerto Williams.
power generation for the PV system is set up as 100 MW for hydrogen
The annual dimensionless performance indicators for the on-grid PV
production. The results in Fig. 8 belong to six localities shown in Table 3.

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D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 8. Energy analysis of the solar photovoltaic on-grid system for hydrogen production. The peak generation from the renewable system is equal to 100 MW. The
energy requirement of the electrolyzer is 24 MW.

3.3. Grid connected wind power system for hydrogen production

Table 5
Annual dimensionless indicator factors for the solar photovoltaic on-grid
The monthly energy analysis of the on-grid WT system for hydrogen
hydrogen production system.
production is illustrated in Fig. 9. The same methodology used for the
Localities SLF UF GEIF hybrid system and the solar PV system is followed to evaluate the per­
Puerto Williams 0.22 0.74 0.86 formance of the on-grid WT system for hydrogen production in different
Edmonton 0.34 0.56 0.92 locations. The electrolyzer power requirement is also equal to 24 MW for
Windhoek 0.40 0.51 0.99
the on-grid WT system, while the peak generation from the WT system is
Oymyakon 0.31 0.57 0.93
Kiruna 0.22 0.68 0.89 equal to 100 MW. As shown in Fig. 9, the best WT system performances
Wellington 0.32 0.62 0.87 are obtained in Wellington and Puerto Williams. The annual average
wind speed for 10 m in Wellington and Puerto Williams is, respectively,
6.80 m/s and 6.57 m/s. For both locations, the annual energy sent to the
hydrogen production system are listed in Table 5. As shown in Table 5, grid is higher than the energy drawn from the grid to provide enough
the highest SLF value is estimated as 0.4 for Windhoek, while the UF is energy to the electrolyzer unit. The excess energy sent to the grid is
only 0.51 for Windhoek. As shown in Tables 4 and 5, higher SLF values higher than the energy drawn from the grid for all months in Wellington
for the on-grid PV system for hydrogen production are obtained in as shown in Fig. 9. In November, the excess energy is about five times
Windhoek and Oymyakon compared to the hybrid system. On the other higher than the energy drawn from the grid. The highest energy drawn
hand, there is a significant difference in the SLF values between the PV from the grid in Wellington is estimated in July. However, even for July,
system and the hybrid system in Puerto Williams and Wellington. the excess energy sent to the grid is approximately two times greater

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D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 9. Energy analysis of the wind on-grid system for hydrogen production. The peak generation from the renewable system is equal to 100 MW. The energy
requirement of the electrolyzer is 24 MW.

production in Windhoek and Oymyakon.

Table 6
The annual dimensionless performance indicators for the on-grid WT
Annual dimensionless indicator factors for the wind on-grid hydrogen produc­
system for hydrogen production are shown in Table 6. As expected from
tion system.
the energy analysis (Fig. 9), the highest SLF value is found for
Localities SLF UF GEIF Wellington at 0.71. However, the UF value for the WT system in
Puerto Williams 0.69 0.44 1.19 Wellington is lower than the other locations, as seen in Table 6 since the
Edmonton 0.27 0.70 0.84 energy produced and the energy requirement of the electrolyzer do not
Windhoek 0.06 0.97 0.94
align. Therefore, the excess energy sent to the grid is relatively high for
Oymyakon 0.07 0.71 0.96
Kiruna 0.34 0.66 0.83 all months in Wellington. In addition, the GEIF is higher in Wellington
Wellington 0.71 0.43 1.21 than in other locations.
It should be noted that the SLF in Wellington is almost the same for
both the hybrid system and the WT system. However, the UF for the
than the energy drawn from the grid in Wellington. The excess energy hybrid system is higher than for the WT system. Therefore, using the
sent to the grid is also higher than the energy drawn from the grid for all hybrid system for hydrogen production with appropriate optimization
months except May in Puerto Williams. The energy drawn from the grid would be more effective in Wellington. This scenario would be the same
is approximately 8290 MWh in May for Puerto Williams, while the en­ for the WT system in Puerto Williams. The SLF value is high for the WT
ergy sent to the grid is about 8100 MWh. It is clearly shown that the system in Puerto Williams, while the UF is low. Therefore, the GEIF is
worst performances are obtained in Windhoek and Oymyakon since the also relatively high in Puerto Williams. On the other hand, the SLF
annual average wind speed is extremely low. Therefore, it does not values are relatively low for the WT system in Windhoek and Oymyakon.
appear to be feasible to use an on-grid WT system for hydrogen

