Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

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Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/segan

Influences of vehicle to grid (V2G) on power grid: An analysis by

considering associated stochastic parameters explicitly
∗
Bijan Bibak a , , Hatice Tekiner-Mogulkoc b
a
Industrial and Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Istanbul Sehir University, Istanbul, Turkey
b
Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Integration of the electric vehicles (EVs) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology with renewable energy
Received 30 July 2020 sources (RESs) is the hottest topics among researchers. Many studies have been done in this field,
Received in revised form 30 November 2020 but in most of them, discussion of aspects of electrified transportation have been limited. The V2G
Accepted 29 December 2020
system due to its structure and supporting role for the grid influences the power demand and supply
Available online 6 January 2021
curve simultaneously depending on the patterns of driving, preferences for charging/discharging times,
Keywords: location, and the infrastructure of the system. Due to complexity of this system, it is necessary to cover
Electric vehicle (EV) all the influential elements in one package and analyze the impact of the system on them in a unique
Vehicle to grid (V2G) process. In this paper, we apply a precise and efficient methodology to analyze the impacts of the EVs
Monte Carlo simulation and V2G on reliability, cost, and emissions with respect to the power grid. The strength of this paper is
Reliability the applicability of the suggested methodology to the power grids with different patterns and features
Emission with respect to shares of RESs generated power by explicitly considering the stochastic parameters
Cost
shaping the daily demand/supply curves. We introduce two novel indexes for measuring the reliability
Power Grid
of the power grid based on availability of the RESs under power supply systems: stochastic and
constant power supply. To cover all the possibilities, based on different penetration levels of EVs and
V2G, charging modes, locations and schedules several cases are defined and for each case, the Monte
Carlo simulation is used to evaluate the impacts of the considered cases regarding the reliability,
emission, and cost of the power grid. In the numerical analysis under assumed cases, results show
integration of the EVs and V2G system in stochastic power supply (high RESs) improves the power
grid’s efficiency in terms of decreasing the total cost and emission rate. The intermittent nature of
RESs can increase fluctuation in the power grid and consequently negatively affect the reliability of
the system but our analysis indicates that integration of these sources with V2G system can improve
the reliability of the power grid.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The world has been faced with a big challenge in terms of
providing power and ensuring global energy requirements. This
challenge is mainly due to the limited source of fossil fuels like
oil, natural gas and coal. The rapid growth of technology and
industry and the subsequent increase in the power demand has
increased the reliance on fossil fuels, and in recent decades the
energy costs have experienced a fast-growing trend [1]. Fossil fuel
sources are limited, and they will be depleted soon. In addition,
environmental issues like the increasing average temperature of
the earth, GHGs emissions and the depletion of non-renewable
sources are the top headlines in the news [2]. Every day, million
tons of carbon dioxide are emitted into the atmosphere. Based on
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bijanbibak1990@gmail.com (B. Bibak).
the International Energy Agency report [3], the sources of most
CO2 emission are industry sectors and transportation fleets as
shown in Fig. 1. The de-carbonization of transportation fleets is
one of the main topics in the energy field in the most devel-
oped countries [4–7]. As a solution, there is a huge tendency
to integrate the RESs with the EVs and the V2G in the smart
grid to minimize reliance on petroleum products, satisfy the
power demand and consequently decrease concerns about global
warming.
Implementation of the electrified transportation fleet has many
positive consequences for the environment and the economy,
however the large adoptions of EVs might fluctuate the current
power system (especially during the peak demand period) and
lead to many problems and limitations for the grid [8]. On average
automobiles travel for only 5% of the day, and about 90% of
the time, they are unused and parked in lots [9]. This huge
number of unused cars can potentially help support the grid.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segan.2020.100429
2352-4677/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

