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A review on hydrogen production and utilization:

Challenges and opportunities

Haris Ishaq a,b,*, Ibrahim Dincer a, Curran Crawford b

a
Clean Energy Research Laboratory (CERL), Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Ontario Tech. Technology,
2000 Simcoe Street North, Oshawa, Ontario, L1H 7K4, Canada
b
Institute for Integrated Energy Systems at University of Victoria (IESVic), Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada

highlights

A detailed review on hydrogen production methods and utilization.

Green, blue and purple hydrogen production methods are described thoroughly.

Hydrogen storage and infrastructure, transportation and distribution are also covered in utilization.

Recent advancements, challenges and opportunities are described in detail.

Comparative assessment is conducted on the basis of system design, cost, storage, GWP, infrastructure and efficiencies.

article info abstract

Article history: Environment-friendly, safe and reliable energy supplies are indispensable to society for
Received 3 October 2021 sustainable development and high life quality where even though social, environmental,
Received in revised form political and economic challenges may play a vital role in their provision. Our continuously
10 November 2021 growing energy demand is driven by extensive growth in economic development and
Accepted 18 November 2021 population and places an ever-increasing burden on fossil fuel utilization that represent a
Available online 21 December 2021 substantial percentage of this increasing energy demand but also creates challenges
associated with increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and resource depletion. Such
Keywords: challenges make the global transition obligatory from conventional to renewable energy
Hydrogen production and utilization sources. Hydrogen is emerging as a new energy vector outside its typical role and receiving
Renewable energy more recognition globally as a potential fuel pathway, as it offers advantages in use cases
Decarbonization and unlike synthetic carbon-based fuels can be truly carbon neutral or even negative on a
Hydrogen storage life cycle basis. This review paper provides critical analysis of the state-of-the-art in blue
Transportation and distribution and green hydrogen production methods using conventional and renewable energy sour-
Carbon capture ces, utilization of hydrogen, storage, transportation, distribution and key challenges and
Utilization and sequestration opportunities in the commercial deployment of such systems. Some of the key promising
Environmental impacts renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen, such as solar and wind, are intermittent;
hydrogen appears to be the best candidate to be employed for multiple purposes blending
the roles of fuel energy carrier and energy storage modality. Furthermore, this study offers
a comparative assessment of different non-renewable and renewable hydrogen production
systems based on system design, cost, global warming potential (GWP), infrastructure and

* Corresponding author. Clean Energy Research Laboratory (CERL), Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Ontario Tech. Tech-
nology, 2000 Simcoe Street North, Oshawa, Ontario, L1H 7K4, Canada.
E-mail addresses: haris.ishaq@uoit.net (H. Ishaq), Ibrahim.Dincer@uoit.ca (I. Dincer), curranc@uvic.ca (C. Crawford).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.149
0360-3199/© 2021 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4 26239

efficiency. Finally the key challenges and opportunities associated with hydrogen pro-
duction, storage, transportation and distribution and commercial-scale deployment are
addressed.
© 2021 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

the requirement of an energy storage media and hydrogen is

Introduction the chief candidate that can be used for multiple purposes
such as fuel, energy storage media, synthesis of methanol
Substantial growth in economic development and popula- and ammonia and energy carrier. The progressively rising
tion taking place around the globe is the reason for devotion in the hydrogen applications makes it mandatory to
augmented energy demand. Power generation plays a provide a comprehensive review on hydrogen production,
vibrant role in the industrial revolution of any country. Fossil storage and distribution that also addresses the key chal-
fuels cover a significant portion of this growing energy de- lenges by means of applications and for the commercial
mand and these conventional resources are facing extreme deployment of renewable energy driven hydrogen produc-
challenges after the quick depletion. The key drawback of tion systems. The approach used to prepare this review
consuming these traditional resources (fossil fuels) is CO2 paper is to begin with the existing resources (renewable and
emissions and increased global warming [1]. Renewable en- conventional) and specific methods (including coal and nat-
ergy resources stand the most promising applicant to replace ural gas reforming, water electrolysis and thermochemical
these conventional resources due to the increased environ- cycles for hydrogen production), technological de-
mental problems. The increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) velopments in hydrogen infrastructure, storage, trans-
emissions, environmental problems and global temperature portation and distribution and utilization for different
rise are the prerequisite for the global transition from con- applications and role in the decarbonization. This review
ventional to renewable energy resources. Renewable energy study also provides a useful and compiled source for
resources namely; solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, ocean research, innovation and technological development in the
thermal energy conversion (OTEC) and biomass sources field of hydrogen production using renewable and conven-
stand the finest applicant to replace fossil fuels [2]. Owing to tional energy resources, hydrogen storage, hydrogen infra-
the intermittent nature of some auspicious renewable en- structure, transportation and distribution and hydrogen
ergy resources such as solar and wind, hydrogen can take full
advantage of renewable energy resources and cannot only be
employed as fuel but also as an energy carrier and storage
media. It can also play a vital role in the decarbonization of
the dominant sectors to meet net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050
[3]. Hydrogen is getting further recognition worldwide as an
exclusive energy solution and a potential fuel as it offers
carbon-free solutions. Moreover, it is noted that existing fuel
storage and transportation infrastructure that is used for
other chemical fuels can also be employed for hydrogen
storage and transportation. Several domestic resources can
be used to produce clean hydrogen, such as nuclear power
[4], natural gas [5], coal gasification [6] and renewable energy
resources such as solar [7], wind [8], biomass [9], geothermal
[10], hydro [11] and OTEC [12e14]. Fig. 1 displays the global
share of energy supply. Fossil fuels share a gigantic portion of
81.2% in global energy supply followed by the 13.8% share of
renewable energy sources (9.3% from biofuels, 2.0% from
wind/solar etc. and 2.5% from hydro) and 4.9% from nuclear
energy [15]. Several hydrogen-based projects are already
attracting funding around the globe. For instance, the OYS-
TER consortium received funding of 5 million Euros to
investigate offshore hydrogen production [16]. This study
presents a comprehensive review study on the renewable,
conventional and other methods of hydrogen production,
storage, transportation and distribution and the key chal-
lenges in the commercial deployment of renewable energy-
driven hydrogen production systems. The intermittent na- Fig. 1 e Share of global energy supply 2018 (data from
ture of solar and wind renewable energy sources increases Ref. [17]).
26240 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
utilization for plentiful applications including both modeling
and experimental efforts, developments, outcomes, scale-up
and commercialization potential. The selection of the
reviewed literature was based on specific keywords. This
review study also discusses the recent efforts and approved
projects being directed toward green hydrogen production
and utilization that can also play a vibrant role in the
decarbonization of the dominant sectors to meet net-zero
CO2 emissions by 2050.
A recent study [18] published a comparative study of
different renewable energy-driven hydrogen production
methods. A review study was published on the steam
reforming process (SMR) for hydrogen production and also
conducted a thorough economic analysis with the objective to
offer an environmental and economic assessment study to
produce hydrogen using different feedstocks namely;
biomass, biogas, ethanol and natural gas [19]. Another review
article was published on solar thermal methane reforming to
produce syngas and hydrogen [20]. Solar-assisted steam
methane reforming was offered as a transition route that of-
fers a feasible and viable approach to generate a transition
route towards solar hydrogen economy and for decarbon-
ization of fossil fuels. A detailed review was presented that
addressed the solar reactors from each scale and also sug-
gested future work directions. Fig. 2 displays the global energy
supply, electricity generation and CO2 emissions by different
energy sources. Fig. 2(a) shows the global energy supply, (b)
exhibits the electricity generation and (c) shows the CO2
emissions by different energy sources including solar,
geothermal, wind, biofuels, heat, waste and biofuels etc. [21].
Conventional energy sources such as oil, coal/petroleum and
natural gas can be seen leading in the global energy supply,
electricity generation as well as CO2 emissions.
Table 1 tabulates the comparison of hydrogen properties
with other conventional fuels: propane, methane, gasoline,
diesel and methanol. To present a comparison, the significant
properties of lower heating values (MJ/kg), hydrogen heating
values (MJ/kg), stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (kg), combustible
range (%), flame temperature ( C), minimum ignition energy
(MJ) and auto-ignition temperature ( C). Hydrogen offers the
highest burning velocity as compared to all other fuels
whether liquids or gases. A high-performance indicator is
offered by the hydrogen fuel cells in terms of efficiency, as fuel
cells are not constrained by thermal efficiency limits of the
thermal Carnot cycle. All over the world, a massive number of
H2 fuel stations are projected to be installed this year to
facilitate hydrogen fuel cell and fuel cell hybrid vehicles. Ad-
vantages of hydrogen include: efficient energy conversion
effectiveness, produced through water splitting with zero
carbon emissions, synthesis of different fuels such as syn-
thetic fuels and ammonia followed by different chemical re-
actions, the abundance of sources, availability of storage
options, existing infrastructure can be utilized for long-
distance transportation, high LHV as compared with tradi-
tional fossil fuels and provides clean energy solutions for en-
ergy sector through renewable energy sources, to eradicate
the environmental problems.
A number of aligned large-scale projects are already
attracting funding around the globe. For instance, Air Liquide
[23] has commissioned the world's largest green hydrogen
plant in Quebec, Canada which is producing up to 8.2 tonnes
of green H2 per day (~3000 tonnes annually). Despite the
gigawatt-scale ambitions of many green-hydrogen de-
velopers, the industry is still in its infancy. Therefore, the
public and private sectors around the globe are investing in
the emerging offshore wind þ hydrogen/ammonia economy.
To that end, Germany is eying a world-first tender [24] for an
offshore wind-hydrogen pilot in 2022. Berlin has provided
$58 M in support for pilot projects in the country's exclusive
economic zone in the North Sea. The EU-based OYSTER con-
sortium received EUR 5 million funding to investigate offshore
hydrogen production [25]. Maersk has signed an agreement
with several other international companies to conduct a
feasibility study on the ship-to-ship bunkering of green
ammonia at the Port of Singapore [26]. To bring shipping in
line with the Paris Climate Agreement, the Nordic maritime
sector formulated the Nordic Green Ammonia Powered Ships
(NoGAPS) project [27], worth NOK 8 million,with the aim of
decarbonizing Nordic ports, transport of people and goods, on
and between sea and land. The government has recently
introduced 38 policies to make green hydrogen viable [28].
A recent review article conducted a comparative study
and environmental impact assessment of non-renewable
and renewable sources based on hydrogen production ap-
proaches [29]. They aimed at studying and comparing the
hydrogen production methods' performance and evaluating
the social, economic and environmental impacts. Several
methods were considered namely: coal gasification, natural
gas reforming, solar and wind energy-based water electrol-
ysis, biomass gasification, high-temperature electrolysis,
SeI cycles and thermochemical CueCl cycles. Environ-
mental impacts in terms of global warming potential, acid-
ification potential and GWP, energetic and exergetic
efficiencies and production costs of mentioned methods are
determined and compared. Life cycle assessment was con-
ducted in a recent study for numerous hydrogen production
approaches [30]. This study included five different methods
of hydrogen production such as natural gas reforming, solar
and wind energy-based water electrolysis, coal gasification,
and thermochemical CueCl cycle. Recently, the world's
largest green-hydrogen plant (20 MW) was inaugurated in
Canada by Air Liquide [31]. Table 2 displays a detailed re-
view on hydrogen production methods and Table 3 tabu-
lates detailed review studies on hydrogen storage,
transportation and distribution techniques.
Hydrogen production methods
The production of hydrogen can be classified into three sig-
nificant categories of green (renewable energy-based
hydrogen production), purple (nuclear energy based hydrogen
production) and blue (coal gasification and natural gas based
hydrogen production integrated with carbon capture and
storage (CCS) hydrogen production methods. Even though
steam methane reforming is a CO2 intensive process that is
currently used globally for the major portion of hydrogen
production today, renewable electricity can also be employed
to produce green hydrogen. Zero direct CO2 emissions from
electrolysis is another conventional technique that splits
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Fig. 2 e (a) Global energy supply (b) electricity generation and (c) CO2 emissions by different energy sources including solar,
geothermal, wind, biofuels, heat, waste and biofuels etc. (data from Ref. [21]).