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D. Mazzeo et al.
Fig. 10. Monthly dimensionless performance indicators of the renewable systems for hydrogen production in Windhoek and Wellington. PV, Wind and PV & Wind on
the figure indicate the solar photovoltaic system on-grid, the wind turbine system on-grid, and the wind-solar PV on-grid hybrid system for hydrogen production,
respectively.
The SLF is 0.06 and 0.07 in Windhoek and Oymyakon, respectively. For
Windhoek and Oymyakon, the hybrid system or the PV system would be
preferred for optimal hydrogen production.
3.4. Monthly dimensionless performance indicators for the renewable
hydrogen production systems
The produced hydrogen from the system can be used for different
purposes, including ammonia production [1], production of methanol,
ethanol, dimethyl ether, and synthetic gasoline [5]. Therefore, a flex­
ible system can be designed in the future, while considering the
availability of renewable energy and the produced renewable
hydrogen to utilize the produced hydrogen from the system. To opti­
mize the renewable energy system for hydrogen production and also
find the appropriate utilization strategy for the produced hydrogen, it
is critical to understand the variation of the monthly dimensionless
performance indicators for the renewable hydrogen production sys­
tems. The monthly dimensionless performance indicators of the hybrid
system, solar PV system, and WT system for Windhoek and Wellington
are shown in Fig. 10.
Indeed, Fig. 10 displays a summary of the performance of the studied
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Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378
systems. As explained, the performance of the single renewable source
hydrogen production systems in terms of energy analysis is slightly
higher than the hybrid system for Windhoek and Wellington as shown in
Fig. 10. In particular, the difference in the SLF values for the WT system
and the hybrid system can be negligible in Wellington. However, it can
be seen from Fig. 10 that the monthly UF values for the hybrid system
are higher than the WT system for hydrogen production in Wellington
and thus, the GEIF for all months is significantly lower for the WT system
than the hybrid system. The same trends for the SLF, the UF and the GEIF
can be observed in Fig. 10 for Wellington. For these reasons, the hybrid
system is preferable in these locations. As shown in the figure, the
monthly SLF values of the PV system are significantly lower than the
other systems for Wellington. Therefore, hybrid systems may be studied
in detail for hydrogen production in Wellington in future studies.
However, as illustrated in Fig. 10, the monthly SLF values of the PV
system are significantly higher than the WT system and slightly higher
than the hybrid system for Windhoek. Thus, the solar PV system can be
preferred for green hydrogen production in Windhoek.
D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 11. Weekly analysis of Solar Photovoltaic & Wind Turbine hybrid system in Windhoek (Namibia) for Summer and Winter.

Fig. 12. Weekly analysis of Solar Photovoltaic system in Windhoek (Namibia) for Summer and Winter.

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D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 13. Weekly analysis of Wind Turbine system in Windhoek (Namibia) for Summer and Winter.

Fig. 14. Weekly analysis of Solar Photovoltaic & Wind Turbine hybrid system in Wellington (New Zealand) for Summer and Winter.

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D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

Fig. 15. Weekly analysis of Solar Photovoltaic system in Wellington (New Zealand) for Summer and Winter.

Fig. 16. Weekly analysis of Wind Turbine system in Wellington (New Zealand) for Summer and Winter.