Integration of V2G technology with RESs is an efficient ap-

Nomenclature proach to deal with possible problems related to high penetration
EVs Electric Vehicles of EVs and consequently fluctuation in the power supply. The V2G
Df zhj Difference between supply and demand in hth system that usually refers to ‘‘mobile energy’’, ‘‘smart energy’’ or
hour for zth case at jth iteration ‘‘virtual power plant’’ is a new term that plays an influential role
in demand adjustment [10,11]. The V2G technology is a flow of
V2G Vehicle to Grid
energy, information, and money between the EVs, aggregators,
Pzj Power generation emission for zth case at jth
and the power grid to balance the demand and supply [12]. A
iteration
simple structure of the V2G system is shown in the Fig. 2. The
RESs Renewable Energy Sources EVs and V2G technology are considered as a key aspect of the
DE zxj Power demand of xth source for zth case at jth sociotechnical transition to decarbonize transportation [13].
iteration The integration of the V2G system with the RESs has positive
IC Internal Combustion outcomes for the power grid especially in decreasing the total
EM zxj Emission per MWh of xth source for zth case at emission, mainly because of two functions. First, it decreases the
jth iteration volume of petroleum products that burn in the traditional power
SOC State of Charge plants for generating electricity and second, it shifts the use of IC
Izj Emission by IC cars for zth case at jth iteration cars to EVs and decreases the volume of gasoline that is burned
h Hour of a day (1 to 24) by the IC cars.
DDzj Driven distance by IC cars for zth case at jth There is a wide range of studies about influences of EVs and
iteration implementing the V2G on the distribution network. Some stud-
ies applied the simulation modules, specifically the Monte Carlo
i Rank level 1 to 12
Simulation [15], and some others developed new optimization
EP zj Emission per kilometer by IC cars for zth case
models to analyze the capacity of the current power network for
at jth iteration
implementing the future electrified transportation fleet [16,17].
j Iteration number
Many authors have focused on scenarios that considered the
Ezj Total emission for zth case at jth iteration effects of EVs and V2G on the demand profile and a few of them
z Case number analyzed the economic and emission impacts of electric vehicles
AE z Assigned emission for zth case on society. In total, this field of research is classified into three
RF zj Reliability factor for zth case at jth iteration main variables: influence of EVs and V2G on reliability, emissions,
RM zhj Reserve margin in hth hour for zth case at jth and total costs of the power grid.
iteration One of the most important mission of developing the V2G
RF z Reliability factor for zth case system is shaving peak demand and increasing the reliability of
TDzhj Total demand in hth hour for zth case at jth the power grid [18,19]. Analyzing the effects of the V2G on
iteration the power demand profile is an efficient way for evaluating the
Hzij ith highest ranked demand for zth case at jth effectiveness of the V2G [20]. Drude et al. [21] analyzed the in-
iteration fluences of the V2G in urban areas on the energy demand profile
by applying a MATLAB simulation under different charge and
CE zj Cost for generating power for zth case at jth
discharge modes. Khemakhem et al. [22] considered a supervision
iteration
strategy based on regulated charging of PEVs to provide a flatter
Lzij ith lowest ranked demand for zth case at jth
power demand curve. Morais et al. [23] proposed an efficient
iteration
management methodology for EVs charging and discharging to
CM zxj Cost per MWh of xth source for zth case at jth analyze the influence of EVs in two aspects: system operation
iteration costs and minimizing the difference between the minimum and
DRF zj Developed reliability factor for zth case at jth maximum system demand (leveling the demand curve).
iteration The feasibility and economic aspects of new technologies like
CT zj Cost by IC cars for zth case at jth iteration the V2G play crucial role in the success and acceptance of imple-
DRF z Developed reliability factor for zth case menting an effective system. Li et al. [24] evaluated the feasibility
CP zj Cost of gasoline per kilometer for zth case at jth of the V2G peak shaving and valley filling (flattening the demand
iteration profile) in China and discussed efficient factors for profitable V2G
Szhj Power supply in hth hour for zth case at jth service. Lopez et al. [25] proposed an optimization model for
iteration power load shifting in the smart grids by implementing electric
TC zj Total cost for zth case at jth iteration vehicle aggregators with V2G capabilities. Mehrjerdi et al. [19]
Dzhj Power demand in hth hour for zth case at jth presented a nonlinear stochastic programming to optimize the
iteration electric vehicles’ operation and damp out the intermittency of
ACz Assigned cost for zth case RESs and energy cost reduction. In addition, this strategy min-
imizes the charging/discharging cycles of the vehicles’ batteries
Dizij Difference between ith highest ranked demand
for avoiding the battery degradation.
value and ith lowest ranked demand value for
Another benefit of the EVs and V2G system is it reduces the
zth case at jth iteration
negative effects of CO2 emission by the traditional transportation
on the environment. Concerns about environmental issues have
discussed in most of the recently published papers. For instance,
Tarroja et al. [26] analyzed the effects of energy storage systems
Thus, the concept of vehicle to grid (V2G) has been introduced
(as stationary energy storage) and V2G on RESs penetration,
for solving the current obstacles and problems in the power grid greenhouse gas emissions, and balancing power plant operation.
Hoehne et al. [27] analyzed the influences of charging and dis-
by regulating the demand and supply simultaneously. charging schedules on CO2 emissions. Based on this study, in
2
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

