Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 10–18

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Recent advances and challenges of fuel cell based power system MARK
architectures and control – A review
⁎
Vipin Dasa, Sanjeevikumar Padmanabanb, , Karthikeyan Venkitusamya,
Rajasekar Selvamuthukumaranc, Frede Blaabjergd, Pierluigi Sianoe
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, MNNIT, Allahabad 211002, India
b
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, South Africa
c
Technology Development Department, Power Grid Corporation of India Limited, Gurgaon 122001, India
d
Center for Reliable Power Electronics (CORPE), Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Pontoppidanstraede 101, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark
e
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132 - 84084 Fisciano, Salerno, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Renewable energy generation is rapidly growing in the power sector industry and widely used for two categories:
Controller grid connected and standalone system. This paper gives the insights about fuel cell operation and application of
Dynamics various power electronics systems. The fuel cell voltage decreases bit by bit with expansion in current because of
Integration losses associated with fuel cell. It is difficult in handling large rated fuel cell based power system without
Reliability
regulating mechanism. The issue connected with fuel based structural planning and the arrangements are
Renewable
Suitability
widely investigated for all sorts of utilization. In order to improve the reliability of fuel cell based power system,
the integration of energy storage system and advanced research methods are focused in this paper. The control
algorithms of power architecture for the couple of well-known applications are discussed. Additionally, the
paper addresses the suitable processor utilized as a part of the energy unit application on the premise of fuel cell
characteristics. In this paper, the challenges to improve the dynamics of controller in fuel cell based applications
are mentioned.

1. Introduction
The price of fossil fuel is increasing step by step because of absence
of accessibility. The power system industries are restructuring to
renewable energy based power generation as an alternate solution.
By considering environmental factors, the fuel cell based energy
generation is a most suitable renewable system than solar and wind
energy system [1]. Recently, fuel cells are rapidly developed and
commercially available with high, medium and low power range
applications. In order to reduce the cost of fuel cell, researchers have
been focused to improve the reliability and efficiency of the fuel cell
based power system [2]. The analysis report shows that the fuel cell
market is increasing every year [3].
The first fuel cell was accidentally invented in 1839 by Sir William
Robert Grove, however, no down to earth's utilization was found for
one more century [2]. General Electric Company (GE) started creating
fuel cell in the 1950s and was granted the agreement for the Gemini
space mission in 1962. The 1 kW Gemini energy unit framework had a
platinum stacking of 35 mg Pt/cm2 and execution of 37 mA/cm2 at
0.78 V [3]. In the 1960s enhancements were made by joining Teflon in
the impetus layer specifically contiguous the electrolyte, as was finished
with the GE fuel cell unit at the time. Extensive upgrades were made
from the mid-1970s, forward to the reception of the completely
fluorinated Nafion layer.
The department of energy (DOE) and national energy technology
laboratory (NETL) are mainly concentrated on developing fuel cell
based power plants for standalone and grid connected applications [4].
The overall commercialization of fuel cell has not yet come. The two
biggest obstructions for commercialization is life time and expense [5].
The lifetime needed by a commercial fuel cell is more than 5000
working hours for light-weight vehicles and more than 40,000 working
hours of stationary power with not as much as a 10% decay [6,7]. At
present, most power devices display real execution rot after around a
thousand hours of operation [8,9]. The DOE targets are to accomplish
an existence time of 40,000 h by 2011 with 40% effectiveness for
distributed power and 5000-h life by 2015 to 60% efficiency for
transportation.
Fuel cell technology has many advantages as compared with the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sanjeevi_12@yahoo.co.in (S. Padmanaban).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.148
Received 6 March 2016; Received in revised form 17 November 2016; Accepted 21 January 2017
Available online 24 January 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 10–18

Table 1
Comparison of Fuel cell/wind/solar.
Technology Capacity factor Life (year) Payback CO2 Emission
(%) (Year) reduction (kg)
Fuel cell 95 20 7.9 979,526
Wind 17.5 25 36.5 268,175
Solar 25.8 20 8 539,954
other conventional renewable energy sources. Table 1 shows the
comparison of fuel cell technology with wind and solar technology.
From the Table 1 it is clear that fuel cell based power system has an
upper hand over other renewable energy technology.