Table 1 e Comparison of hydrogen properties with other conventional fuels (modified from Ref. [22]).
Fuel HHV LHV Stoichiometric Minimum Ignition Auto Ignition Combustible Flame
(MJ/kg) (MJ/kg) Air/Fuel ratio (kg) Energy (MJ) Temperature ( C) Range (%) Temperature ( C)
Hydrogen 141.6 119.9 34.3 0.017 585 4e75 2207
Propane 50.3 45.6 15.6 0.30 450 2.1e9.5 1925
Methanol 22.7 18.0 6.5 0.14 460 6.7e36 1870
Methane 55.5 50.0 17.2 0.30 540e630 5e15 1914
Diesel 44.8 42.5 14.5 e 180e320 0.6e5.5 2327
Gasoline 47.3 44.5 14.6 0.29 260e460 1.3e7.1 2307

water into oxygen and hydrogen employing electrical current
and this electricity can be harvested from renewable energy
sources to produce green hydrogen.
Hydrogen production cost is a significant hurdle especially
for the green variety. Steam reforming-based hydrogen pro-
duction costs roughly three times compared with the natural
gas cost per unit of produced energy. Likewise, using elec-
trolysis for hydrogen production with 5 cents/kWh of elec-
tricity will cost approximately two times that of natural gas-
based hydrogen production. According to the new report
published by Renewable World Energy, the US will be selling
wind energy at the lowest recorded price of 2.5 cents/kWh,