Fig. 1. Refined petroleum and other liquids consumption by end-use sector [14].1

many scenarios, optimized EV charging could decrease the level

of CO2 emissions.
Stochastic and uncertain nature of the EVs, such as depar-
ture/arrival times to charging centers, daily driven distances,
battery sizes charger/discharger types, etc., are influential pa-
rameters that affects reliability of the power grid. In addition,
stochastic nature of RESs (especially solar and wind power) is
additional parameter that influences the network. Hernandez
et al. [28], the authors presented an innovative GAT (general
analytical technique) for assessing the stochastic behaviors of
EVs and PV power (photovoltaic) and their influences on overall
system. Ruiz-Rodríguez et al. [29] proposed an analytical tech-
nique for evaluating the impacts of feeding biomass-fueled gas
engines (BFGEs) as a renewable energy source and EVs on the
radial distribution systems (RDSs). In [30], Ruiz-Rodríguez et al.
accurately assess the combined technical influence of the EVs and Fig. 2. A simple structure of the V2G system [34].
PV uncertainties on RDSs by applying a proposed probabilistic
method (PPM). Hemmati et al. [31] focused on the modeling
and operation of battery energy storage system (BESS) under In this paper, we propose an applicable methodology to ran-
unbalanced-uncertain conditions in the power grids. The aim of domly create many different load and supply curves and evaluate
the proposed model is to optimize energy cost, deal with load the performance measures. Another important contribution of
uncertainties, and settle the unbalanced loading at the same time. this paper is that we introduce two novel indexes for measuring
Mehrjerdi et al. [32], designed the optimal charging facility and the reliability of the system under two types of power grids,
capacity for charging stations under different charging speeds. the grid with low rate of RESs (constant power supply), and the
In addition, integration of charging stations with wind energy is grid with high rate of RESs (stochastic power supply). In this
analyzed by using stochastic programming. Mehrjerdi et al. [33] paper, we explicitly consider all these aspects together and offer
applied an optimization programming for minimizing the annu- a comprehensive analysis around the influences of the EVs, V2G
alized cost of losses and the annualized investment cost of energy system, and their integration with RESs specifically wind power
storage system (ESSs). Moreover, a stochastic programming is on the power grid by considering the reliability, environmental
used to model the network equipped with distributed energy and economic aspects of this field. We define different cases and
resource (DER) and its uncertainty. provide the results of the system performance measures for them
Even though there are huge volumes of published papers that by using a Monte Carlo simulation. The suggested methodology,
consider different aspects of integration of V2G and RESs such simulation and introduced indexes are applicable in different
as reliability, emission and cost, they rarely analyzed these three regions based on the power grid features that serve as great tools
variables in a single study. Another part missing in the literature for policymakers.
is role of supply power and power sources on the efficiency of the This paper is organized as follows: the suggested methodol-
V2G system. The pattern of supply profile is extremely influenced ogy, simulation procedure, and two innovative indexes for mea-
by the type of power sources. Since, the power grids based on suring the reliability of the power grid are discussed in Section 2.
traditional power plants (e.g. fossil fuels) usually, provide a uni- The numerical analysis, its relevant features, and potential are
form rate of supply power during the day, we call them constant introduced and reviewed in Section 3. In Section 4, we analyze
power supply. On other hand, in power grids where the main the power grid in three main fields: reliability, emission, and
source of generated power is based on RESs providing a non- total costs of the considered system based on the outputs of the
uniform pattern of supply power due to intermittent nature of simulation under different cases. Finally, conclusions are drawn
RESs (solar, wind, etc.), we call them stochastic power supply. in Section 5.
Compared to the literature, the strength of our study is analyzing
the influences of the V2G system on reliability, cost, and emission
2. Methodology
of the power grid in all power supply types by introducing novel
and innovative indexes for measuring these parameters.
The proposed methodology in this paper is based on gener-
ating random days for a given structure of the grid, computing
1 OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development). the system performance measures for each random day and
3
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc
evaluating the effectiveness of electrified transportation in im-
proving the efficiency of the power grid under the defined case.
Different cases are defined by type of grid, penetration levels
of the EVs, portions of vehicles with V2G capabilities, charging
policies used for timing, and location of charging and discharging.
Computations are carried for each case.
A Monte Carlo simulation is used to calculate the new demand
of the EVs for each hour and the extra stored electricity in the
batteries available for transmitting to the grid for each hour by
considering all the stochastic parameters, such as daily driven
distances, departure/arrival times to charging points, chargers
types used, and battery sizes. Another stochasticity in the net-
work is the electricity generated by the RESs. Since the available
generated power from such sources will affect the performance
of the system, it is also very important to explicitly consider the
stochastic nature of the RESs. Therefore, the simulation chooses
a random power generation by the RESs from available patterns
for randomly selected days.
Each iteration of the Monte Carlo simulation corresponds with
a randomly chosen day. For each selected day and defined case,
the penetration level of EVs and proportion of EVs that can join
the V2G system are assigned. For each EV, the amount of electric-
ity needed from the grid is randomly determined by assigning
a daily driven distance and battery size used from the given
distributions. Then, a charging location and the infrastructure
properties at the selected location are randomly assigned by using
the corresponding distributions. By considering the policies used
for charging times at the selected location and the distribution
of the arrival/departure times to/from this location, start time
for charging is randomly assigned. At the end of each iteration,
the total demand for each hour is calculated by summing the
demand of each user. A similar approach is used to create the
available electricity stored in the electric batteries for each hour.
In this case, the stochastic parameters are selected randomly
from the given distribution to assign how much electricity can be
discharged from the car for each user. Generated power by RESs
for each hour is also randomly selected from the given generation
distributions of renewable sources. A Monte Carlo simulation is
used to create such N random days.
The second step of the methodology is creating the total load
curve and supply curve for each selected day. In this step, the
total demand is calculated for each hour by adding the new de-
mand of the EVs to the current network demand and subtracting
the extra stored electricity available for that hour (discharging).
Thirdly, for each random day, three-performance measurements
are calculated. Compiling the outputs of simulation gives us an
efficient tool to evaluate the performance of EVs and V2G system
and their integration with RES on the reliability, emission, and
cost of the power grid.
2.1. Definition of cases
To analyze the impacts of penetration levels of the EVs and
V2G, charging schedule and charging modes on the power grid,
different cases are defined as shown in Table 1. In each case, we
change the level of one parameter while keeping the others fixed.
For each case, N random days are generated by the simulation
to calculate the corresponding performance measures of the sys-
tem. These cases are used for both types of grids (constant and
stochastic power supply).
The first set of cases are designed to measure the impact of
the penetration level of EVs on the power grid while the other
parameters are kept fixed. In these cases, the level of the EVs are
changed from 0% to 50%. It is assumed that people can charge
their EVs at any time after they arrive home. This policy is called
uncontrolled charging in the rest of the paper. The second set of
4
Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429
cases are defined to see the effect of V2G participation for the
most likely setup level of EVs on the power grid when charging
happens in all charging centers at any time. The percentage of
participation in the V2G system can range from 0 to 50%. The
third set of cases are used to understand how the performance
measure will change for different levels of V2G if the charging
happens at home and is restricted to off-peak hours. The fourth
set of cases are designed to evaluate the impact of charging times
at the public stations on the system for a most likely setup of 10%
EVs penetration. In the cases of the public stations, five policies
are defined as follows.
• Policy 1. Charging at any time during the day
• Policy 2. Charging mostly after work between 4 p.m. and 6
p.m.
• Policy 3. Charging between 8 a.m. and 8 p.m.
• Policy 4. Charging between 5 p.m. and 7 a.m.
• Policy 5. Charging between 1 a.m. and 12 p.m.
2.2. Monte Carlo Simulation
The Monte Carlo Simulation used in this paper is the extended
and modified version presented by Ediz [35]. As mentioned be-
fore, the purpose of the simulation is to generate random demand
and supply profiles that represent the random days. For each
hour of the random days, the simulation generates the total
electricity demand, extra available electricity in batteries that can
be transferred to the grid (by V2G), and generated electricity
from the RESs. In this case, the model presented by Ediz [35]
is extended to include random selection of electricity generated
from the RESs and random estimation of available stored electric-
ity in the batteries. Another modification applied to the model
is determining different policies for the time of charging at the
public stations.
In this simulation, the stochastics parameters like penetration
level of EVs and V2G system, state of charge (SOC), daily driven
distances, battery sizes, arrival times, etc. have influential impacts
on the results. In addition, personal preferences of EVs drivers for
charging the batteries is another stochastic parameter that adds
to the complexity of this topic. The main parameters used in this
simulation are shown in Table 2.
The Monte Carlo simulation starts with determining the num-
ber of EVs for a given penetration level of EVs and the number of
participants in V2G system for a given proportion of V2G. For each
driver, the daily driven distances and the suitable battery size are
assigned from the given distribution seen in Fig. 3. In this study,
based on available EVs in the market we consider five battery
sizes: 5 kW, 10 kW, 15 kW, 20 kW, 25 kW. Since the EVs are
charged at most once during the day, we assume that the EVs are
equipped with suitable battery size that can support their daily
driven distances. Therefore, for each EV a set of possible battery
sizes with sufficient capacity are defined and then the battery size
is randomly assigned from this set to each EV.
The state of charge (SOC) indicates the level of remained
electric power in the battery at the point of charging. Therefore,
we define a set of possible SOC for each EV by considering their
battery size and daily driving distance. To convey how a set of
possible SOC are generated, consider a driver assigned with the
battery size enough for 20 km to drive with full capacity and the
average daily distance of 10 km. Each iteration of the simulation
corresponds a random day. Therefore, the random day generated
in the considered iteration could be one day after a previous full
charge for the considered driver (driver only drove 10 km since
his last charge), it means SOC could be 0.5. Alternatively, the
random day generated could correspond the second day after a
previous full charge (driver already drove 20 km). In this case,
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