Many literatures are available in the field of fuel cell, operation and
applications. A comprehensive review about the fuel cell technologies,
applications and challenges are mentioned in [10–15]. Power genera-
tion is one of the major fields of application of fuel cell. The major
challenges and opportunities of fuel cell in the power generation area is
detailed in [16]. Since the fuel cell voltage is very low, it required power
electronic interfacing to boost up the voltage. Many power electronics
converters have been developed particularly for the fuel cell applica-
tions. [17] gives clear idea about the power electronic interface and
their challenges in the fuel cell area. The challenges associated with
power management in fuel cell power generation applications and
electric vehicles are explained in [18,19]. Power electronics converter
with adaptive controllers and energy storage systems are the best
remedy for power management system in the fuel cell. A strategy to
manage power in hybrid power system is explained in [19]. The control
strategy mentioned in [19] can be improved by considering power
quality while managing the real power.
The paper provides an overview of the current status, applications
and advancements in fuel cells. A number of literatures are available in
the field of fuel cells. The main issues which are not mentioned in the
existing literature are addressed in this paper. Some major field of fuel
cell applications, application of power electronic converters and their
control are discussed in detail. The major challenges and remedies are
also mentioned as a matter of interest.
A detailed survey of the fuel cell based converters has been
presented in this paper. The fuel cell technology and different types
of fuel cells are organized in Section 2. In Section 3 recent researches in
fuel cells and the major applications of fuel cells are discussed. In
Section 4 the challenges associated with the fuel cell and its remedies
are explained with the help of recent literatures. In Section 5 the fuel
cell based power system and in Section 6 different controllers used for
fuel cell power system are discussed and finally the paper is concluded
by Section 7.
or contains oxygen gases like air or halogens like chlorine [20–22].
In most of the cases, the combustion of Hydrogen and oxygen
produces the water and it will split into two electrochemical reactions
at the electrode independently, which are termed as two cell reaction.
The basic reaction taking place in a fuel cell is given in Eqs. (1)–(3).
At anode,
H2 → 2H+ + 2e− (1)
At cathode,
1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2 O (2)
Overall reaction,
H2 + 1/2O2 → H2 O (3)
+ -
The ions (H ) and electrons (e ) are produced by H2 due to anode
reaction. The H+ moves towards cathode directly and e-moves to
cathode via load (external circuit). Finally, H+ and e- combines with
O2 and produces water, which is the added advantage of fuel cell [23].
Fig. 1 shows the schematic of fuel cell.
2.2. Types of fuel cell
Fuel cells are mainly classified according to the electrolyte and types
of fuel used. The main categories of fuel cells available in the market
are explained below.
2.2.1. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
Acid polymer is used as the electrolyte and pure hydrogen is used as
fuel. The operating temperature of the PEMFC is below 100°C. Now a
day, this fuel cell is popular and widely used in vehicle application.
2.2.2. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
In DMFC, the polymer membrane used as an electrolyte, and the
fuel used is methanol. The operating temperature of DMFC is below
60 °C and it is mainly used for portable power applications below
259 W.
2.2.3. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
In PAFC, The liquid phosphoric acid is used as the electrolyte and
pure hydrogen is used as the fuel. The operating temperature is around
180 °C. These types of fuel cell are particularly used as stationary
power generators and which is not efficient electrically.
2.2.4. Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
Here, alkaline solutions are used as electrolyte of fuel cell and pure

2. An overview and types of fuel cells

Fuel cells are static devices, which converts chemical energy of

Hydrogen and Oxygen directly into electrical energy through an
electro-chemical reaction. The fuel cell will generate electrical energy
as long as the fuel is supplied to the system, i.e., it can produce
electricity without recharging unlike battery.

2.1. Fuel cell operation

The working principle of the fuel cell is simple, however, it has

complicated design. Fuel cell essentially comprises of cathodes, elec-
trolyte and fuel. The positive and negative terminals are known as
cathode and anode, respectively. These are two terminals are contacted
with the electrolyte inside and external electric circuit. The fuel is
continuously fed to the anode while oxidant supplied to cathode.