Table 2 e Some key studies and their details on hydrogen production methods.
Authors Focus of study
Chen et al. [32] Thermodynamic analysis and life cycle
assessment of integrated coal gasification
for hydrogen and power production
Ventura and Azevedo [33] Numerical model development for
natural-gas steam reforming for hydrogen
production with coupled furnace model
Ishaq and Dincer [34] Analysis and assessment of solar energy-
driven natural gas reforming system for
hydrogen production
Coutanceau et al. [35] Production of hydrogen from water
electrolysis
Dincer and Joshi [36] Solar energy assisted hydrogen
production systems
Zhang and Wan [37] Modeling of wind assisted hydrogen
storage system for immense wind energy
curtailment
Kanoglu et al. [38] Thermodynamic analysis of geothermal
energy based hydrogen production
models
Acar and Dincer [39] Review and assessment of different
hydrogen production opportunities for
better environment
Tarney [40] Production of hydrogen at hydro-
powerplants
Hosseini and Wahid [41] Production of hydrogen from sustainable
and renewable energy resources
Iribarren et al. [42] Lignocellulosic biomass gasification based
hydrogen production
Approach
Thermodynamic analysis and life
cycle assessment
Thermodynamic assessment
Cost assessment, carbon emission
analyses and multi-objective
optimization
Thermodynamic assessment
Thermodynamic assessment,
sustainability aspects and
environmental impact assessments
Real time data analysis for wind
energy curtailment
Thermodynamic modeling and
assessment
Economic, social and technical
performance, environmental and
reliability
Comparative assessment of green
energy carrier
Environmental impact assessment,
thermodynamic performance,
exergetic assessment and life cycle
assessment (LCA)
26242
Key findings
Designed system achieved 53.3% efficiency on 700  C temperature and 15% coal
concentration. GWP, nitrogen oxides and acidification potential were found to be
0.058 kg CO2 eq/(kWh), 7.04  105 NO2 eq/(kWh) and 3.63  104 kg SO2 eq/(kWh)
respectively,
This SRP integration modeling approach was found to be more flexible as
compared with using distinct CFD models and can also be extended to reformer
tubes of industrial furnaces.
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The integrated steam-autothermal reforming model was found to be
energetically enhanced and improved energy and exergy efficiencies were found
to be 59.1% and 31.1% respectively.
The proton exchange membrane electrolysis system was found to be compatible
while coupled with renewable energy systems, alkaline electrolysis system was
proposed to be coupled with industrial stationary applications and solid oxide
electrolysis system for the valorization of the energetic production excess of
nuclear power plants.
Thermodynamic assessment, sustainability aspects and environmental impact
assessments of solar energy based hydrogen production systems.
Hydrogen storage system for immense wind energy curtailment and possible
integration considering the real-time data of 10 min average throughout the
whole wind farm year was conducted.
First model was proposed to employ the geothermal work to the electrolysis
process and found to be 28.5% efficient, second model employed a fraction of
geothermal heat to preheat the water offered 29.9% efficiency, third model
employed a portion of geothermal heat to preheat the water for high-temperature
electrolyzer with improved efficiency of 37.2% and fourth model employed a
fraction of geothermal work for liquefaction and remaining for electrolysis and
offered 16.1% efficiency.
This study determined the normalized performance of different hydrogen
production methods and found that solar offers highest environmental
performance (8/10), nuclear offers lowest environmental performance (3/10) and
geothermal offers lowest total average ranking (4/10/10).
The improved efficiency of the hydrogen production at hydro-powerplant was
found by utilizing the excess/wasted energy and generating electricity from
hydrogen employing fuel cell or gas turbine.
In supercritical water gasification of biomass, hydrogen was found to be produced
at high pressure employing small amount of energy and reducing the char and tar
formation. Also, the cost and efficiency challenges associated with photovoltaic
cells were highlighted.
The proposed biomass (poplar) gasification study offered exergetic efficiency of
48% owing to 4.6% exergy losses associated with flue gas streams and 47% exergy
destruction was found.
Table 3 e Some selected studies and key details on hydrogen storage, transportation and distribution techniques.
Authors Focus of study
Yilmaz et al. [43] Thermodynamic analysis and assessment of
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) assisted
hydrogen production and liquefaction process
Ghazvini et al. [44] A review on the geothermal energy based
hydrogen production and storage
Seyam et al. [45] Analysis and assessment of geothermal energy
integrated clean hydrogen liquefaction plant
Adballa et al. [46] A review on hydrogen production, storage and
transportation
Ogden [47] Introduction to future hydrogen infrastructure
Hassan et al. [48] Review on hydrogen storage technologies for
stationary and mobile applications
Ratnakar et al. [49] Challenges in large-scale hydrogen storage and
transportation
Ratnakar et al. [50] Future hydrogen markets for transportation and
industry
Approach
Thermodynamic performance and
assessment
Technical, environmental and
economic assessment
Energy and exergy assessment and
specific energy consumption
Comparative assessment
Hydrogen infrastructure
Hydrogen storage review and
comparative assessment
Hydrogen supply chain
Hydrogen transportation
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Key findings
The ocean thermal energy conversion system was integrated with hydrogen
production and improved energy and exergy efficiencies were found to be
43.5% and 36.5%.
The economic revealed that the costs for geothermal energy-driven
electrolysis and thermochemical processes for hydrogen production was
found to be considerably lower than other sources.
Geothermal energy-driven clean hydrogen liquefaction plant offered 26.74%
increment in the energy and exergy efficiencies.
This review study highlighted the lack in gravimetric and volumetric densities
for hydrogen storage materials and other challenges confronting the
commercialization.
The environmental and energy security issues posed by current fuels and
technical, societal, economic and infrastructure challenges associated with
hydrogen implementation were addressed and hydrogen infrastructure
implementation was proposed.
Physical storage methods consist of compressed gas, liquid and cryo-
compressed forms and were found to be dependent on varying storing
conditions, for instance, the temperature in liquid storage, pressure in
compressed gas or both in cryo-compressed gas storage. Alternatively, solid-
state or material-based storage was classified into adsorption and absorption
techniques
Challenges in hydrogen storage and transportation
Results indicated that consumption of low-cost, long-term storage and better-
quality refueling station utilization take highest impression during market
introduction phase.
26243
26244 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4

thus the electricity will cost somewhat less than four times of
natural gas-based hydrogen production cost [51]. Hydrogen
can be blended with natural gas to transport the lower
hydrogen concentrations using existing natural gas pipeline
infrastructure and it can also reduce the CO2 emissions
emitted by the existing natural gas reforming plants.
Hydrogen fuel is attracting global attention because of
numerous reasons including the following significant ones:

Hydrogen production can be carried out using diverse en-
ergy resources

Hydrogen is the slightest contaminating subsequently the
hydrogen usage in fuel cells or combustion processes
produces water

Hydrogen meets all energy requirements and can be
employed to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, used for residen-
tial applications, used as an energy carrier and can also be
employed as a fuel for combined heating and power pro-
duction systems

Hydrogen can also play a vital role in the decarbonization
of the maritime industry by employing off-grid offshore
wind energy to produce clean fuel (hydrogen/ammonia) for
the maritime industry.

Hydrogen is a flawless energy carrier that can be employed
as an energy storage media.

Unlike other carbon-based fuels such as methanol,
dimethyl ether, synthetic CH4 that do not compete with
DAC/CCS efforts, hydrogen does not emit CO2 emissions at
the point of use.
Table 4 arranges a comparative cost and performance fea-
tures of several hydrogen production processes. It incorporates
the significant hydrogen production processes such as steam
methane reforming (SMR), landfill gas dry reformation, coal
gasification, H2S methane reforming, naphtha reforming,
methane/natural gas pyrolysis, steam-iron process, steam
reforming of waste oil, partial oxidation of heavy oil and coal,
grid electrolysis of water, high-temperature water electrolysis,
chloralkali electrolysis, solar & PV water electrolysis, photolysis
of water, biomass gasification, photobiological, thermochem-
ical water splitting, photoelectrochemical water decomposition
and photocatalytic water decomposition and states the ideal
and practical energy requirements and efficiencies and cost
comparison.
Fig. 3 outlines the steps of source, system and service
included in this approach. The sources included in this
approach are the primary energy sources (renewable) to be
integrated with the hydrogen production system followed by
the storage and distribution to encounter the supply and de-
mand concerning the distribution employing the existing
infrastructure and supply for the end-use amenities, such as
fuel cells for power production and hydrogen fuel cell vehi-
cles, internal combustion engines, manufacturing of different
chemicals namely; ammonia, methanol, pharmaceuticals and
hydrochloric acid and to encounter the residential applica-
tions namely; heating, cooling, power, freshwater, combined
heating and power production and space heating and cooling
need to be considered to deliver an environmentally benign
and sustainable approach to eradicate the environmental
problems. To arrive at solutions for producing sustainable
energy, environmental problems and GHG emissions need to
be mitigated.
Bessarabov and Millet published two volumes on PEM
water electrolysis [22,53] including the most comprehensive