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D. Mazzeo et al.
3.5. Weekly energy analysis of renewable hydrogen production systems
To highlight the transient performance of the renewable hydrogen
production systems, which are shown in Figs.1 to 3, a weekly hourly
analysis was performed for 28 locations demonstrated in Table 1. The
weekly winter analysis was executed from December 18 to December
25, while the weekly summer analysis was executed for June 18 to June
25. The weekly analysis was performed to specifically understand the
transient variation of the PV power, the wind power, and the overall
power produced, as well as the power sent to the load, the power drawn
from the grid, and the power sent to the grid. These results are useful to
highlight the missing and excess power trends for renewable hydrogen
production systems in different locations.
Figs. 11–16 illustrate the weekly analysis results of Windhoek,
Fig. 17. Annual and monthly maximum and minimum values of the perfor­
mance indicators for the PV-wind turbine hybrid system.
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Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378
Namibia and Wellington, New Zealand. The annual average horizontal
solar radiation and the wind speed are equal to 285.18 W/m2 and 1.92
m/s, respectively for Windhoek, while they are equal to 179.03 W/m2
and 6.80 m/s respectively for Wellington.
As shown from Figs. 11–13, the contribution of the wind power plant
to produce power and provide energy to the electrolyzer is negligible in
both the winter and summer. Specifically, as illustrated in Fig. 13, an
extremely high quantity of power must be drawn to satisfy the load
requirement of the electrolyzer for the wind hydrogen production sys­
tem in Windhoek, Namibia. Therefore, it is not realistic to use wind
power plants to produce or provide electricity to the electrolyzer for this
Fig. 18. Annual and monthly maximum and minimum values of the perfor­
mance indicators for the photovoltaic system.
D. Mazzeo et al. Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378

3.6. Annual analysis of renewable hydrogen production systems

Figs. 17–19 show the annual and monthly maximum and minimum
values of SLF, UF and GEIF for the hybrid system, PV system and WT
system, respectively, in all locations considered. Indeed, these figures
support all aforementioned observations. In general, maximum and
minimum values of the performance indicators significantly change with
locations and the type of renewable hydrogen production system. A high
variation between maximum and minimum values leads to lower system
reliability in hydrogen production. For example, the maximum annual
SLF value is equal to ~0.70 for the hybrid system in Wellington and the
PV system in Puerto Williams and Wellington, while the minimum
annual SLF value is less than 0.10 for the WT system in Windhoek, Lhasa
and Oymyakon. The maximum annual UF value is equal to ~1.00 for the
WT system in Windhoek, while the minimum annual UF value is lower
than 0.50 for the WT system in Puerto Williams and Wellington. Finally,
the minimum annual GEIF value is slightly higher than 0.60 in Hong
Kong for the hybrid system in Windhoek, while the maximum annual
GEIF value is about 1.20 for the WT system in Wellington.
This analysis highlights the most suitable locations and systems for
hydrogen production by means of the use of the annual values of the SLF,
UF and GEIF. The best locations and systems are characterized by the
highest annual value of the SLF and UF and the lowest annual value of
GEIF. In addition, they provide the most reliable locations and systems
with the lowest monthly variation of indicators throughout the year
calculable as the difference between the maximum and minimum
values. Fig. 20 shows the monthly and annual green hydrogen produc­
tion from the hybrid, PV and WT systems for all localities.
This analysis permits the identification of the best system in a specific
locality for green hydrogen production. In addition, the best localities
that maximize green hydrogen production can be detected for each
system. Quantitatively, the results show that the highest hybrid PV-wind
hydrogen production of 28578 kNm3 is obtained in Wellington, while
the lowest one of 11020 kNm3 in Oymyakon. The highest PV hydrogen
production of 16435 kNm3 is detected in Windhoek, while the lowest
one of 9020 kNm3 in Kiruna. Finally, the highest wind hydrogen pro­
duction of 29139 kNm3 is guaranteed in Wellington and the lowest one
of 2541 kNm3 in Windhoek.