Generally, the fuel is pure hydrogen or contains some hydrogen gases
like methanol, ethanol and natural gases. The oxidants are pure oxygen Fig. 1. Schematic of fuel cell.

11
V. Das et al.
hydrogen is used as fuel. The operating temperature is about 70 °C and
which is more stable. This type fuel cell is mainly used as standalone
power generators.
2.2.5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
This type of fuel cells is widely used as stationary power generator
and its operating temperature is around 1000 °C. The solid ceramic
electrolyte like zirconium oxide and syngas type of fuels are used in this
fuel cell.
2.2.6. Molten Carbon Fuel Cell (MCFC)
Here, Molten carbonate salt suspended in a porous ceramic matrix
is used as the electrolyte and hydrocarbon is used as fuel. The operating
temperature is around 650 °C and which is mainly used for high power
application.
3. Review on research progress in fuel cell technology
Though the first fuel cell has been invented in 1839, the develop-
ment of fuel cell has not reached full-fledged yet. In recent years, the
researchers are focused to extract maximum utilization from fuel cells.
And also, people mainly concentrated on the technical, economic and
environmental aspects of fuel cells. The researches in the fuel cell area
mainly concentrated on application of fuel cell and material develop-
ment. Some of the major areas of fuel cell applications and researches
are detailed in this section.
3.1. Importance of fuel cell
The Fuel cells have a variety of advantages when compared to
conventional power sources like internal combustion engine and other
renewable energy sources. The major advantages are enlisted below.
• As compared to other power source fuel cell has higher efficiency.
• Noise free operation.
• It has pollution free completely, since water is the repercussion
instead of CO2 emission from the fuel cell.
• It has lesser maintenance, since there are no moving parts.
• The Fuel cell is economical because it does not need any fossil fuel to
operate.
Fig. 2 shows Yearly-wise demand of fuel. From the graph, it can be
seen that, the fuel cell installation is increasing year by year.
3.2. Fuel cell applications
Fuel cells are used in many applications including distributed
generation (DG), automotive application and telecommunication ap-
plication. In all these applications, the technical, economic and
environmental advantages of fuel cells are exploited. Some of the
specific applications of fuel cell are explained in the next subsections.
Fig. 2. Yearly-wise demand of fuel.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 10–18
3.2.1. Fuel cell vehicle
Fuel cells are a promising innovation in transportation. The main
objective of the automotive industry is to improve the fossil fuel
efficiency and reduce the harmful gas emission. Because of this fact,
the growth of fuel cell rapidly increases in e-vehicles applications [24].
A fuel cell vehicle is becoming popular and attracts more due to the
absence of internal combustion engines. Also, it has the advantages of
simple construction with more reliable and pollution free. The main
challenge of fuel cell based vehicle is to convert and control of the
electrical power to mechanical power. Fig. 3 shows the fuel cells are
becoming more attractive in the automotive industry. The main
challenge in using fuel cell for vehicle application is to convert the
power generated to mechanical power and controlling of the generated
electric power. Fig. 3 shows the generalized block diagram of a heavy
duty fuel cell powered transit bus [25].
In this system, the DC-DC converters step up the fuel cell voltage to
the main DC bus voltage. During acceleration, the power has been
supplied by the battery storage unit. The operator gives command to
the controller through the front panel [26]. The major problem
associated with the fuel cell vehicle is the power management between
battery and load (motor); in order to achieve this, the hybridization is
required with energy storage unit [26]. Souleman Njoya M, et al.
proposed a generic simulation model for fuel cell vehicle reported in
[27]. The issues of energy management in fuel cell vehicle are discussed
detail in [27]. The automobile manufacturers are concentrated on
determining specialized issues for mass generation. The numerous and
its group of companies have anticipated that FCVs would be economic-
ally feasible by 2020, and the conventional vehicles would be com-
pletely replaced by FCVs by 2030 [28,29]. A road test and problems are
associated with the fuel cell vehicle during running time and which is
reported by Xian et al. [30].
3.2.2. Telecommunication
Fuel cells are popular in telecommunication systems [31,32]. The
fuel cell framework is currently under test by the distinctive telecom
organization in worldwide for backup application. Giuseppe Gianolo
et al. have been proposed a new system named electro7 fuel cell power
system for telecommunication application [33].