Table 1
Structure of defined cases.
Case EVs penetration (%) Level of V2G (%) Charging mode Charging location Schedule
1 0 to 50% 10% Un-controlled Everywhere Policy 2
2 10% 0 to 50% Un-controlled Everywhere Policy 2
3 10% 0 to 50% Off-peak Home Policy 2
4 10% 10% Un-controlled Everywhere Policy 1 to Policy 5

Table 2
Used parameters in Monte Carlo simulation.
Simulation parameters
% EVs The percentage of penetrated EVs into the market
% V2G The percentage of the EVs that participate in V2G system
Battery Size EVs battery capacity
Driving Distance Average daily driven distances by EVs
SOC State of charge indicates percentage of remaining electricity in the battery
r Random number in each iteration as personal preferences for charging
Charging Loc. Four predefined charging centers (home, work, mall, public station)
Charging Time The required time to have fully charged battery
Discharge time The required time to discharge the battery
Arrival Time The arrival time to charging centers for each EV
Departure Time The departure time from charging centers for each EV
n The number of iterations

SOC will be 0. For this driver, the set of possible SOC is (0 and
0.5). For each driver such sets are defined, and in each iteration,
we randomly assign a SOC from the set for the considered EV.
Based on SOC and required power for the next trip, the charging
decision is randomly made. If the remained energy in the each
EV’s battery is not enough for the next trip, driver must charge
the EV. Otherwise, we assume that there is still a 50% chance for
the EV to be charged. Therefore, we generate a random number
in each iteration and if this random number is smaller than the
predefined threshold (50%), the driver charges the EV, otherwise
the corresponding EV is not charged.
The next step is assigning the charging location to each EV.
This is done by randomly selecting a charging location based on
assumed distribution of charging preferences of the drivers. In
this simulation, we assume that charging occurs at most once
during day at the selected location. We consider four charging
locations for the EVs: home, workplace, malls, and public stations.
Once the charging location is selected for the driver, the arrival
and departure time to the selected location is assigned for the
driver by considering the distribution of the arrival and departure
times of the charging location. The duration of the charging is
determined by considering the characteristics of the chargers
at the selected charging location, the SOC and the battery size.
For each hour starting from the charging time until the end
of charging, electricity drawn from the grid is recorded as the
demand of the corresponding EV.
For the EVs with V2G capabilities, charging happens the same
way as explained before. However, since these EVs will support
the grid at the peak hours, we assumed that V2G vehicles would
always charge their car once each day and they start the day
with full capacity. Moreover, we assume that the workplaces
are the only centers for the EVs to release their extra stored
power in the battery to the grid during the peak demand period.
At the workplace, a starting time for discharging is randomly
selected between the arrival and departure times. Depending on
the discharger type and the remaining electricity in the battery,
the duration of discharging is determined. For each hour from
the start time to the end, the electricity transferred to the grid
is recorded.
At the end of each iteration, the total demand withdrawn from
the grid for each hour is calculated by summing the required de-
mand of all the EVs subtracted from total electricity transmitted
to the grid from each EV with V2G capability.
5
Our focus is on the wind power as one of the cleanest energy
sources. In each iteration of the simulation that reflects a random
day, an hourly pattern of supply power by the wind source is
selected from the possible supply patterns by considering their
distribution. The selected pattern reflects the electricity gener-
ated by the wind each hour. The total supply power of the grid
is updated by using the selected pattern. Therefore, at the end of
each iteration, we have a random supply power.
We ran the Monte Carlo simulation in MATLAB software to
generate ‘‘N’’ different possibilities for hourly power demand,
available power in the battery for transmitting to the grid and
power generated by the wind source. Finally, for applied cases,
the daily load and supply profile is obtained by calculating the
average of N iterations. The flow of the Monte Carlo algorithm
that was developed in this study is presented in Fig. 4.
2.3. Performance measures for the grid
In this paper, we introduce innovative and novel approaches
for evaluating the performance of power grids under penetrating
by the EVs and V2G systems. The RESs with an unpredictable
and intermittent nature affects patterns of the supply power
and subsequently the performance of the network. For having
a precise analysis, based on levels of RES in power generation,
we consider two types of the power grid, constant and stochastic
power supply. In the following sections, we introduce the novel
tools for analyzing the power grid performance in three fields,
namely reliability, emission, and cost under defined cases.
2.3.1. Reliability of the power grid
Power grid reliability is the ability of the system to deliver
expected service during both planned and unplanned events [36].
The North American Electric Reliability Corporation defined relia-
bility as ‘‘the degree to which the performances of the elements of
the electric system result in power being delivered to consumers
within accepted standards and in the amount desired [37]’’. In
the following sections, we suggest a novel and innovative index
for measuring the reliability of the constant and stochastic power
supply.
2.3.1.1. Reliability index for constant power supply. For constant
power supply, the power grid consists of a lower rate of RESs.
Therefore, it is assumed that the available generation capacity is
almost fixed throughout the day. In this condition, the demand is
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

Fig. 3. The distribution of driving distance in Istanbul.

Fig. 4. The flow of the Monte Carlo algorithm.

