Optik - International Journal for Light and Electron Optics 272 (2023) 170146

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Optik
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijleo

Green smart grid predictive analysis to integrate sustainable

energy of emerging V2G in smart city technologies
Ammar Oad a, *, Hafiz Gulfam Ahmad b, Mir Sajjad Hussain Talpur c, Chenglin Zhao a,
Amjad Pervez d
a
Faculty of Information Engineering, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang 422000, China
b
Department of Computer Science & IT, Ghazi University, DG. Khan, Pakistan
c
Information Technology Centre, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Sindh, Pakistan
d
School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, the volume of data has grown exponentially. Big data analytic platforms for the
V2G smart grid have enormous potential since they play an essential role in the decision-making
Smart energy grid process and help to prevent disasters or instabilities in the grid. Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technol­
Stability analysis
ogy has become a buzzword in the industry. It is posited as a forthcoming technology to be
Smart city
Energy efficiency
grasped in a distant, ultimately green, and future. However, this view is now being challenged as
V2G is being deployed at a large scale. The severe challenges of rapid population growth,
ecological pollution, and energy deficiency have encouraged the design of smart grids and electric
transport systems, especially electric vehicles containing central energy utilization systems in a
smart city. This paper proposes a robust and distributed approach to balance supply and demand.
This study have constructed a unique framework to manage the ambiguous performances of
vehicles and supplied energy resources in a smart city. Furthermore, it analyze the influence of
network topology by evaluating the strength of solid network motifs using predictive analysis for
the whole system.

1. Introduction

Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology has been a developing topic in the industry for several years. It is often perceived as a prospective
technology that will be realized in a distant, green future. However, this view is now being challenged by the deployment of V2G at a
large scale, the benefits of which have been demonstrated in the contemporary context. Back in 2015, the first V2G unit was deployed
in the UK. It was roughly the size of two filing cabinets and required an entirely bespoke setup to function. The technology developed
significantly in the next five years, with four models now available in the UK through different suppliers and new suppliers entering the
market regularly [1].
Smart grid technology makes it possible to manage and distribute renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydrogen more
efficiently [2]. The smart grid integrates the electricity grid to a range of distributed energy resource assets [3]. Utilities can swiftly
discover and rectify service issues by using the Internet of Things (IoT) to obtain information on the smart grid through periodic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ammar.oad@hnsyu.edu.cn (A. Oad), Hamad@gudgk.edu.pk (H.G. Ahmad), mirsajjadhussain@sau.edu.pk (M.S.H. Talpur),
iecsyu@hnsyu.edu.cn (C. Zhao), Amjadpervez04@csu.edu.cn (A. Pervez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2022.170146
Received 12 September 2022; Received in revised form 19 October 2022; Accepted 24 October 2022
Available online 27 October 2022
0030-4026/© 2022 Published by Elsevier GmbH.
A. Oad et al. Optik 272 (2023) 170146