3.2.3. Underwater vehicle
Recently, the fuel cells are used in submarines and ships. In ships,
the fuel cells can be used as an advanced electric ship demonstrator
(AESD). However, the space occupied by a fuel cell system is large and
it has to be taken care. Due to higher environment temperature caused
by fuel cells, the special consideration needs to be provided for other
sensitive major components and ship's crew. The choice of fuel cell
must be able to withstand the under level temperature and humidity of
ship fuel, however, such a fuel cells are industrially accessible [34].
PEMFC is appropriate for maritime applications in light of its low
working temperature, quick switch-on/switch-off conduct, and long
service life. PEMFC module could be incorporated into the Advanced
Electric Ship Demonstrator. The combination of the energy unit
modules into AESD obliges a strong force moulding framework [35].
3.3. Future scope of fuel cell
The major applications of fuel cells are in fuel cell vehicles and the
fuel cell based power system. The fuel cells are better replacement for
the internal combustion engine. A recent literature article shows that
fuel cell associated with battery storage will replace the conventional
internal combustion engines in near future. S. Basri, et al. mentioned
the future of DMFC in process control applications.
4. Challenges and further research needs
Basically, the challenges of fuel cell depend on applications. The
V. Das et al.
Fig. 3. Generalized block diagram of a heavy duty fuel cell powered transit bus.
fuel cell technologies will take years to overcome the technical hurdle.
The important limitations of the fuel cells are listed below,
(a) The slower dynamics
(b) Poor voltage profile against current density
(c) It should be associated with energy storage system (ESS) to
provide stable output
(d) Higher current ripple
In order to overcome the above limitations, the research challenges
for different applications are addressed in this section.
4.1. V-I characteristics of the fuel cell
The losses and challenges of fuel cell technology can be easily
understood from the V-I characteristics of the fuel cell. The V-I
characteristics of a fuel cell can be determined by (4).
Vcell = EN + Va + VC + Vohm
where, Vcell is the cell operating voltage, EN is the Nernst voltage
(thermodynamic potential), Va is the voltage drop due to activation of
the process, Vc is the voltage drop resulting from the reduction in
concentration of the reactant gases or from the transport of mass of
oxygen and hydrogen and Vohm represents the voltage drop due to the
resistance offered by the electric circuit [36,37]. Fig. 4 shows the V-I
characteristics of a typical fuel cell.
From Fig. 4, the issues of fuel cell voltage behaviour are mentioned
as follows,
• The cell voltage is less than the ideal voltage.
• There is a rapid initial fall in voltage.
Fig. 4. V-I Characteristics of fuel cell.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 10–18
• The voltage profile is not changing linearly with current.
• After a certain range of current densities, the voltage falls quickly.
The main losses associated with the fuel cells are explained below,
Activation loss: These are caused by the slowness of the reactions
happening on the surface of the terminals. The voltage is losing due to
the chemical reaction that trades the electrons to or from the cathode.
• Fuel crossover and internal currents: This energy loss results from
the abuse of fuel experiencing the electrolyte, and, to a lesser degree,
from electron conduction through the electrolyte.
• Ohmic losses: These losses are mainly caused by the resistance
offered by the external electric circuit and the resistance to the flow
of ions through the electrolyte. It causes voltage drop and it is
proportional to the current density in linear, and so is called ohmic
losses, or sometimes as resistive losses.
• Mass transport or concentration losses: Due to this loss, the
(4) adjustment in fixation of the reactants at the surface of the terminals
as the fuel is utilized. Since the decrease in fixation is the after effect
of an inability to transport adequate reacting to the anode surface,
this sort of loss is additionally regularly called mass transport losses.
4.2. Non-minimum phase behaviour of fuel cell humidifier
Humidifiers in fuel cell can provide heat and humidity to the fuel
cell system. Without the humidifier, the fuel cell become drier and it
causes the degradation and low efficiency of the entire system. For
proper operation of the system the humidifier should be designed
properly. For automotive application, when the load changes continu-
ously, the proper humidification control is needed [38]. Humidifier of a
fuel cell exhibits non-minimum phase (NMP) zero behaviour [39]. It is
not a desirable characteristics and it impose the limits on feedback
controller and performance of the linear time invariant control system.