Table 4 e Comparative cost and performance features of hydrogen production processes (compiled from Ref. [52]).
Process Energy consumption (kWh/m3) Status of Tech. Efficiency [%] Costs Relative to SMR
Ideal Practical
Steam methane reforming (SMR) 0.78 2e2.5 mature 70e80 1
Methane/NG pyrolysis R&D to mature 72e54 0.9
H2S methane reforming 1.5 e R&D 50 <1
Photocatalytic decomp. Of water early R&D
Landfill gas dry reformation R&D 47e58 ~1
Partial oxidation of heavy oil 0.94 4.9 mature 70 1.8
Naphtha reforming mature
Thermochemical water splitting early R&D 35e45 6
Coal gasification (TEXACO) 1.01 8.6 mature 60 1.4e2.6
Steam-iron process R&D 46 1.9
Steam reforming of waste oil R&D 75 <1
Photoelectrochemical decomp. Of water early R&D
Partial oxidation of coal mature 55
Chloralkali electrolysis mature by-product
Grid electrolysis of water 3.54 4.9 R&D 27 10-Mar
Photolysis of water early R&D <10
High-temp. Electrolysis of water R&D 48 2.2
Biomass gasification R&D 45e50 2.0e2.4
Solar & PV-electrolysis of water R&D to mature 10 >3
Photobiological early R&D <1
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
Fig. 3 e 3S approach for renewable energy-driven hydrogen production and utilization.
sets of properties of hydrogen as well as a detailed chapter on
hydrogen production. The first volume put together an in-
clusive set of hydrogen properties including the fundamentals
of water electrolysis and detailed chapters on proton ex-
change membrane cell and stack and gas permeation in PEM
water electrolysis. The second volume included comprehen-
sive chapters on hydrogen production including PEM water
electrolysis plant, key performance parameters, performance
degradation, power-to-gas and selection properties of
hydrogen. A comprehensive review study on production,
storage and utilization of hydrogen as an energy resource [54],
hydrogen production utilizing nuclear and solar energy [55],
comprehensive review on the production of hydrogen using
biomasses and wastes [56], hydrogen production in an un-
derdeveloped country using wind energy [57], implementa-
tions on renewable hydrogen for combined transportation,
energy storage and stationary applications [58], comprehen-
sive review on hydrogen transportation infrastructure reli-
ability and performance [59], road transportation sectors’
sustainable development by means of hydrogen energy sys-
tem [60], hydrogen introduction strategy into transportation
[61] and recent trends and technological developments in
hydrogen production and utilization [62].
The selection of the primary energy source for producing
hydrogen is the first step and the source needs to be abundant,
clean, plentiful, reliable and affordable. Currently, in the main-
stream hydrogen (almost 95%) is produced using fossil fuels and
more specifically natural gas reforming, methane partial
26245
oxidation and coal gasification. It is significant to avoid carbon-
based progenitors (e.g. Blue hydrogen CCUS) and carbon-based
carriers (e.g. synthetic natural gas) to avoid concerns associ-
ated with CCUS net-GHG efficacy and re-release of captured CO2
at combustion respectively and focus on developing a long-term,
truly ‘green’ technical pathways rather than shorter-term nat-
ural-gas based plays. For some intermittent renewable energy
sources, a consistent, reliable, trusted and principal storage
system is required to be combined with the systems. According
to the new report published by renewable world energy, the US
will be selling wind energy at the lowest recorded price of 2.5
cents/kWh [63], thus the electricity will cost somewhat less than
four times of natural gas-based hydrogen production cost. To
meet the optimum outcomes, the selection of a suitable system
with a source is also substantial. The outcome of using this
approach is environmentally benign, clean and sustainable
hydrogen. Fig. 4 exhibits the classification of renewable, con-
ventional and other hydrogen production methods.
Blue hydrogen production methods
This section covers the conventional hydrogen production
routes that produce a major fraction of hydrogen to meet the
global hydrogen demand which is now being switched to
renewable energy sources or the existing conventional
hydrogen production facilities are being integrated with car-
bon capture and storage (CCS) or carbon capture and utiliza-
tion (CCU) process to capture the emitted CO2 emissions. The
26246 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
integration of the CCS process with coal and natural gas
based hydrogen production techniques makes it blue and
carbon neutral.
Natural gas reforming
A significant portion of the traditional hydrogen is produced
using fossil fuels and more specifically natural gas reforming
and methane partial oxidation. In the initial processing step,
the desulfurization of natural gas is employed to separate the
sulfur content from the natural gas and gaseous hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) is found in raw natural gas. The sulfur is recov-
ered using the Claus process from gaseous H2S. The produced
gaseous hydrogen sulfide reacts with oxygen gas to separate
sulfur in Claus plants [64].
2H2 S þ O2 /2S þ 2H2 O
Fig. 4 e Hydrogen production methods.
The activated titanium or aluminum oxide catalyst is
employed to the catalytic Claus process that boosts the con-
version efficiency of sulfur. The sulfur dioxide (SO2) that is
formed through combustion reacts with gaseous hydrogen
sulfide and sulfur is separated from gaseous hydrogen sulfide
by separating the elemental sulfur [65].
2H2 S þ SO2 /3S þ 2H2 O (2)
The step followed by the desulfurization of natural gas is
steam methane reforming. In this step, steam reacts with
natural gas at high temperatures and forms carbon monoxide
and hydrogen gases [66].
CH4 þ H2 O/CO þ 3H2 (3)
The produced carbon monoxide can further be reacted
(1)
with steam using a water gas shift reactor to convert carbon
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4 26247

monoxide into carbon dioxide and additional hydrogen can be The gasification step is followed by the quenching process
produced [67]. through which rapid cooling is applied. A syngas cooling unit
comes next where heat is recovered for syngas cooling and
CO þ H2 O/CO2 þ H2 (4)
recovered heat can be used for multiple purposes such as
The natural gas reforming method for hydrogen is further power production, hot water and space heating. The water-
integrated with carbon capture and storage technique to gas shift reaction follows the syngas cooling unit that con-
capture CO2 emissions instead of releasing them to the envi- verts CO to CO2. The acid gas removal unit former to the water
ronment, making the process carbon neutral and producing gas shift reaction where hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon
blue hydrogen [68]. dioxide (CO2) are separated. The hydrogen purification unit is
followed by the acid gas removal step and the pressure swing
Coal gasification adsorption process is usually used to separate hydrogen for
Coal gasification is another conventional method used for the other gases. Gasification and water gas shift reaction are
hydrogen production. The first step is air separation which the processes which require steam input and heat covered by
separates oxygen from air and supplies it to the gasifier. One the syngas cooling unit can be employed to convert water into
of the three well-established methods is used for air separa- steam at the desired temperature. Similar to the natural gas
tion, namely: membrane separation, cryogenic air separation, reforming method, coal gasification method of hydrogen
or pressure swing adsorption. The step following air separa- production is also integrated with the carbon capture and
tion is coal pyrolysis. The pyrolysis step requires two inputs of storage technique to capture CO2 emissions instead of
steam and oxygen with coal for gasification. In this step, coal releasing them to the environment, making the process car-
is wrecked into volatile and char. bon neutral and producing blue hydrogen.
The volatile matter contains moisture and tar, it is
presented by C6H6. The pyrolysis reaction is written as fol- Purple hydrogen production method
lows [69]:
Nuclear energy based hydrogen production is referred to as
Coal / Char þ ðC6 H6 þ H2 þ CO þ H2 S þ CO2 þ N2 þ CH4 þ H2 OÞ purple hydrogen and high temperatures of the nuclear re-
(5) actors can be utilized for other hydrogen production methods
such as thermochemical hydrogen production. Nuclear en-
After the pyrolysis reaction, the combustion of the volatile
ergy is derived from uranium atoms split using fission. Nu-
matter can be expressed by the following reactions:
clear energy produces heat to generate steam and generated
15 steam is employed to the turbines to produce electricity.
C6 H6 þ O2 / 3H2 O þ 6CO2 (6)
2 Nuclear plants do not involve fuel-burning directly, thus they
do not generate direct GHG emissions. In the reactors
1 employed to the nuclear power plants, fission reaction is
CO þ O2 /CO2 (7)
2 employed as it can be controlled. The reason for not using
fusion reaction to generate power is the difficulty level to
1 control the fusion reaction and providing the conditions
H2 þ O2 /H2 O (8)
2
required by the fusion reaction is costly as well and as yet
non-commercial.
CH4 þ 2O2 /2H2 O þ CO2 (9)
In a nuclear power plant, the fission reaction is employed
The following equations present the elemental composi- to the nuclear reactor which is a heat source of thermal en-
tion of char: ergy. Similar to the characteristic stations generating thermal
power, steam is generated using heat produced by the nuclear
char / C þ N2 þ O2 þ S þ H2 þ Ash (10)
reactor and this steam is employed to the turbine and gener-
ates electricity using a generator. Nuclear energy is generated
C þ 2H2 /CH4 (11)
C þ H2 O /CO þ H2 (12) using atoms splitting in the nuclear reactor which converts
water into steam, employed to the turbine and electricity is
C þ CO2 /2CO (13) generated. In 29 states, ninety-five nuclear plants produce
approximately 20% of national electricity using uranium. The
C þ O2 /CO2 (14) nuclear reactor is used to undergo a fission reaction and
generate thermal energy. This thermal energy generated by
CH4 þ 2H2 O /CO2 þ 4H2 (15) the nuclear power plant can be used for multiple purposes
[70]. The most common method of utilizing this thermal en-
CO þ H2 O /CO2 þ H2 (16) ergy is to produce power using a turbine which can later be
employed to the fuel cells for hydrogen production. Some
other methods are to employ this thermal energy to the
C þ 0:5 O2 /CO (17)
different processes such as thermochemical water splitting
cycles, steam reforming methods, or water electrolysis for
S þ H2 /H2 SAC (18)
hydrogen production.
26248 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
Green hydrogen production methods
Renewable energy based hydrogen production is referred to as
green hydrogen. Green hydrogen is obtained from the elec-
trolysis of water with electricity generated by low-carbon
power sources also known as renewable energy sources.
Before getting into specific details of different hydrogen pro-
duction methods, the electrolysis process is described in
detail.
Electrolysis
Water electrolysis is used to split water into its components of
oxygen and hydrogen using electricity. The significant elec-
trolyser types are proton exchange membrane (PEM) electro-
lyser, solid oxide (SO) electrolyser and alkaline (ALK)
electrolyser. The promising renewable energy sources
including solar and hydrogen are being integrated directly
with the water electrolysis process to produce clean and
environmentally benign hydrogen. PEM electrolysis process
offers quite a lot of advantages over the other electrolysis
technologies namely: higher hydrogen production rate, better
energy efficiency and more compact design. Compared with
ALK electrolysis process, the PEM electrolysis process offers
the advantage of reacting quickly to the fluctuations that
make it easy to integrate PEM electrolysis with a renewable
energy source that possesses intermittent nature. PEM elec-
trolysis process can also be employed in distributed systems
as it delivers high-quality gas and requires less maintenance.
Table 5 arranges the advancement in techno-economic char-
acteristics of PEM and ALK electrolysers.
Solar energy
Solar energy is recognized as a significant renewable primary
energy source that can be employed for producing clean and
sustainable hydrogen. The solar energy source has the po-
tential to play a vital role in the transition from conventional
to renewable energy sources. Solar energy is one of the sig-
nificant primary sources that can be utilized for clean
hydrogen production. Fig. 5 displays the classification of
solar energy sources that can be employed for hydrogen
production. The solar energy source can be categorized into
the solar thermal, solar photovoltaic and photo-
electrochemical classes [72]. The concentrated solar thermal
energy source can be used to produce hydrogen using
Table 5 e Techno-economic characteristics of PEM and ALK electrolysers (data from Ref. [71]).
Technology
Unit
Efficiency kWh electricity per kg of H2
Efficiency (LHV) % 57
System lifetime Years
Typical output pressure Bar
OPEX Initial CAPEX % per year
Stack lifetime Operating hours
Start-up (warm-cold)
Load range
Ramp-up/ramp-down
Shutdown
multiple routes namely; solar thermolysis, solar thermo-
chemical cycle, mechanical energy to electrical energy, solar
gasification, solar cracking and electrolysis. Photo-
electrolysis and bio-photolysis are capable of producing
hydrogen directly. The photovoltaic source generates elec-
trical power which is employed to the electrolysis for
hydrogen production. The thermal energy extracted from the
concentrated solar thermal energy source is also employed
to hydrogen production routes of solar gasification and solar
ammonia reforming.
Wind energy
Wind power defines the process of generating electricity using
wind energy. Wind turbines are employed to extract wind
energy. The wind rotates the turbines which convert kinetic
energy into mechanical energy and the generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The electrical en-
ergy extracted from the wind energy source is AC, thus AC/DC
converter is employed to feed the DC electrical power to the
electrolyser for hydrogen production. Categorically, wind
turbines can mainly be classified into two of the following
classes based on the installation and geographical location,
onshore and offshore wind turbines [73e75].
Onshore wind turbine farms are installed on land, whereas
offshore wind turbine farms are installed over open water.
There are more wind resources on the offshore sites in com-
parison with onshore (approximately twice as medium
onshore wind farms). When sited offshore, the acoustic and
visual impact is very trivial, so much larger areas can be used.
Recently, a new $3.4 million project is approved aiming to
improve the Atlantic Canadian offshore wind energy sector's
capability in installing infrastructure in glacial seabeds [31].
Fig. 6 displays the wind energy-based hydrogen produc-
tion system. The electrical energy extracted from the
wind energy source is converted from AC to DC and
employed to the electrolyser which split water into oxygen
and hydrogen. Wind based electricity can be employed by
the electrolyser for hydrogen production and produced
hydrogen can be employed in stationary or mobile (vehicle)
fuel cells for electricity generation. Hydrogen can also
be stored to meet the load during low wind speed
intervals. The technology of producing hydrogen using wind
energy is an efficient, clean and sustainable energy pro-
duction mode.
PEM ALK
2017 2025 2017 2025
58 52 51 49
64 65 68
20 20
30 60 Atmospheric 15
2% 2% 2% 2%
40,000 h 50,000 h 80,000 h 90,000 h
1 s to 5 min 1e10 min
0e160% nominal load 15e100% nominal load
100% per second 0.2e20% per second
Seconds 1e10 min
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4 26249