self-assessments. This self-healing capability is critical to the smart grid since operators no longer have to rely on customers to report
problems.
Environmental concerns, such as rising temperatures, greenhouse gas (GHG) production, ice melt, and other resource reductions
are the main issues of concern in the current period of time [4]. Carbon dioxide is daily emitted into the environment, and transport
fleets along with industrial production are the leading source [5]. Fossil fuel resources are limited, and they are being reduced quickly
[6]. Taking energy from other than fossil fuels to produce electricity is a new idea that should be considered. The abovementioned
issues are a wake-up call to find solutions for such difficulties. Nowadays, electric vehicles can attract the marketplace’s attention as an
adequate means of solving environmental and technical difficulties toward green and clean energy system [7]. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
technology has the potential to develop or promote many sorts of actors and key stakeholders, business models, and innovative activity
systems. It is the goal of this study that considerable investment and financing in electric vehicles can be harnessed in a way that
motivates both public and private players. In this regard, we reviewed a number of public and commercial enterprises, including
transmitting power and distribution network providers, manufacturers, energy service providers, scientists, and governing bodies.
To meet the rising demand for power while addressing climate change, low-carbon and renewable energy sources (RESs) are
becoming increasingly important. There will be an inevitable increase in both the range of operating conditions and peak demand of
the power system when fossil-fueled automobiles are gradually replaced with electric mobility. As multi-GW renewable energy
generation, mainly wind and solar, being installed throughout many advanced economies, the phase of electrification of the trans­
portation industry has already begun in parallel. New opportunities for developing a cleaner and more revolutionary sustainable
energy carrier arise with the growth of the Electric Vehicle (EV) sector. For example, the Vehicle-to-Grid system (V2G), which manages
EV battery charging and discharging in combination with the power network, is expected to be a key strategy in decreasing the impact
of renewable energy fluctuation. The current literature of EVs and related grid-interface technology is thoroughly examined in this
article. Incorporating the most recent research on technology developments, constraints, and potential future industry growth, we’ve
culled the most important facts and statistics. According to the study, a transportation mode and a dynamic energy vector (V2G, V2B,
and others), electric vehicles are expected to revolutionise the energy industry.
In order to launch smart cities, predictive analysis to integrate sustainable energy and the advancement of applications of energy-
storage technologies are highlighted in the current article. Intelligent use of smart devices is essential to creating smart cities, which
have been proposed as a solution to the complex urbanization V2G issues that may arise in the future. Supply and demand can be more
effectively balanced by using the techniques outlined in this study. There will be a major burden on the grid if electric vehicle charging
requirements aren’t properly managed. For a smart city, current research developed an innovative framework for managing the
ambiguous performance of vehicles and the supply of energy. Regulations for battery charging and discharging are included in the
proposed framework. Customers who own electric vehicles can use their vehicles’ batteries to supply electricity back into the grid and
vice versa, based on the analysis (in the normal charging situation - G2V, Grid-to-Vehicle). V2G technology is currently being promoted

Fig. 1. V2G Communication Procedure System.

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A. Oad et al. Optik 272 (2023) 170146

by electric utilities, which are already deploying smart grids to maximize power.
The paper is structured as follows. The work that has been performed is described in Section 2. After this, the experiments and their
results are analyzed comprehensively. Finally, future works and conclusions are outlined in the last section.

1.1. Literature review

The concept of V2G equipment was presented by [8]. The normal power grid connects manufacturers over the network to collectors
and homes [9]. Electrical vehicles are capable of connecting to the grid to restore their batteries. An EV adapted to V2G equipment can
also deliver power back to a motor vehicle when it is parked [10]. EVs contain extra features to facilitate this bidirectional power setup.
Realizing a V2G design could reduce the strength of the power grid. That said, collectors employ management algorithms to
enhance the stability of the supply to the EV [11]. The vehicle is finally charged when its energy demand is low [12]. Moreover, privacy
matters related to the data might cause security issues [13]. These issues should be tackled first, so the technology can be applied
significantly. The benefits of this technology are environmental and economic. The grid’s energy storage capacity has increased slowly
with the increase in the number of EVs [9]. The switch to this technology could prevent millions of containers of oil usage per day,
making it an economic investment for a country [14]. Third, the move can reduce the greenhouse gases produced by gasoline-based
vehicles and encourage EV use in developed societies [15].
For the previous century or so, the deadly substance that moves at the velocity of light that we call electricity. Sensing gadgets are
currently being used by businesses that are far more complex. According to Feasel, certain devices are capable of capturing power
information up to 60,000 times per second[16].
Even though several studies have focused on bidirectional power flow for V2G [17] there are severe challenges for its adoption. In
order to transfer energy back into the grid, we need additional hardware mostly EVs have no such kind of hardware that is being
manufactured or scheduled to be available in the near future is required [18]. Fig. 1.
The V2G system requires a communication structure to communicate guidelines and the electric vehicle’s supply apparatus [19].
The components and procedures receive the signals, while the collector organizes the EVs operative on the electrical grid in order to
manage supply [20]. The procedures associated with EV are split into frontend and backend procedures [21]. The frontend procedures
clarify and identify components related to communication, safety, charging topologies, cyber-security, and charging plugs [22]. The
backend procedures define connections between the EV and third-party operators, such as charge point-operators (CPOs) [23] and
specify constraints linked to communication and cyber-security [24]. Some examples of backend procedures include the open charge
point procedure and the automatic requirement response [25]. More data on these requirements can be found in [26].
To technically understand this structure, a communication chip is inserted into the EV charger in order to control the power stream
between the EV and the grid [27]. However, designing this communication technology is costly [28]. Therefore, many EVs are not
outfitted with these chips today, while companies like Mitsubishi and Nissan offer some[29]. An improved metering foundation must
be employed in order to observe the power flow and provide information to collectors and grid workers related to managing the power
inside and outside the grid [30]. Some present systems employ V2G technology, while others are likely to employ V2G in the future
[31].