The bandwidth of the system also affected by the NMP behaviour, it
places an upper limit on the bandwidth of the closed loop [40–42].
5. Power electronics for fuel cell applications
5.1. DC-DC Boost converter
The Fuel cells cannot acknowledge current in the reverse direction,
do not perform well with a more ripple current, have a low yield voltage
that differs with current density, respond slowly to step changes in
load. Hence, the converters are important to support and manage the
voltage profile as an intend to give a firm relevant DC power source.
Moreover, the expansion of an inverter has to be considered for
converting DC to AC for a utility interface or for the use of an AC
appliances [43]. Recently the different topologies are introduced in DC-
13
V. Das et al.
Fig. 5. Full-bridge converter with multiple secondary coils.
DC converter and inverter particularly for fuel cell applications [44].
The typical output voltage of a single fuel cell is about 1.5 V, which
is quite less for practical applications and in order to boost up to a
higher level, the different configurations are available in the literature.
At earlier, the conventional DC-DC boost converters can be used and to
achieve higher conversion ratio, the converters are connected in series
for fuel cell applications. However, the power conditioning challenges
of fuel cells have not been resolved. In following subsections, the higher
the conversion ratio DC-DC converters are discussed, especially the
application of fuel cell.
5.1.1. Full-bridge converter with multiple secondary coils
Fig. 5 shows the full bridge converter with multiple coils at the
secondary. This converter consists of high frequency transformer with
multiple secondary windings with tapped relay. This converter can be
operated as constant voltage or constant current mode, electro-
mechanical relays are used to adjust the voltage gain depending on
the load. Because of higher conversion ratio (voltage gain), this
converter well suitable for SOFC application and the output has been
fed to a voltage source inverter for AC applications. The DC-link voltage
can be maintained by changing the tap position in secondary winding
of transformer [45,46].
This topology consists of DC-DC converter, inverter and battery.
Fig. 6 shows the soft switching of indirect, DC-DC converter for power
conditioning. The converter produces fewer losses, reliable and smaller
size. Because of the simple control strategy, it is easy to implement in
fuel cell applications. Since the absence of DC link capacitor, the power
transfer capability is high. The high frequency link transformer
provides isolation and also boosted up the voltage to an appropriate
level [47].
5.1.2. Voltage doubler
Fig. 7 shows the circuit configuration of voltage doubler. In this
converter a voltage would be doubled at the high voltage (HV) side of
Fig. 6. Soft switching direct converter topology.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 10–18
Fig. 7. Voltage double converter.
the transformer. Basically, the transformer HV voltage and battery
voltages are added together at the point C. It has the advantages of
producing a smaller ripple voltage on the output side of DC-DC
converter. The voltage and current stress are minimum compared to
non isolated DC-DC converter [48,49].
5.1.3. Push pull converter
The push pull converter is not suitable for high power application,
due to saturation in the transformer core. And also a transformer
utilization factor is too low because of centre tapped configuration. The
efficiency of the converter is higher, particularly suits where the
requirement of high voltage low power application. The Efficiency of
this converter is about 94% and it has excellent dynamic and static
characteristics [50,51].
5.1.4. High step-up DC-DC converter with coupled inductor
This converter is typically used for PEMFC system. Fig. 8 shows the
high step up DC-DC converter with coupled inductor. The main
advantage of this converter is higher efficiency. Due to the high gain,
the converter is well suited for fuel cell applications, though the
minimum fuel cell voltage. Compared to conventional DC-DC con-
verter, it consists of two time's higher component count [52].
5.2. Inverters
In most of the application, AC supply is required and to convert DC-
AC, inverters can be used. Push pull inverters are most commonly used
in fuel cell applications because of higher efficiency. The various types
of inverter, which is suitable for fuel cell applications has been reviewed
below.
5.2.1. High frequency link inverter
Fig. 9 shows the high frequency link inverter. It operates as a cyclo-
converter with stepped up and down the frequency of the AC. Also the
voltage can be modified as appropriate level with the help of a high
frequency link transformer. Isolation and voltage boosted/bucked are
the main advantages of this converter [53,54].