6
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

preferred to be constant. In this paper, we propose a new index  N
1 ∑
for evaluating the reliability of the power grid under different DRFzj = √ (Dfzhj − Dfzj )2 N = 24 (6)
cases in the constant power supply that we call it the reliability N
h=1
factor (RF). RF deflects the fluctuation of the demand during the
where, Df zhj refers to difference between power supply and
day. The schematic and concept of RF is shown in Fig. 5. RF values
demand in the hth hour for zth case in iteration j, DRF zj
of each considered case are calculated as follows:
refers to the reliability value in the jth iteration of case z,
For each case z, generate N random days/iterations (j =
1, . . . , N) Szhj refers to the supplied power in the hth hour in iteration
For each iteration j, j and Dzhj refers to the demand in the hth hour during the
day in iteration j.
1. Rank the electricity demand in descending order 3. Assign the reliability factor to each case z based on the
2. Calculate the Dizij , the difference between ith highest following formula:
ranked demand value and ith lowest ranked demand value ( )
DRFz = max DRFzj j = 1 to N (7)
in jth iteration of case z by using the following formula:

Dizij = Hzij − Lzij i = 1 to 12 (1) where, DRFz refers to the reliability factor of zth case.

where Hzij refers to the ith highest ranked demand value in
iteration j and Lzij refers to the ith lowest ranked demand
value in iteration j.
3. Calculate the standard deviation of differences using the
following formula:

 N
1 ∑
RFzj = √ (Dizij − Dizij )2 N = 12 (2)
N the applied cases is a good criterion for measuring the effec-
i=1
where, RF zj refers to the reliability factor of case z if the demand
is as in random day j.
We consider the worst case to represent the RF for case z. That
is,
( )
RFz = max RFzj j = 1 to N (3)
where, RF z refers to reliability factor of zth case. Higher value
for RF indicates higher fluctuation in demand curve. The RF for
flattened curve should be close to zero.
2.3.1.2. Reliability index for stochastic power supply. For stochastic
power supply, the rate of RESs for generating the power is high.
Due to their intermittent and stochastic nature, the supply power
profile is not even. Therefore, in such systems, the stochastic
demand that follows the pattern of the power supply is preferred,
and the peak demand should shift to hours when the level of
supply is high. Therefore, we define another index that we call
it developed reliability factor (DRF). As mentioned before, in this
analysis and based on the suggested Monte Carlo simulation, N
random days (iterations) will be generated under each case z. In
each iteration ‘‘j’’, a random demand and a random supply profile
of the simulation outputs are generated. For each iteration j, we
calculate the value of the DRF that is equal to standard deviation
of the difference between the supply and demand for each hour,
as shown in Fig. 6. Our ideal is decreasing the differentiation in
the demand and supply’s pattern. We can define the DRF for each
case as follows:
For each case z, generate N random days/iterations (j =
1, . . . ., N)
1. Select supply and demand profiles randomly in each itera-
tion j.
2. Calculate the standard deviation of the differences between
supply and demand profile for each hour using the follow-
ing formula:
Dfzhj = Szhj − Dzhj (4)
N AEz = Av erage(Ezj )
1 ∑
Dfzj = Dfzhj N = 24 (5)
N where AEz refers to the assigned emission for zth case,
h=1
As mentioned before, each chosen case z is run with N itera-
tions, so we will have ‘‘N’’ DRF values. In assigning a specific DRF
value to each case, we consider the worst case of all the iterations’
DRF values.
2.3.2. Emission of the power grid
Evaluating the amount of CO2 emitted by the power grid for
tiveness of electrified transportation on the environment. The
CO2 emission indicates the total CO2 emitted for satisfying the
demand of the EVs and V2G and the total CO2 emitted by the
transportation system. Therefore, for each iteration of the sim-
ulation, the following procedure is applied for calculating the
emission by the IC cars and generating the power. Then simula-
tion is run for ‘‘N’’ iterations. Assigning a specific emission value
to each case z was done by the following procedure:
1. For each iteration j, emission by power plants for satisfying
the demand of EVs and V2G are calculated as following
formula:
m
∑
Pzj = DEzxj ∗ EMzxj x = 1 to mth source of generating power
x
(8)
where Pzj refers to the power generation emission for sat-
isfying the demand of EVs and V2G, DE zxj refers to the total
demand of xth source of energy in the jth iteration, EM zxj
refers to emission per MWh of xth source of energy in jth
iteration.
2. For each iteration j, emission by IC cars is calculated using
the following formula:
Izj = DDzj ∗ EPzj (9)
Izj refers to the emission by IC cars in jth iteration, DDzj
refers to the total driven distance by IC cars in jth itera-
tion and EP zj refers to the emission per kilometer in each
iteration of case z.
3. Calculating the total emission in each iteration of case z.
Ezj = Izj + Pzj j = 1 to N (10)
where Ezj refers to the total emission in iteration j,
4. Calculating the assigned emission to each case z.
j = 1 to N (11)