2. Materials and methods

The methodology is used to outline the significance of the coordination between charging and discharging of the users during
weeks per day. The objective function of the optimization problem is the minimization of cost. The charger can also determine the
optimal charging profile by voltage, power loss, or owner preference. The main purpose of research is to analyze the influence of
network topology by evaluating the strength of solid network motifs using predictive analysis for the whole system. It has efficiently
observed and performed in various ways [32]. Thus, study is performing an amalgamation of electrical vehicles to smart grids and
smart cities as well, by providing a smart contract between the charging station and user. We introduce a unique analysis of V2G and
promising technologies that help to identify research gaps between current and future perspectives [33]. Therefore, this study is
motivated by the prospect of needing to harness significant flows of investment and finance towards electric vehicles, in ways that
motivate both public and private actors.

2.1. The impulse for vehicle to grid V2G

V2G offers huge advantages to both the electricity supplier and the customer. V2G can offer power control for electric grid
managers, power supply backup, load balance out and need curve, grid harmonics, and predictions. Our proposed study allows re­
ductions in the load peaks, the efficient servicing of existing production volume [43–47], and the enhancement of load features;
moreover, our analysis help to reduce grid expenses grid frequency control. Accordingly, it may aid in the reduction in CO2 emissions,
enhancing EV sales and thereby limiting greenhouse gases. Any increase in usage can also improve the benefits to EV customers by
encouraging better-charging arrangements. DR facilities motivate the establishment of a grid associated with EV users [34]. Many
studies show that behavioural, socio-demographics, economical, and technical factors interconnect with the Electric Vehicle (EV). As
mentioned earlier, the impact of the factors was examined in a survey (n ¼ 4885) across the developed countries Denmark, Finland,
Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. In the survey findings, the financial savings, fuel economy, and environmental value were the solid
predictors among all of the factors. Moreover, the driving range was less critical to former EV users than traditional vehicles and
current EV owners [35]. The optimized options for EV charging users face an important issue due to the steady promotion of EV, grid,

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A. Oad et al. Optik 272 (2023) 170146

and charging station scheduling and operation, requirements. The EV users charging decisions are influenced by various factors and
the charging requirements for EVs are as follows:
{ }
1, SOC ≤ S
VC = (1)
0, SOC > S