5.2.2. Z-source inverter
Fig. 10 shows the Z-source inverter. This converter consists of an
input impedance along with a half bridge inverter. The impedance
Fig. 8. High step-up DC-DC converter with coupled-inductor.
V. Das et al.
Fig. 9. High frequency link inverter.
Fig. 10. Z-source inverter topology.
network formed by inductor and capacitors and connected in X
manner. By temporary charge and discharge in the inductor and
capacitor alternatively, the boosted output can be achieved. Ideally,
the output voltage of the Z-source inverter can be increased up to
infinity. Due to higher stepped up ratio, it can be suited well for fuel cell
application. It has the disadvantages of higher current stress due to
passive elements [55,56]. By controlling the boost factor, The Z-source
inverter framework can create a yield voltage more prominent than the
AC input voltage which is not possible to achieve using ASD systems
[57]. When the Z-source converter used for stepping up the voltage, the
additional DC-DC converter can be eliminated, hence the loss of the
system reduces [58].
5.2.3. LLCC resonant inverter
As given in Fig. 11, the LLLC inverter consists of series and parallel
combination of inductors and capacitors. The main advantage of this
converter is low switching loss and ripple free output, but due to the
presence of inductors and capacitor system becomes bulky and costly
[59].
5.3. Future research needs in the fuel cell area
For exploiting the capability of fuel cell researches are going on in
the field of chemical engineering, material science and engineering and
in electrical engineering. Researchers are mainly concentrating to
obtain maximum output voltage from the fuel cell with zero emission.
For obtaining a feasible voltage from the fuel cell power electronic
engineers are working in the field of converters. High gain converters
Fig. 11. LLCC resonant inverter topology.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 10–18
Fig. 12. Hybrid fuel cell power system.
are the best solution for the falling voltage characteristics of the fuel
cell.
6. Fuel cell based power systems
Among the fuel cells explained in section II, SOFC, MCFC and
PEMFC are more suitable for distributed generation (DG) applications.
Because of higher efficiency, flexible structure and low emission are
leads to fuel cells superior over conventional power plants. In DG
applications, the fuel cells can be used as standalone or grid connected
mode. Generally, the fuel cells are not used separately in DG applica-
tions. Usually, it can be hybridized with some other renewable or
conventional power generators or energy storage system to improve the
reliability of the power system.
6.1. Hybrid fuel cell power system
A hybrid fuel cell structure has been discussed in [60]. Fig. 12
shows the block diagram of the fuel cell power system hybridized with
battery as an energy storage system. In this system, during the starting
period, the battery is assumed to be fully charged and battery feeds the
load till the fuel cell starts (cold start) and after that the fuel cell takes
over the entire load. During the light load period, the excess power
from the fuel cell is stored in battery and the regenerated power from
the load also stored in batteries. When the load requirement is higher
than the fuel cell energy generation, the supplement energy supplied by
battery to load [60].
The study of a wind-power fuel-cell hybrid system with Aegean
island grid operation has been reported in [61]. The hybrid fuel cell
based power system is the best replacement for the conventional power
system. The power of the hybrid system can be smoothly regulated and
easy to interconnect with the grid.
6.2. Standalone fuel cell power system
A systematic approach for a standalone residential fuel cell power
inverter design has been discussed by Ugur Savas Selamogullari et al.
[62]. Fig. 13 shows the hybrid wind/PV/fuel cell standalone power
Fig. 13. hybrid PV/wind/fuel cell standalone power system.
V. Das et al.
Fig. 14. Grid connected fuel cell based power system.
system. The technical and economic benefits for fuel cell based
standalone power systems has been mentioned in [63,64] The replace-
ment of conventional technology in renewable energy application of
fuel cells will reduce the running costs and greenhouse gas emission by
the system.
6.3. Grid connected fuel cell power systems
According to IEEE 1547 standard, In order to interconnect a fuel
cell based DG system to an utility grid, it is necessary to control the
shape the output voltage in magnitude, phase and frequency of the
inverter and also the real and reactive power flow has to be controlled
between DG and grid [65–68]. A grid connected fuel cell power system
based on boost inverter technology has been reported in [69]. Recently,
the researchers have been focused to implement fuel cell energy for
HVDC applications [70]. Fig. 14 shows the grid connected fuel cell
based power system.