Fig. 5 e Classification of solar energy-based hydrogen production.

Fig. 6 e Onshore and offshore wind energy-driven hydrogen production.

Geothermal energy electricity. The International Geothermal Association re-

Geothermal energy can be defined as the heat generated in-
side the earth's sub-surface. The geothermal energy is
transmitted to the earth's surface using steam or hot water.
Geothermal energy can be utilized for multiple purposes
depending on nature such as cooling, heating, or producing
ported that 10,715 MW of geothermal power was produced by
24 countries in 2010 which displayed 20% raise since 2005
and 18,500 MW geothermal power was reported in 2015
which displayed almost 60% raise since 2010 in an online
capacity. Geothermal energy can be employed for hydrogen
26250 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
production in multiple ways, such as geothermal power can
be fed to water electrolysis for hydrogen production [76],
geothermal energy can be used to heat water that makes the
water electrolysis more efficient [77], heat pump systems [78]
and geothermal heat can also be employed for thermo-
chemical hydrogen production [79].
The complete or partial amount of electricity generated by
the geothermal plant can be used to produce hydrogen by
employing an electrolyser. Fig. 7 displays different modes of
geothermal energy-based hydrogen production. A geothermal
source with a high temperature is required for lower cost
hydrogen production and liquidating processes. Geothermal
power plants extract heat from deep inside of earth crust to
produce steam which is employed to the turbine to generate
electricity. Geothermal heat pumps are used for water heating
or to provide heating to the building to the surface of the earth.
Hydro energy
Hydropower denotes the conversion of water-flowing energy
into electricity. Hydropower is measured as a renewable en-
ergy source since the cycle of water is continually renewed. In
history, hydropower was first employed for mechanical mill-
ing. Hydropower covers around 17.5% of global electricity
demand employing water potential energy. Excluding a few
countries that are abundant in this source, hydropower is
generally used as a backup to meet the peak-load demand as it
can be voluntarily started and stopped. Hydropower genera-
tion is certainly the greatest effective method for large-scale
electricity generation. Hydropower energy flows can be
concentrated and controlled [80]. The energy conversion
process extracts kinetic energy that is converted to electrical
energy directly and it contains no ineffective intermediate
chemical or thermodynamic processes undergoing heat los-
ses. The process can never be completely efficient undergoing
Fig. 7 e Geothermal energy-based hydrogen production.
100% efficiency nevertheless extracting 100% kinetic energy of
the flowing water represents the flow must stop. Fig. 8 shows
the different routes of hydro energy generation. Similar to
steam turbines, water turbines depend on the working fluid
impulse impact on the turbine blades or else reaction between
the blades that turn the turbine and operate the generator and
working fluid. Numerous dissimilar types of turbines have
also been established to achieve optimized performance
under particular conditions of water supply.
Ocean thermal energy conversion
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) process generates
electricity employing temperature differences in cold ocean
deep water and tropical surface warm water. OTEC power
plants employ large cold deep and surface seawater quanti-
ties to drive a turbine that operates the power cycle and
generates electricity. OTEC technology is known as a marine
renewable energy system that extracts the ocean water en-
ergy absorbed from solar energy to produce electric power.
OTEC system employs the warm surface ocean water with a
temperature of approximately 25  C that is used for working
fluid vaporization such as ammonia that carrier low-boiling
point [81,82]. Fig. 9 exhibits the OTEC-based hydrogen pro-
duction system.
The OTEC cycle works under the principle of using warm
water for working fluid evaporation that has a low boiling
point. The pressurized vapor rotates the turbines that
generate mechanical work and the generator produces
electricity. Deep cold seawater is employed for working fluid
vapor condensation. The Carnot thermal efficiency which is
the maximum possible efficiency of an OTEC cycle is
approximately 7% as the temperature difference in surface
and deep ocean water is somewhat over 20  C in tropical
waters.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4 26251

Fig. 8 e Hydro energy-based hydrogen production routes.

Fig. 9 e Ocean thermal energy conversion system for hydrogen production.