Eq. (1) VC stands for Vehicle Chagrining Requirement VC= 1 shows that charging required by EV and VC= 0 means no charging
required. SOC is the state of Charge of EV. Voltage regulation is the most obvious choice for local control of the grid. When the SOC of
the EV is lower than the remaining power threshold S of the user charging habit or the remaining power cannot reach the purpose,
Voltage regulation can easily be enforced independently by each vehicle, A voltage controller can be embedded in the charger of the
PHEV. Thus, only voltage control and charge management are considered here. For the optimal implementation of V2G, the battery
technology must be improved, especially in terms of its efficiency and lifetime. Our Proposed study helps to sort out the issues of
voltage control and charge the management on basis of users/ day. The existing energy management system will bring about an
additional cost, in terms of battery wear, which the revenues obtained by V2G could outweigh. These revenues could reduce the
payback time of PHEVs. The threshold S is determined by the charging habits and behaviour of each vehicle user and can be obtained
from the historical charging data recorded by the EV terminal equipment, subject to a certain probability distribution expressed as
follows:
P{S = si } = pi , i = 1, 2, …, I, 0 ≤ pi ≤ 1 (2)
th
In Eq. (2) Si is the State of charging value where the user is ready to charge under the i charging habit, Pi is the probability that the
ith charging habit occurs, and the sum is equal to 1.

2.2. V2G limitations

The modern grid is efficient and combines current sensing and control functions for enhanced efficacy, consistency, and security.
Electric vehicles are entirely or partially powered by internal batteries charged by the power grid. Plugin EVs use fewer fossil fuels and
produce much of the CO2 linked to traditional vehicles. They contribute to the development of modern cities, but still face different
challenges that must be tackled. These include the bidirectional power stream, which will accumulate more charge cycles than other
vehicles. It is subject to the sort of battery used [28]. V2G completion will involve coordinating the grid and the bidirectional charge
capability. It involves greater battery consumption than V1G. Energy law policy must be designed before EVs can participate in the DR
Service sector. Since V2G will need a smart grid for management and maintenance, there is an enhanced risk of cyber-attacks [36].
Moreover, the smart grid will be decisive to satisfactory V2G performance [37]. Production will have a significant impact that must be
tackled. Many of the above-stated impacts are mentioned and addressed in studies, but there has been no experimental certification.
Therefore, improvements in preparation are necessary.

2.3. Big data of electrical vehicles

Modern self-driving vehicles, electrical or non-electrical, are furnished with thousands of devices and include the latest technology.
Moreover, the road structure must also be equipped with a complex arrangement of linked technologies (GPS systems, traffic, cam­
eras). Advancements in wireless and vehicular transportation mean these modern vehicles are now intelligent and can send signals
between = devices and other smart carriages. Automated linked vehicles and their connection with smart cities will massively increase
the considerable data available for big data. In addition, drivers’ smartphones carry several sensors and other wearable devices. IoT,
particularly the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) and the smart grid, also known as Energy Internet, benefit from cloud services. The data are
taken from EVs, charge stations, drivers, and structures of analytic tools. Various automobile manufacturers permit drivers to verify
their EVs and wirelessly control their charging through online apps. These apps collect data about the vehicle and the trip’s path. The
onboard electronic control unit (ECU) helps to collect these data and those on battery management systems. The SOC of EV batteries is
a fundamental parameter for most charging and discharging results. BMS logs display the SOC information and how the EV battery is
working. Faulty battery cells and heating and freezing phenomena registered by the mentioned sensors are collected in the BMS re­
cords. This study examined the data analytic tool, the Anaconda free enterprise tool in Python, for big data. This tool is used to predict
emerging technologies related to the vehicle to grid in smart cities via the proposed decision support model.

2.3.1. Decisions support system

In order to avoid an outage, the amount of electricity provided into the system must match the amount utilized. This has grown a lot
more complicated due to the rise in renewable energy output, which can fluctuate substantially weather permitting. Because it is
impossible to store huge amounts of electricity for an extended length of time, traditional power generators must account for these
continual swings in energy output.
Our proposed decision support system model includes the data regarding the smart grid power capacity, the charging station power
capacity, departure time, user behavior. We have built an enhanced model that has multiple levels of feedback line. Our suggested
model will collect the information about utilizes grid load pressure, from charge-station data, EV battery information, user infor­
mation, and supply system information. We recommended handling information via the Map Reduce on the Hadoop framework to
manage the more extensive information available from multiple suppliers. The Anaconda-based multi-level response decision support

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A. Oad et al. Optik 272 (2023) 170146

system model’s architecture is shown in Fig. 2.