7
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc
Fig. 5. The schematic of proposed technique for evaluating fluctuation under constant power supply.
Fig. 6. The schematic of proposed technique for evaluating fluctuation under stochastic power supply.
2.3.3. Costs of the power grid
Analyzing the total costs of the power grid under applied
cases is another criterion for the policy makers to evaluate the
economic cases. The total cost is the summation of the costs asso-
ciated with electricity generation and the cost of traditional trans-
portation fleets. Based on the recent studies, the new gasoline
cars consume 7 Liter per 100 kilometers in urban regions [38]. By
using the distribution of daily driven distances, the total cost of
IC cars can be calculated easily. To monitor if the current system
can support the new demand of the EVs, the penalty cost is
introduced. The penalty cost is applied when the reserve margin
(RM) is violated.
The RM ensures that there is enough power supply for sat-
isfying the power demand especially during the peak period. If
the system has the capacity that is close to the peak demand,
there might be an electricity shortage when just one power plant
cannot operate as usual or there is a sudden increase in demand.
That is why the system needs to monitor the supply conditions
and apply RM. According to the U.S. Energy Information Adminis-
tration [39], the reserve margin is capacity minus demand, where
capacity is the expected maximum available supply, and demand
is expected peak demand. For instance, a reserve margin of 10%
means that an electric system has excess capacity in the amount
of 10% of expected peak demand. In this paper, we assume that
the RM is 10%.
For constant power supply, a fixed reserve margin is applied
and a threshold for the demand is determined to capture the
cases where the current capacity is not sufficient to satisfy the
new demand. In this case, the fixed RM demand is defined as
a line in 10% below the available supply power. In Fig. 7, the
concept of fixed RM demand is indicated.
8
Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429
For stochastic power supply, the fixed RM is not an efficient
way to assure the reliability of the system. Therefore, we intro-
duce a flexible RM that is a function of power supply and adjusts
itself with the level of power supply. In this case, the flexible
RM demand is defined as a line in 10% below supply level. The
concept of flexible RM demand is indicated in Fig. 8.
The penalty cost is applied if the total power demand exceeds
the defined reserve margin. For those cases, the total costs are
multiplied by a large number ($100,000). In other words, this
large number indicates that for satisfying the extra demand, the
power grid should increase its power capacity and invest money
in new power plants. The following procedure is applied for
calculating the total cost of each case z.
1. For each iteration j of case z, the cost associated with
electricity generation is calculated using the following for-
mulas: ∑m
If TDzhj <= RM zhj ; CEzj = x DEzxj ∗ CMzxj x = 1 to mth
source of generating power
m
∑
Else if ; CEzj = DEzxj ∗ CMzxj ∗ 100,000 i = 1 to mth
(12)
x
source of generating power
where CE zj refers to the cost for generating power for
satisfying the demand of EVs and V2G, RM zhj refers to the
reserve margin of the jth iteration in hth hour, TDzhj refers
to total demand of the jth iteration in hth hour, DE zxj refers
to the demand of the xth source in iteration j, CM zxj refers
to the cost per MWh of xth source of energy in the jth
iteration.
2. For each iteration j of case z, the cost of traditional trans-
portation fleet is calculated using the following
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc
Fig. 7. The concept of fixed RM demand.
Fig. 8. The concept of flexible RM demand.
formula:
CTzj = DDzj ∗ CPzj (13)
CT zj refers to the cost by IC cars in the jth iteration, DDzj
refers to the total driven distance by IC cars in the jth iter-
ation and CP zj refers to the cost of gasoline per kilometer
in each iteration of case z.
3. Calculating the total cost in each iteration of case z.
TCzj = CEzj + CTzj j = 1 to N (14)
where TC zj refers to the total cost in iteration j,
4. Calculating the assigned cost to each case z.
ACz = Av erage(TCzj ) j = 1 to N (15)
where AC z refers to the assigned cost for zth case.
3. Numerical analysis for Istanbul case
For our study, we chose the city of Istanbul, Turkey as a case
study for evaluating the impact of EVs and V2G system pene-
tration on the reliability, emission, and costs of the power grid
based on our suggested methodology. Istanbul with a population
of more than 15 million (about 19% of Turkey’s total population)
is the optimal city for considering such an analysis; moreover,
the existing potential of implementing the EV fleet in Istanbul
is higher than other Turkish cities. Therefore, all the relevant
and influential parameters such as drivers’ behaviors, driving
distances, arrival/departure time to/from charging centers, etc.,
are collected for the city of Istanbul, Turkey [35].
9
Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429
3.1. Power grid identity
Table 3 indicates the source of power generation in the city
of Istanbul. Based on [35], the Istanbul’s demand accounts 16% of
the total demand in Turkey. Therefore, we assume that 16% of the
total installed capacity in Turkey could be assigned to Istanbul.
Thus, the total installed capacity of the power in Istanbul that
is the summation of whole energy sources’ capacity is 13,450
MW. Since the share of generated power by RSEs in Istanbul is
low, the structure of this system is like constant power supply.
The RM is applied to the installed power after considering the
availability factor and energy loss. The availability factor (AF) is
the percentage of time available to provide energy for the grid
and the availability of a power plant is mostly a factor of its
reliability [40]. When electricity is transmitted from one location
to another, the energy loses its initial value because some of the
initial power is converted to disordered forms of energy, like
sound, light and heat [41]. Since the RESs are limited, some days
the generated power by the wind and solar power plants are
almost zero. The generated power from these sources is assumed
to be zero in calculating the RM.
For simulating the stochastic power supply, we add 2141 MWh
installed capacity of wind power to the system. Because of the
intermittent nature of wind power, we consider the possible
patterns of wind-generated power according to the following
section.
3.2. Wind power attributes
In this study, to analyze the impacts of RESs and simultane-
ously defined cases under stochastic power supply, we focused
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

Table 3
Power grid identity in Istanbul [42].
Energy Installed Variable Emitted CO2 Availability Energy loss Available The worst Available
resource power costs (ton/MWh) Factor (AF) (%) energy after case by energy after
(MWh) ($/MWh) applying eliminating applying RM
AF and loss wind and 10% (MWh)
(MWh) solar power
Wind 1070 0.005 0.011 30% 8% 295 0 0
Hydro 3270 0.002 0.024 50% 8% 1504 1504 1354
Geothermal 172 0.011 0.038 75% 8% 119 119 107
Solar 3 0.003 0.045 50% 8% 1 0 0
Biomass 73 5.272 0.230 75% 8% 50 50 45
Waste 22 0.001 0.230 85% 8% 17 17 16
Natural Gas 4299 3.602 0.490 85% 8% 3362 3362 3026
LNG 0 3.602 0.490 77% 8% 0 0 0
Oil 111 3.602 0.650 70% 8% 71 71 64
Coal 3187 4.474 0.820 85% 8% 2492 2492 2243
Stream 1243 0.001 0.000 50% 8% 572 572 515
Total 13,450 9222 738 8484 8187 7369

on one of the cleanest energy sources, wind power. In order
to analyze the effects of wind power on the power grid, we
accounted for the distribution of wind production such that we
recognized five main patterns of power generated by wind power
plants as shown in Fig. 9. According to the frequency of data in
each pattern, on average 12% of wind-generated power follows
Pattern 1, 33% follows Pattern 2, 11% follows Pattern 3, 5% follows
Pattern 4 and 39% follows Pattern 5. Based on the given wind
profile distribution, the simulation randomly selects a pattern in
each iteration and adds it to the total supply power as stochastic
power supply.
4. Results and discussion
period in the workplaces which shaves the peak demand and
flattens the demand profile. In Case 4, we analyze the influence
of the changing schedule in public stations on the reliability of
the power grid based on defined policies for the EVs’ drivers.
As shown in Fig. 10, the lowest RF value happens in Policy 5,
when charging can be done between 1 a.m. and 12 p.m. Therefore,
charging the EVs at midnight when the demand is at its lowest
level and the RESs is at its highest-level increases the reliability of
the power grid. In Policy 1, it is assumed that people who prefer
to charge their cars at public stations can charge their cars at any
time during the day. These results show that if charging at public
station is not controlled, the grid might not benefit from the V2G
as much as it intended.