7. Controller for fuel cell applications
Due to the slower dynamics and the challenges explained in Section
6, a controller is necessary for the operation of the fuel cell. The
controller used in fuel cell application is of two types, controller for fuel
processor and the controller for the interfaced power electronic
devices.
7.1. Controller for the fuel processor
The main objective of this controller has to regulate the flow of
hydrogen to the anode and to control the temperature of the oxidizing
chamber [71]. Fig. 15 shows the typical control block diagram used for
fuel processor. Here, as shown in Fig. 16, a feed forward system can be
used and which proves necessary commands to the valve and blower.
Breather control is necessary for the operation of fuel cell to protect
from oxygen starvation during sudden changes in load [72]. A state
feedback controller helps the operation of pressure and water manage-
ment has been addressed by Amey Y. Karnik et al. [73]. A model
Fig. 15. Control structure of fuel cell processor.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 10–18
Fig. 16. Micro controller based controller for fuel cell.
predictive controller for temperature management has been proposed
in [74]. It is the most advanced controller for the fuel processor system
to improve the reliability of the system, also it has very fast control
action [75].
7.2. Controller for power electronics converters
As explained in previous sections, usually, the fuel cells interfaced
through power electronics converters (DC/DC boost converters and
inverters). The controller mainly deals with control of these conversion
stages, such as DC-DC boost and inverter. A controller design for PEM
fuel cell has been reported in [76]. Zhenhua Jiang et al. propose a
digital controller for fuel cell based power system [77]. Fig. 16 shows
the schematic of the micro controller based digital controller. Compact
size is the advantage of digital controller as compared with the
conventional controllers. A linearization based nonlinear controller
for PEMFC has been explained in [78]. The deviation between the
partial pressure of hydrogen and oxygen can be reduced by using this
nonlinear controller [79]. Sung-Yeul Park et al. proposes an active and
reactive power flow controller for SOFC in [80]. The FPGA based
controller provides real time controlling the system [81].
The fast and reliable operation of model predictive controller will
increase the battery life by decreasing the battery current variation
[82]. A second order sliding mode controller for fuel cell vehicle has
been explained by T. Azib et al. The sliding mode controller can be used
to overcome the slower dynamics of the fuel cell [83]. The maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms can be used in the fuel cell
controller, to extract the maximum power from the fuel cell. The
efficiency of the fuel cell based power system can be increased when
implementing MPPT technique [84].
Xiaosong Hu et al. proposed a convex programming based con-
troller for power management in the fuel cell applications. A convex
program has been developed and it can be used to optimize the power
balance between fuel cell system and the battery. By using the convex
V. Das et al.
program, the global optimum can be achieved [85].
7.3. Soft computing techniques in fuel cell applications
Recently, the soft computing techniques like fuzzy logic and neural
networks are becoming popular for fuel cell controller application.
Paulo E. M, et al. proposed a neural optimal controller for PEM fuel
cells [86]. The neural optimal controller is the advantages over PID
controller, because of its automatic tuning capability and flexibility
Intelligent model based controller is another controller that can be
used in fuel cell based hybrid application, widely used for stabilizing
the DC link voltage [87].
8. Conclusion
This paper presents a detailed review of the fuel cell, which includes
the chemical and electrical aspects of the fuel cell. Moreover, the
working principles of the fuel cells and the different types of fuel cells
available in the market have been reported. The investigation has been
made against different applications of the fuel cells. The current and
research challenges in the fuel cells and its solutions are addressed with
reference of the recent articles. Different typologies of the power
electronic converters that can be used for fuel cell applications are
discussed. The issues of standalone and grid connected fuel cell based
power system are mentioned.
The literature review clears that the fuel cells are used in many
applications which includes Electric vehicles, power generation and in
space ships, etc. As addressed the research challenges in this paper are
to be incorporated for better utilization of the fuel cell technology
efficiently. In addition, it is identified that the low voltage output is the
main drawback of fuel cell in electrical application and in order to
mitigate this issue a higher gain and efficient power electronic
converters has to be developed. Furthermore, it is evident that by the
year of 2030, the fuel cell replaces the conventional internal combus-
tion engines in all commercial vehicles.
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