The following modules and power flow of a V2G system are characterized in Fig. 2. The system consists of the following main
components: 1) smart grid for electric utility 2) an independent system operator 3) Mobile App with website 4) two-way electrical
energy flow and communication 5) Database with intelligent metering and control. Our proposed system with V2G interfaces can
generally charge or inject energy. The centralized server for the transaction module includes user data, location, EV battery data, all
kinds of transaction information transmitted by this module and directs the information to other system components. At the same time,
the data terminal of the supply network reads the charging request sent by the EV. Based on inclusive consideration of grid load level
and user demand, Fig. 3 aimed to guide the user report’s charging status during the different days of the week. EVs are charged, and
demand requests of each user are sent to the main data server that confirms the grid’s stability. By creating a smart contract between
the user and the charging station, we can adjust the electricity price during the power flow cycle.
Building and extending this work, we identify at least 12 meaningful stakeholder types and corresponding business markets:
automotive manufacturers, battery manufacturers, vehicle owners, energy suppliers, transmission and distribution system operators,
fleet operators, aggregators, mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) providers, renewable electricity independent power providers, public transit
operators, second-hand markets, and secondary markets.
In our study, we use the dataset of the "Electrical Grid Stability Simulated Dataset", introduced by Vadim Arzamasov for data
analysis. In Fig. 3, data displays the effect of the day of the week on charger utilization. Even if the number of records decreases during
the weekend, the difference remains only 14 %. This result indicates that EVs are used evenly on weekdays and weekends, so charging
facilities should not be closed during the weekends.
Fig. 4 shows that 48 users (EV drivers) were connected to our charger monitoring system at least once. Again, the most intensive
users are identified, and these are likely to use the same charger regularly. There are 14 users with 100 or fewer reports. Their
connection days are concentrated within specific intervals. On the contrary, four users are associated with more than 5000 reports.
These seem to have found an available charger when necessary.
Fig. 5 plots the income derived from the EVs joining the V2G each day, agreeing to the price plan through the winter months. The
income varies depending not only on how much electricity is bought from the EVs, but also on when it is bought.
With the help of the following equation, we can calculate the centre of the tendency of the user and their consumption reports. In
Eq. (3), the mean value x‾ of each user “x “is calculated. The value of n is the total number of users.

1∑ n
x= (xi ) (3)
n i=1

With the help of Eq. (4) we find the mean and calculate the standard deviation. Therefore, the original value xi is reduced by the
mean value x
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 ∑ n
sj = (xi − x)2 (4)
n − 1 i=1

After descriptive analysis through the centre of tendency on the number of days and user rate. it is clearly shown that the rate of
charging consumption of a specific user like 24 is higher than another user rate.
It is presumed that every EV is furnished with a navigation device that can easily find the required information about the road,

Fig. 2. Decision Support System Model.

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A. Oad et al. Optik 272 (2023) 170146

Fig. 3. Weekly Reports.

Fig. 4. Users Participation.

Fig. 5. Monthly Reports.

charging station, and the electricity price data related to the charging decision in real-time. The data characterizes that revenue de­
pends on both factors, how much electricity was required to generate and purchased from the system and depends on the participating
services of the V2G.
As we have seen in Figs. 3, 4, and 5, the number of reports continuously increases day by day. However, the number of users is not
increasing with this ratio. Fig. 3 represents the weekly ratio of a day of the week to charging consumption. The number of records drops
during the weekend; the variation remains at 14 % or just below. Fig. 4 also shows that users have increased after a specific period.
Forty-eight users were connected at the same time to a monitoring system. Interestingly, when intensive users are found, all of them are
using the same charger. Fig. 5 represents that revenue did not depend only on how much electricity was purchased from the system but
also on the participating services of the V2G.
This methodology outlines the significance of the coordination between charging and discharging of the users during weeks per
day. The objective function of the optimization problem is the minimization of cost. The charger can also determine the optimal
charging profile by voltage, power loss, or owner preference.