In this section, based on the defined cases (Table 1) and the
outputs of the simulation, the power system is evaluated accord-
ing to three main areas: Reliability, Emission and Costs. Due to
the stochastic nature of RESs and for analysis precision, we define
two power supply systems and provide our analysis separately.
4.1. Analysis for constant power supply
In this section, we analyze the behavior of the constant power
supply under applied cases in three main fields: reliability, emis-
sion, and cost of the system. In each field the effects of influential
parameters on the power grid will be evaluated based on the
outputs of the suggested simulation.
4.1.1. Reliability analysis for constant power supply
To evaluate the reliability of the system under constant power
supply we compare the RF values in different applied cases, as
shown in Fig. 10. In Case 1, all variables are fixed except for the
penetration level of the EVs; we try to find the impacts of the
EVs penetration on the reliability of the power grid. Since in the
un-controlled mode, there are no limitations for charging sched-
ule, increasing the number of EVs intensifies the peak demand
because of charging during the peak demand, and consequently
the reliability of the system is decreased, especially after 20% EVs
penetration (increasing the value of RF means decreasing the reli-
ability). In Case 2 and Case 3, we evaluate the impacts of the V2G
system on the reliability of the system. In Case 2, by increasing
the percentage of V2G, the reliability is not improved because
in the un-controlled charging mode there is not a stable balance
between charging/discharging time, and EVs cannot support the
grid during peak times. In Case 3, increasing the percentage of
the V2G has positive impacts on the reliability of the system.
The reliability improved because the EVs charge their batteries
at home during the off-peak period and discharge during peak
10
4.1.2. Emission analysis for constant power supply
Fig. 11 illustrates the influence of the EVs and V2G on the total
CO2 emission in the constant power grid under different cases.
With the constant power supply, the rate of RESs is low, the main
source of power generation is based on oil and gas, and pene-
trating the EVs and V2G systems into the market, consequently
increasing demand in the system, emits more CO2 compared to
the baseline. In Case 1, the minimum emission happens when
the EVs penetration level is 15%. After this level, increasing the
penetration level causes the emission is increased. For example,
with 50% EVs penetration level, more than 1680 tons of CO2 is
emitted into the atmosphere compared to baseline. Therefore,
increasing demand increases the CO2 emission. In Case 2 and
Case 3, increasing the rate of V2G does not reduce the CO2
emission because the grid consists of sources with high emission
rates. Therefore, shifting the demand does not help to reduce the
emission. For that same reason, changing the charging schedule
(Case 4) does not improve the emission of the system. However,
Policy 5 has better positive effects on the emission compared
to the other policies. Since charging at midnight through early
morning (Policy 5) increases the demand level during this period,
the RESs (clean and green sources) are at the highest level.
4.1.3. Economic analysis for constant power supply
In addition to influences of EVs and V2G on the reliability
and emission of the power grid, analyzing the feasibility and
economic aspects of implementing the electrified transportation
fleet plays a crucial role. As mentioned before, we defined a
penalized value ($100,000) for cases, where peak-demands are
higher than the calculated reserve margin. That means in order
to satisfy the demand in those cases we should invest money to
develop the power grid. According to Case 1 in Fig. 12, increasing
the EVs penetration decreases the total costs of the power grid.
The petroleum products, especially gasoline in Turkey, are ex-
tremely expensive and using electricity instead of these products
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429

Fig. 9. Patterns of power generation by wind power [42].

Fig. 10. Influences of the EVs and V2G system on the reliability of constant power supply.

Fig. 11. Influences of the EVs and V2G system on the constant power supply emission.