Biomass gasification
Gasification is known as a process that converts organic ma-
terials or carbonaceous fossil fuels into carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen and the resulting mixture is
known as producer gas or syngas. The biomass gasification
process is used to convert solid biomass fossil fuels into
combustible gaseous producer gas employing several catego-
rized thermochemical reactions. The producer gas is low-
heating value fuel whose calorific value is in the range of
1000e1200 kcal/Nm3.
Biomass gasification encompasses biomass burning under
a limited air supply to create carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
methane, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, steam accompanied by
chemicals such as char, tars and ash particles containing
combustible gas [83]. Gasification is a considerably cleaner
process of conversion as compared with combustion as
26252 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4

Fig. 10 e Hydrogen production schematic using biomass gasification.

gasification produces fuel in the form of syngas rather than
burning it which prevents many pollutants to be emitted such
as, NOx SOx and other particulates that occur at higher tem-
peratures than typical gasification temperature [84]. Fig. 10
displays the hydrogen production schematic using biomass
gasification.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
launched a hydrogen-fueled space shuttle that was retired in
2011. Fig. 11 displays hydrogen utilization as fuel, feedstock
and energy carrier. Hydrogen can be employed as a fuel for
numerous applications such as fuel cells, combustion, power,
heating and cooling, ammonia synthesis and synthetic fuels.
Before getting into specific details of hydrogen utilization, it is

Hydrogen fuel utilization

Hydrogen is a clean fuel that produces only water when

employed in a fuel cell or combusted. A number of domestic
resources can be used to produce clean hydrogen, such as
nuclear power, natural gas, coal gasification and renewable
energy resources such as solar, wind, biomass, geothermal,
hydro and OTEC. Such flexible characteristics make it a po-
tential fuel option for electricity generation and trans-
portation applications. It can be employed as fuel in the
transportation sector [85e87], can be used as an energy carrier
[88e90] and can also be used as energy storage media [91e94].
Robert Boyle discovered hydrogen in 1671 [95] by dipping
different metals in acid to investigate the characteristics while
he observed a single-displacement reaction occurring upon
dipping. Later on, Henry Cavendish established hydrogen as a
distinct element [96] and declared hydrogen as flammable gas
with Boyle. In the early nineteenth century, hydrogen was
employed in large airships for buoyancy. Afterward, it was Fig. 11 e Hydrogen utilization as fuel, feedstock and energy
also used in the detonation of the first H-Bomb in 1954 [97]. carrier.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
important to dwell on the storage and infrastructure, trans-
portation and distribution of hydrogen.
Hydrogen storage
The hydrogen and fuel-cell systems can also be advantageous
for residential applications. In the residential sector, the
residence can be powered locally by employing hydrogen fuel
cells. Additionally, hydrogen can directly be employed and
combusted in the residence furnace to produce heat (thermal
energy) for space heating and hot water on demand. GHG
emissions reduction is one of the most significant advantages
of using such a system. An additional benefit is reducing peak
loads from grids by promoting the capability of generating
local power using fuel cells and easy utilization of the delo-
calized renewable energy generation becomes easily appli-
cable. Numerous environmental advantages are accompanied
by hydrogen utilization and hydrogen-based fuel-cell systems
and their applications in residences. A global transition is
occurring in the transportation sector from traditional fuel
combustion to hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles and this
transition is also occurring in aviation, boats, locomotives and
drones. In the fuel-cell electric vehicles, a hydrogen tank is
used instead of traditional fuel tanks and stored hydrogen is
fed to the hydrogen fuel-cell to generate electric power. In the
hydrogen fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles, a battery storage
system is also employed to store the additional electricity and
is used to drive a vehicle when required. The hydrogen fuel
cell is a well-developed and efficient technology used to
generate electricity using hydrogen. A high-performance in-
dicator is offered by the hydrogen fuel cells in terms of effi-
ciencies as fuel cells do not follow the efficiency limits of the
Carnot cycle. All over the world, a massive amount of H2 fuel
stations are projected to install in this year to facilitate
hydrogen fuel cell and fuel cell hybrid vehicles. Hydrogen can
be stored in multiple ways to be employed for different
applications.
A recent article published in the open literature [26] pre-
sents a comparative study of different hydrogen storage sys-
tems and their efficiencies employing solid-state materials for
hydrogen storage [98]. To evaluate the performances of
different hydrogen storage, solid-state materials must contain
characteristics of operating temperature and pressure, heat
effects of hydrogen release and uptake, packing densities and
reversible H2 storage capacities. A performance assessment of
systems collecting 5 kg hydrogen in cylindrical containment
full of solid hydrogen storage material containing such as
hydrides and the composites of reactive hydride as MgH2 and
AlH3 was conducted. An innovative way of synthesizing
ammonia borane (hydrogen storage material) through copper
(II)-ammonia complex oxidization in the liquid phase was
published in a recent study [99]. Ammonia borane carries the
extraordinary advantages of containing 19.6 wt% hydrogen
content that can control dehydrogenation and is regarded as a
competitive material for hydrogen storage. They reported a
unique synthesizing process to produce ammonia borane
crystals employing Cu(II)eNH3 complex as nitrogen and
oxidizer source reactant. A recent study conducted the ther-
modynamic analysis on the high-pressure compressed filling
of gaseous H2 storage tanks [100]. The thermodynamic
26253
analysis was based on energetic and exergetic approaches.
Some sensitivity analyses were also conducted to explore the
effects of the initial conditions on the filling process exergy
destruction rate and exergetic efficiency. The transient anal-
ysis was also conducted to explore the filling process and
determine the pressure and temperature pressure during
filling inside the storage tank.
Hydrogen energy pathways offer an efficient solution to
many GHG emission issues owing to its clean and cyclic uti-
lization [101]. Hydrogen is the most plentiful, lightest, sus-
tainable and nontoxic element that characterizes an
environment-friendly source of energy and alternative fuel
to conventional l fuel [102,103] that can supply natural gas,
petroleum and coal for about 60, 40 and 156 years respectively
at maximum utilization [104]. Even though hydrogen can be
produced from both conventional and renewable energy re-
sources, however, sustainability rises when renewable energy
resources are used. In addition, it is advantageous to food and
water supply for third-world countries [105]. Production of
methanol from CO2 and H2 and fabrication of polymers from
CO2 and water [106,107] could extensively support the
hydrogen economy accomplishment. Hydrogen storage (HS) is
classified into material-based and physical-based technolo-
gies. Fig. 12 displays the classification of different hydrogen
storage technologies (HST). Physical storage methods consist
of compressed gas, liquid and cryo-compressed forms and are
dependent on varying storing conditions, for instance, the
temperature in liquid storage, pressure in compressed gas or
temperature and pressure in cryo-compressed gas storage.
Alternatively, solid-state or material-based storage includes
adsorption and absorption techniques.
Renewable hydrogen storage for fuel cell applications can
be employed for hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles and
power generation. Fig. 13 displays the representation of
hydrogen storage methods starting from the renewable en-
ergy sources leading towards hydrogen which is stored to be
employed for different applications such as fuel cells,
ammonia and heating, cooling and power. The different
renewable energy sources which can be employed for clean
hydrogen production are solar, wind, biomass, geothermal,
hydro and ocean. The electricity generated by these renew-
able energy sources is fed to the electrolyser with water which
produces hydrogen. The produced hydrogen is stored in the
storage tank and employed to the fuel cell to generate power
for different applications.
Renewable hydrogen can also be stored in the form of
ammonia, as ammonia offers high energy density compared
to hydrogen. The different renewable energy sources which
can be employed for clean hydrogen production are solar,
wind, biomass, geothermal, hydro and OTEC cycle. The pro-
duced hydrogen is used to synthesize ammonia which can be
cracked back into hydrogen on demand. The representation
also shows renewable hydrogen employed for ammonia that
can be reformed back to hydrogen on demand. The ammonia
reforming is a well-established Haber Bosch reversible process
that is used for ammonia synthesis, the same process is used
to crack ammonia back to nitrogen and hydrogen. For
ammonia synthesis, an air separation unit such as a cryogenic
air separation unit, pressure swing adsorption (PSA), or
membrane separation is employed to separate nitrogen from
26254 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
Fig. 12 e Hydrogen storage technologies (modified from Ref. [48]).
the air. The unreacted gases are recycled to the reactor and
produced ammonia is stored to meet the hydrogen demand.
Renewable hydrogen storage for different applications
such as clean fuel for combustion, as fuel for hydrogen fuel-
cell vehicles, used in refining, for synthetic fuels and
ammonia synthesis and heating and power production. The
different renewable energy sources which can be employed
for clean hydrogen production are solar, wind, biomass,
geothermal, hydro and OTEC cycle. The representation also
shows the hydrogen applications for heating, cooling and
power. The stored hydrogen can be employed for multiple
applications such as it can be used as jet fuel, can be employed
for ammonia and methanol synthesis, used for refining, can
also be employed to hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles and
for also for sustainable energy systems.
Hydrogen infrastructure, transportation and distribution
Hydrogen produces zero carbon emissions when burned or
employed to the fuel cell. Hydrogen is among the key viable
solutions for decarbonizing sectors of the economy wher-
ever direct electrification is not practical, for instance, in-
dustrial heating or heavy-duty transportation. When
injected into the natural gas grid, renewable hydrogen can
displace fossil fuels for heating businesses and homes and it
can also be employed to produce low-carbon synthetic fuels
that can help reduce emissions in industry and trans-
portation. In the residential sector, the residence can be
powered locally by employing hydrogen fuel cells. Addi-
tionally, hydrogen can directly be employed and combusted
in the residence furnace to produce heat (thermal energy)
for space heating and hot water on demand. For hydrogen
distribution, either the existing natural gas distribution
network is used or transported in tanks, loaded and sup-
plied to the residence. Fig. 14 displays the hydrogen trans-
portation supply chain for potential future ramp-up. The
hydrogen transportation supply chain for potential future
ramp-up can be grouped in four different categories of on-
site, semi-centralized, centralized and intercontinental
modes of hydrogen transportation. Hydrogen can be deliv-
ered to the fuel stations directly in the on-site supply chain
category. Hydrogen is sent to the fuel stations indirectly in
the semi-centralized supply chain category and tankers are
used to cover tens of kilometers, hydrogen is fueled to the
fuel stations indirectly in centralized supply chain category
and tankers are used to cover hundreds of kilometers and
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4 26255