4. Conclusions and future outlook

Three renewable-based grid-connected hydrogen production systems

proposed for different global locations are investigated in this study,
including a hybrid PV and wind hydrogen production system, a PV
hydrogen production system, and a WT hydrogen production system.
Fig. 19. Annual and monthly maximum and minimum values of the perfor­
These systems are designed to produce 100 MW peak power, while the
mance indicators for the wind turbine system.
electrolyzer power requirement is sized to be 24 MW. To assess their
performance in producing green hydrogen, these energy systems are
location. Also, it should be understood from Figs. 11–13 that the PV
modelled for 28 different localities in the world with different climatic
power plant hydrogen production system is much better than hybrid PV
conditions. Globally, in the different localities, the annual SLF ranges
and wind hydrogen production systems.
from 0.27 to 0.70 for the hybrid system, from 0.22 to 0.40 for the PV
On the contrary, Wellington is the windiest location among the 28
system and from 0.06 to 0.71 for the WT system. Instead, considering all
locations shown in Table 1. Therefore, the contributions of the wind
system configurations and localities, the UF varies between 0.43 and
power plant for power generation are significantly higher for this loca­
0.97, while the GEIF is between 0.63 and 1.21.
tion. As shown from Figs. 14–16, the performance of the hybrid system
The three performance indicators SLF, UF and GEIF are proposed as
and wind hydrogen production systems are almost the same in
valuable metrics to identify where and which system leads to the highest
Wellington for December in terms of the satisfied load fraction. How­
performance for hydrogen production, consisting of the minimization of
ever, the performance of the wind hydrogen production system for June
the energy to be drawn and sent to the grid.
(see figures of weekly summer analysis of the WT system) is slightly
The sub-indicators (SLFpv, SLFw, UFpv and UFw) can be used to
better than the hybrid system. As illustrated in the weekly analysis and
identify which source is more reliable and feasible in the different lo­
the results in previous sections, the performance of the PV hydrogen
calities. These sub-indicators are very useful to assess the unbalance of
production system in Wellington is less than the hybrid and wind
the power installed in terms of PV and WT, to give priority to the most
hydrogen production systems. In particular, the missing power to pro­
synchronous source by maintaining the overall power constant. For
vide electricity to the electrolyzer significantly increases for June in
example, the system performance can be improved by increasing the PV
Wellington.
power installed and reducing the WT system at Windhoek and Oymya­
kon, while a better performance may be achieved by increasing the WT

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D. Mazzeo et al.
Fig. 20. Monthly and annual green hydrogen production from the hybrid, PV and wind systems for all localities.
power installed at the expense of PV at Puerto Williams and Wellington.
In other words, the installation of a hybrid PV and WT system does not
guarantee an improved performance for some localities, due to limited
wind or solar resources. Quantitatively, the results show that the highest
and lowest hydrogen production are obtained with a WT system (29139
kNm3 are guaranteed in Wellington and 2541 kNm3 in Windhoek).
This research demonstrated how it is possible to select suitable and
energy-reliable locations to install hybrid or single PV-WT systems, as
well as to compare hybrid with single PV-WT systems in the same
locality.
As a future outlook, this research can be further developed to derive/
quantify optimized designs of the system configuration and size.
Therefore, the energy requirements of the electrolyzer unit can be
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Renewable Energy 200 (2022) 360–378
obtained from the PV and/or WT system with optimization of the system
instead of drawing energy from the grid.
A further study should be developed to demonstrate that by imple­
menting a suitable energy storage method for the hybrid renewable
energy system in all localities, better system performance, with higher
SLF and UF and lower GEIF, can be attained. Indeed, when the grid
cannot absorb all surplus electricity from the system, the further elec­
tricity in excess must be dissipated. In contrast, if the grid is unable to
provide all the necessary electricity, the electrolyser can absorb lesser
quantities of electricity and cannot produce all the hydrogen required.
The integration of a battery storage system or hydrogen storage tank is a
valid solution for this issue.
In addition, a further scenario and a detailed techno-economic
D. Mazzeo et al.
analysis should be performed to decide the most promising system
configuration and locality in future studies.
It should be noted that land usage of the wind and the solar systems
and the cost of hydrogen production is not considered in this work.
Economic optimizations of hydrogen generation systems (e.g., consist­
ing of a WT, PV system, electrolysis, battery storage, hydrogen storage,
and grid connection) at different locations could be compared. The
central constraint of each of these optimizations would require the same
hydrogen output. The result would be an economic hierarchy of the
locations for hydrogen production and concrete capacities and full load
hours of the individual system components.
CRediT author contribution statement
Domenico Mazzeo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation,
Writing - original draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Visualization,
Supervision.
Münür Sacit Herdem: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Data
curation, Writing - original draft, Visualization.
Nicoletta Matera: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
Validation, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing
- Review & Editing, Visualization.
John Z. Wen: Resources, Writing - review & editing, Funding
acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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