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A. Oad et al. Optik 272 (2023) 170146

2.3.2. The Future of V2G

Even though there are opportunities for V2G to convert the less-optimal technologies in the power sector, not everyone considers
that to be the case, which is reducing implementation rates. The technologies to realize it are within reach; they increase in line with
other projects, but the research is struggling at all stages. Producers and vendors of EVs are pushing for the development of batteries,
one of the more expensive parts of the EV. The mass execution of V2G is attainable, but we will need more time to make the economics
of vehicle proprietorship more desirable.
The collection of data is important to the smart grid’s interplay with renewable energy [38]. In wind turbines, for example, each
chain in the mechanical gears must be equipped with several sensors. Current weather and weather factors can be detected by each
sensor. If a fault arises, this data is automatically transmitted over the grid to warn utility personnel. Smart grid technology is
benefiting from the use of semiconductor materials, such as silicon. These substances have been crucial in the growth of the Internet of
Things (IoT) [39]. When all of these devices are linked together, the smart grid ensure that there is enough energy available to meet
demand. In addition, it ensures that the current is evenly dispersed.
A decentralized, readily available energy source, V2G is an integral part of the broader energy ecology. Another benefit is that an
electric vehicle (EV) battery can be used to power a variety of other devices besides the one it’s linked to. V2G also reduces grid stress in
places that struggle to keep up with peak period. V2G is also used to make up for grid flaws. V2G technology can reduce the impact of
power outages and other large-scale weather occurrences[43]. The V2G technology provides electricity to important structures,
residences, and corporations in the event of a power loss. Therefore, Renewable energy from an electric vehicle’s (EV’s) battery is fed
back into the grid using Vehicle-to-Grid. These days, V2G is widely used in electric vehicles (EVs) and allows for the integration of
clean, renewable energy into the grid. When it comes to V2G technology, both utilities and local customers stand to gain from it [44].
Moreover, this approach will help in traffic control. Using electric vehicles will have many positive effects on the atmosphere and
economy [40]. The issue is that introducing a considerable number of electric vehicles into the marketplace is challenging for the grid
and will create problems [41]. These vast volumes of electric vehicles require electrical energy, which will affect voltage stability and
supply. The abovementioned difficulties show the utility of the grid, particularly during intervals with the highest demand [42]. In the
highest-demand phase, ancillary power generators must use a network to prevent fluctuation, as this can increase expenses [43].
Moreover, idle power will be useless during off-peak energy consumption periods when there is not enough demand. Therefore, this
system is created to resolve the existing obstacles and difficulties in the power grid [44].

3. Conclusions

In a grid power system for the random load of electric vehicles, charging choice greatly influences the stable operation of the grid.
Here, study performed an amalgamation of electrical vehicles to smart grids and smart cities by providing a smart contract between the
charging station and the user. A unique analysis of V2G and promising technologies that help to identify research gaps between current
and future perspectives. This study is based on careful consideration of user charging demand and grid load level that aimed to cut the
peak reduce the valley, and analysis provide a guide for charging price. Moreover, the status of charged EVs alters the demand response
of each user to ensure the stability of the grid. It also proposed a model for a decision support system and provided a thorough study of
the data. This study tried to include other articles concerning data analysis tools for EV-linked apps, and in the end, have offered future
directions. The innovation activity systems associated with V2G also lead to the 12 hypothetical policy implications summarized.
Although not directly reflected in our empirical data, involving users in discussions about grid services, providing substantive and
attractive tariffs, incentivizing mobility as a service and car-sharing, and validating secondary and secondhand markets could
materially improve the design specifications and performance parameters—the content—of V2G technology.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability

Data will be made available on request.

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