Fig. 13 e Renewable hydrogen for different applications.

Fig. 14 e Hydrogen transportation supply chain for potential future ramp-up.

26256 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4

hydrogen is imported to the fuel stations in interconti-

CH4 þ 4O2 / 2H2 O þ CO2 þ 8e

3 / H2 O þ CO2 þ 2e
nental classification and tankers are used to cover hun-

C: ½ O2 þ H2 O þ 2e / 2ðOHÞ
power and water A: H2 þ 2ðOHÞ / 2H2 O þ 2e
dreds of kilometers.

C: ½ O2 þ CO2 þ 2e / CO2

C: ½ O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e / H2 O

C: ½ O2 þ 2H þ 2e / H2 O
3
The demanding nature and geographic distribution are

stationary power A: H2 þ O2 / H2 O þ 2e


CO þ CO3 / 2CO2 þ 2e
C: Cathode

CO þ O2 / CO2 þ 2e

not the only factors that influence the supply chain structure

Reactions
A: Anode

C: ½ O2 þ 2e / O2
but also affected by the following factors:

stationary power A: H2 / 2Hþ þ 2e

A: H2 / 2Hþ þ 2e

þ

Firstly, the existing hydrogen sources accessibility or

A: H2 þ CO2
2
hydrogen production feedstock in the district, associated
with the onsite production cost, as hydrogen production
is the utmost capital-intensive supply chain part.

Secondly, outside a convinced threshold consumption,

stationary power
Applications
on-site hydrogen production and delivery through

portable power
transportation

space vehicles

power plants

power plants

semi-trucks
devoted hydrogen pipeline which is feasible mainstream
supply mode.

Thirdly, according to a risk management standpoint,
large-scale production capacity investment is conven-
tionally made as if a large production proportion is sold to

high temperature (about 1200  F)

unstable at higher temperatures

very high temperature (1800  F)

a single client.

sensitive to carbon dioxide

precious metal catalysts

very corrosive electrolyte

most commercially developed fuel cell very corrosive electrolyte

Disadvantages

precious metal catalysts

In the last two stages, the facilities of new products can be

sensitive to impurities

very caustic medium

expensive materials
leveraged to centralized or semi-centralized hydrogen pro-
duction sources. Hydrogen can also be employed as jet fuel in
the aviation industry. The hydrogen storage methods are
already described in the previous section. Hydrogen can be

H2 fuel

H2 fuel

H2 fuel
used for multiple purposes such as it can be used as an en-
ergy carrier, as fuel, in chemical industries, in refining, in fuel
Table 6 e Descriptions and characteristics of fuel cell technologies (compiled from Ref. [108]).

cells and as energy storage media. The global hydrogen

production and demand are increasing significantly as most
of the developed countries are transitioning from conven-
tional energy sources to renewable energy sources and
temperatures (about 200  F).

hydrogen becomes the best option solution with unique

Advantages

operate at relatively low

aqueous potassium hydroxide efficiencies of up to 70%

range of PAFC is 400  F.

characteristics described earlier in this chapter and being an

operating temperature
used with many fuels

oxide ion-conducting ceramic used with many fuels

environmentally benign solution. A detailed study was con-
solid construction

solid and rugged

ducted on the hydrogen supply chain and challenges in
high efficiency

large-scale liquid H2 (LH2) storage and transportation [49].

There are several options for the transportation of
hydrogen to the market once it is produced preferably using
a renewable energy source. The options may include the
following, but not limited to:
phosphoric acid in a matrix
proton-conducting polymer
Electrolyte Material

Pipelines, requiring hydrogen compression

Trucks/rails requiring hydrogen compression/
liquefaction
MCFC (molten carbonate fuel cell) molten carbonate
salt in a ceramic

Liquid hydrogen marine tankers and liquefied hydrogen

transportation at low temperatures

Chemical tanker ships that require hydrogen conversion
into more stable chemicals such as methanol/methyl
chlorohexane.

Transportation of hydrogen in the form of ammonia.
PAFC (phosphoric acid fuel cell)

Hydrogen can be blended with natural gas to transport

the lower hydrogen concentrations using existing natural
SOFC (solid oxide fuel cell)
PEM (polymer electrolyte

gas pipeline infrastructure.

AFC (alkaline fuel cell)
membrane fuel cell)
Types of Fuel Cells

A large portion of the global hydrogen is used in steel

production for the reduction of ore. Also, clean hydrogen can
be employed to meet the industrial heat loads that cannot be
electrified, needing high temperature heat, where you might
still need combustion (vs. carbon capture on stack eg. con-
crete). In comparison with other fuels employed for
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
combustion applications, NH3 offers the highest energy den-
sity, contains zero carbon which offers zero global warming
potential and produces water and nitrogen over combustion.
Hydrogen can also be blended with natural gas to transport
the lower hydrogen concentrations using existing natural gas
pipeline infrastructure.
Fuel cells
Hydrogen fuel-cell systems cannot only be advantageous not
only for large industrial sectors but also residential applica-
tions. In the residential sector, the residence can be powered
locally by employing hydrogen fuel cells. Additionally,
hydrogen can directly be employed and combusted in the
residence furnace to produce heat (thermal energy) for space
heating and hot water on demand. In the propulsion for
transportation and residential sectors, the portable devices for
the utilization of hydrogen are the most suitable options such
as proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, solid oxide
(SO) fuel cells, phosphoric acid (PHA) fuel cells and alkaline
(ALK) fuel cells as these portable fuel cells demand tiny
startup time. Some of the most significant applications of fuel
cells are for fuel cell vehicles and residential applications.
Table 6 displays the descriptions and characteristics of
different fuel cell types.
The significant fuel-cell applications systems are directly
linked with electrical power production and utilization for the
transportation sector. The fuel cells applications are divided
into four sections of power generation, propulsion for
Fig. 15 e Global energy transition for the hydrogen industry (modified from Ref. [109].
26257
transportation, multigeneration and special applications. The
power generation sector can be used for further sub-sections
such as automotive, portable, distribution, stationary, auxil-
iary, mobile and backup power. The propulsion for the
transportation sector can be further divided into auto vehi-
cles, buses, trains, boats and aviation. The multigeneration
sector can be used for further sub-sections such as district
power, district heating, remote power, remote heating and
water, industrial power, industrial heating and oxygen pro-
duction. The special applications sector can be further divided
into medical, military and aerospace which is most common
for hydrogen generation and oxygen production.
The advanced hydrogen deployment end-use applications
require a combined ramped-up of the hydrogen supply chain,
along with the supplementary purification, production and
pressurizing for transportation and distribution capacity. The
increasing GHG emission, environmental problems and car-
bon emissions taxes justify the need for the transition from
conventional energy sources to renewable energy sources
including solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, ocean thermal en-
ergy conversion (OTEC) and biomass sources that stand the
finest applicant to replace the traditional sources. Fig. 15
exhibits the global energy transition required for the
hydrogen industry. According to the theoretical standpoint,
extensive spectrum options are possible, ranging from on-
site production to centralized production and tanker trucks
based on long-distance delivery through dedicated hydrogen
pipelines.
 26258
Table 7 e Key benefits and critical challenges (compiled from Ref. [75]).
Fossil fuel reforming Photoelectrochemical Biofuel reforming Biological method Coal and biomass Wind electrolysis Thermochemical Solar electrolysis
method gasification method