11
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc
Fig. 12. Influences of the EVs and V2G system on the constant power supply costs.
decreases the total costs of the system. Under the assumed case,
the minimum cost of the system happens at 17% EVs penetration,
such that the system can support the electrified transportation
system until the rate of 17% which saves more than $1.1 million
each day. Over this volume of EVs penetration, the system faces
shortages in the power supply and a budget is needed to increase
the capacity of the power grid by constructing new power plants.
Case 2 and Case 3 indicate the influence of the V2G system on
the cost of the power grid. Compared to the system with no
EVs penetration (baseline), the V2G system decreases the total
daily cost of the system by about $660,000, but increasing the
participation in the V2G does not have significant impacts on the
cost of the power grid. Case 4 shows the influence of the charging
schedule on the cost of the system. The values are very close, but
the minimum cost of the power grid occurs in Policy 5. In this
policy, the EVs will be charged during the night or early morning
when the electricity fee and the costs of supply the power are
less than other times.
4.2. Analysis for stochastic power supply
This section analyzes the influences of EVs penetration and
the V2G system on the stochastic power supply under applied
cases. Our analysis evaluates the reliability, emission and cost of
the system based on outputs of suggested simulation. We want
to see how changing the influential parameters can improve the
performance of the power grid.
4.2.1. Reliability analysis for stochastic power supply
To evaluate the reliability of the system under stochastic
power supply, we compared the DRF values in different applied
cases, as shown in Fig. 13. In Case 1, increasing the percentage
of EVs under un-controlled charging decreases the reliability be-
cause increased demand occurs when the level of RESs-generated
power is at its lowest level. The power generated by RESs is
wasted but if we motivate the drivers to charge their EVs at night
or early morning, it might positively affect the reliability of the
power grid. In both Case 2 and Case 3, increasing the percentage
of the V2G system improves the reliability of the system (DFR
value is decreased) because for stochastic power supply, charging
the EVs happens when the RESs rate is high and discharging
occurs during peak demand. In Case 3 (off-peak mode), the V2G
12
Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429
system has more influential effects on reliability than Case 2 (un-
controlled mode). For stochastic system, changing the schedule of
charging (Case 4) does not improve the reliability of the system
because the V2G penetration is low to make significant changes
on the system. In this condition and under the applied case,
compared to other policies, Policy 5 has better effects on the
reliability of the system when the drivers charge their batteries
late night or early morning.
4.2.2. Emission analysis for stochastic power supply
Fig. 14 shows the influence of EVs and V2G on the total
CO2 emission in the stochastic power grid under different cases.
Based on the figures, penetrating the electrified transportation
fleet under stochastic power supply significantly decreases the
total emission of the system. In Case 1, the minimum emission
happens when the EVs penetration level is 15%. Under this con-
dition for stochastic power supply, the emission level decreases
sharply (more than a 6700 ton decrease in total CO2 emission
of the power grid compared to baseline). In Case 2 and Case 3,
penetrating the V2G system and its integration with RESs has
positive influences on emission and decreases the emissions by
about 6400 tons for each day. However the minimum emission
level occurs when the rate of the V2G system is 10% (due to scale
of the figure, the positive slope of the graph is not tangible). In
Case 4, Policy 5 has the lowest emission level compared to other
policies. Further, charging at midnight and early morning (Policy
5) increases the demand level in this period when the RESs (clean
and green sources) are at the highest level.
4.2.3. Economic analysis for stochastic power supply
Fig. 15 shows the influence of EVs and V2G on the total costs
of the system for stochastic power supply under different cases.
The results of the system are the same as the previous system. In
Case 1, the EVs penetration reduces the total cost of the system
and supports the EVs penetration until a rate of 20%. At this
level of penetration more than $1.3 million can be saved each
day compared to the baseline. In this system, penetration higher
than 20% needs a higher supply power that consequently needs a
big budget to increase the power capacity. In Case 2 and Case 3,
applying the V2G system decreases the total cost of the system
however, Case 3 (off-peak mode) has less cost than Case 2 (un-
controlled mode). Finally, Case 4 illustrates the positive impact
of changing the charging schedule on the total cost of system.
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc
Fig. 13. Influences of the EVs and V2G system on the reliability of stochastic power supply.
Fig. 14. Influences of the EVs and V2G system on the stochastic power supply emission.
The results show that Policy 5 (like the previous system) is more
effective for decreasing the total cost of the power grid.
5. Conclusion
This study analyzes the influences of integrating EVs (electric
vehicles) and V2G (vehicle to grid) systems with RESs (renewable
energy sources), especially with respect to wind power, on the
power grid in three main areas: reliability, emissions, and cost
under defined cases. Different cases are defined and utilized to
evaluate the performance of the V2G system in different types of
power grids based on the availability of RESs for power genera-
tion. Due to the stochastic nature of implementing EVs, V2G and
RESs, a novel and applicable Monte-Carlo simulation in MATLAB
software is proposed. The strength and novelty of our method-
ology is analyzing the reliability, emission, and cost of power
grids simultaneously for the first time, by implementing the V2G
under different patterns of power supply. Therefore, in the first
step, two power supply patterns based on availability of RESs are
13
Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429
defined: constant power supply with a lower level of RESs, and
stochastic power supply with higher level of RESs. Istanbul as the
biggest city in Turkey is chosen to test the effectiveness of our
methodology. The overall focus is to determine how penetrating
the EVs and V2G system can integrate with RESs to balance the
demand profile and subsequently improve the reliability, total
emission, and cost of the power network. Based on these results,
the conclusions are as follows:
For constant power supply, we consider three main factors
when evaluating the efficiency of the power grid under applied
cases. First, we focus on reliability of the system and introduced
an innovative index for measuring the reliability of the system
that is called reliability factor (RF). In un-controlled charging
mode, increasing the penetration of EVs and V2G into the market
decreases the reliability and causes fluctuation in the power de-
mand. As indicated in Fig. 10-a, the RF of current system without
EVs increased from 743 units to 969 after penetrating 50% EVs
(increasing value of RF equals increasing the fluctuation). The rate
of increasing the RF (decreasing reliability) is intensified with EVs
B. Bibak and H. Tekiner-Mogulkoc
Fig. 15. Influences of the EVs and V2G system on the stochastic power supply costs.
penetration rates higher than 20%. On other hand, in off-peak
charging, penetrating the EVs and increasing the V2G rate im-
proves the reliability of the system and makes a flattened power
demand. Since constant power supply is based on petroleum
products, it is not considered a green system. Introducing the EVs
into the market under any conditions does not decrease the emis-
sion level because any level of penetration makes a new demand
that must be satisfied with petroleum-based power plants. In the
worst case scenario, introducing the 50% EVs under this assumed
case, emits more than 1680 tons of CO2 into the atmosphere
compared to the baseline. The outputs indicate that with constant
power supply, introducing the EVs and V2G system decreases the
total costs of system. For example, in Istanbul as our case study,
the current power grid can support 17% EVs penetration and save
more than $1.1 million daily compared to the baseline. Anything
over this level requires a large budget to increase the capacity of
the power grid by constructing new power plants.
With stochastic power supply, the unpredictable and stochas-
tic nature of RESs for generating power can intensify the com-
plexity of the system. In order to cover all the possibilities, we
must focus on supply power patterns in addition to demand
profiles. First, we focus on the reliability of the system and we
introduce an innovative index for measuring the reliability of
the system called developed reliability factor (DRF). The results
indicate that penetrating the EVs in an un-controlled charging
mode decreases the reliability of the system. For instance, pen-
etrating the EVs into the market by 50% decreases the reliability
of the system by more than 100 units (Fig. 13-a). However under
a fixed EVs penetration level, the reliability of the power grid
is improved by increasing the rate of the V2G system because
the EVs can charge their batteries with the extra and unused
power generated, and discharge during the peak-demand when
the system needs power. Under each level of the V2G system,
the reliability of the system in off-peak charging mode is better
by more than 100 units compared to the un-controlled charging
mode. Since, the RESs are green, clean, and cheaper sources for
generating power rather than petroleum sources, introducing the
EVs and V2G under such systems emits lower rates of GHGs
and is more economical. For example, the current power grid
in Istanbul, as seen in our case study, can support a 20% EVs
penetration into the market and this level of EVs decreases the
daily CO2 emission by more than 6000 tons, daily saving about
$1.3 million compared to the baseline.
14
Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks 26 (2021) 100429
The results indicate that stochastic power supply with a higher
level of renewable energy sources in power generation provides a
more efficient environment for implementing EVs and especially
the V2G system in terms of reducing the total cost, emission
and improving the reliability of the system. In addition, under
off-peak charging the V2G system is more efficient compared to
un-controlled charging.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Bijan Bibak: Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal anal-
ysis, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Visualization. Hat-
ice Tekiner-Mogulkoc: Conceptualization, Validation, Investiga-
tion, Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Project
administration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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