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
Design Low system efficiency High operation and Optimal System efficiency High capital costs Long-term technology High capital costs
maintenance costs microorganism
functionality
Critical challenges Effective photocatalytic High capital costs Efficient High reactor costs Intermittent nature Cost-effective reactor Intermittent nature
High capital costs material microorganism for
sustainable
production
High operation and Cost-effective reactor Design Reactor material Feedstock impurities System integration Effective and durable System integration
maintenance costs Long-term technology Feedstock quality selection Carbon capture and Design issues materials Design issues
Long-term storage
technology
Low cost and efficient Low-cost materials Low-temperature New organism Co-fed gasifiers Renewable source Ease of manufacture Low-cost materials
purification production and application
Major R&D Needs Durable and efficient Hydrogen yield and Microorganism Low cost and Improve capacity Robust, low-cost Durable and cheap
Efficiency and cost photocatalyst efficiency functionality efficient purification factor materials materials
Feedstock pre- Active, stable, and cheap Low cost and Inexpensive Carbon capture and Naturally renewable System optimization Naturally renewable
treatment supporting materials efficient purification methods storage source source
Automated process System control Regional best System optimization Cost of feedstock Storage system Efficient heat transfer Storage system required
control feedstock preparation required to support to support intermittency
intermittency
Optimization High volume production Optimization Low cost and durable Hydrogen quality Large scale High volume, low cost, Large scale applications
material applications flexible system design
Existing infrastructure Self-sustaining Onshore Integration with fuel
cells
Reliability Power losses Feedstock pre- High capacity and Tolerance for harsh Reliability Reliability Reliability
treatment low-cost systems windy situations
Lowest current cost Clean and sustainable Existing Tolerant of diverse Abundant and cheap Existing Recycled chemicals Existing infrastructure
infrastructure water conditions feedstock infrastructure
Key benefits Low operation Viability Clean and Low-cost syngas No pollution Clean and sustainable No pollution
Most viable approach temperature sustainable production
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
Comparative assessment: key challenges and
opportunities
Hydrogen storage is challenging as it possesses very low-
density gas with a density of 40.8 g/m3. Hydrogen is a sec-
ondary (storage) energy source and needs to be produced
using a primary energy source and reaction always undergoes
losses through conversion processes therefore, the hydrogen
production cost is higher than the cost of energy employed to
produce hydrogen. Hydrogen offers significant potential to
decarbonize the maritime industry by employing off-grid
offshore wind energy to produce blue hydrogen, stored in
the form of ammonia, used for trans-national import/export
and ammonia can easily be cracked on-site to produce
hydrogen. Natural gas reforming is the most significant source
of global hydrogen production. To overcome various factors
such as carbon footprints, environmental issues, greenhouse
gas emissions and carbon emission taxes, a global transition
from conventional energy sources to renewable energy sour-
ces is desirable for environmentally benign energy solutions.
Some technical and scientific hydrogen economy challenges
for traditional energy sources are (i) lowering the hydrogen
production cost, (ii) developing an environmentally benign
and carbon-free clean hydrogen production system for mass
production, (iii) development of hydrogen delivery and dis-
tribution infrastructure, (iv) hydrogen storage systems devel-
opment for stationary and vehicular applications, (v) Drastic
cost reduction and substantial development in the fuel-cells
durability. Renewable energy-based hydrogen production is
Fig. 16 e Energy and exergy efficiencies of different hydrogen production methods.
26259
the solution to most of these hydrogen economy challenges.
Hydrogen carries numerous compared to fossil fuels:

Liquid hydrogen offers improved performance as a trans-
portation fuel in comparison with other liquid fuels
namely; gasoline, alcohol and jet fuel

Five different processes are used to convert hydrogen into
useful energy forms such as mechanical, thermal and
electrical while only the combustion process is used to
convert fossil fuels into useful energy

Hydrogen offers high utilization efficiency in conversion to
suitable energy forms.

Hydrogen is the safest fuel in terms of toxicity and fire
hazards
Hydrogen can be employed as an efficient and clean
source in various applications namely: fuel cells, trans-
portation, portable applications, power, combustion and
heating. Hydrogen can be produced through environmen-
tally benign resources using renewable sources such as
wind, biomass, solar, geothermal and hydropower, nuclear
energy and conventional sources such as natural gas and
coal. Furthermore, hydrogen helps to utilize the intermit-
tent nature of renewable energy sources namely; solar and
wind. Nevertheless, hydrogen undergoes significant tech-
nical, infrastructure, economic and societal challenges for
large-scale implementation. High upfront capital costs,
intermittent nature and infrastructure are also among the
main challenges associated with the commercial deploy-
ment of these technologies. Table 7 displays the key benefits
26260 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4
Fig. 17 e Hydrogen application road map (modified from Ref. [64]].
and critical challenges associated with the hydrogen
production methods employing renewable and conven-
tional energy sources, hydrogen storage, commercial-scale
deployment and hydrogen infrastructure, transportation
and distribution.
Fig. 16 displays a comparative assessment based on the
energy and exergy efficiencies for the hydrogen production
dominating methods, namely: natural gas steam reforming
(NGSR), coal with CCS, nuclear CueCl, nuclear SeI, Nuclear
HTE, solar, wind, biomass, PV electrolysis, coal gasification,
plasma arc decomposition and fossil fuel reforming. The
leading energetically efficient methods were found to be fossil
fuel reforming followed by the plasma arc decomposition,
biomass and coal gasification while the hydrogen production
methods of biomass, fossil fuel reforming, coal gasification
and nuclear energy-based methods were found to be leading
in terms of the exergy efficiencies.
Conclusions
Hydrogen is emerging as a new energy vector outside its
typical role as an industrial feedstock for the production of
ammonia and methanol. This paper presents a comprehen-
sive review of the conventional and renewable energy sourced
hydrogen production methods, utilization of hydrogen, stor-
age, transportation and distribution and key challenges in the
commercial deployment of such systems. The renewable en-
ergy sources considered for hydrogen production are solar,
wind, geothermal, hydro, OTEC and biomass. Some of the
promising renewable energy sources such as solar and wind
have an intermittent nature and hydrogen appears as the best
candidate to be employed for multiple purposes such as fuel,
energy carrier and storage media. Hydrogen is getting more
recognition globally as a potential fuel and an exclusive en-
ergy carrier solution as it proposes advantages accompanied
by its usage and carbon-free solutions availability. This review
study explains each method of renewable energy-based
hydrogen production considering the efforts that have been
made so far and also provides a comparative assessment of
different non-renewable and renewable hydrogen production
systems based on system design, cost, infrastructure and ef-
ficiencies. This study also provides a detailed review on the
storage and transportation and infrastructure for hydrogen
considering the efforts that have already been made and
challenges that are being faced. The fossil fuels-based
hydrogen production plants can also be modified or
expanded to integrate CCS/CCUS systems to capture the
emitted emissions and produce green hydrogen. Furthermore,
the key benefits and critical challenges associated with
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 7 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 2 6 2 3 8 e2 6 2 6 4 26261

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