Electric Vehicles and their Impacts on Integration
into Power Grid: A Review
Syed Asad Abbas Rizvi, Ai Xin, Arsalan Masood, Sheeraz Iqbal, Mishkat Ullah Jan, Haseeb ur Rehman
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
North China Electric Power University,
Beijing 102206, China
saarizvi.12@outlook.com, aixin@ncepu.edu.cn, arsalanmasood@ncepu.edu.cn, engrsheeraziqbal@gmail.com , engrmishkat@ncepu.edu.cn,
haseeb@ncepu.edu.cn.
Abstract— The exponential rise in electricity demand has
become the primary reason of generating electricity from
various new sources. Up until now, fossil fuels were the major
source for generating power but it has changed drastically in
recent years. Vehicles commonly used in today’s world run
solely on fossil fuels (i.e. gasoline, diesel, liquefied petroleum
etc.) and their prodigious usage hints at the current over
reliance on them. Fossil fuels are non-renewable and
consequently, the existing transportability prototype is
rendered untenable. Effects of energy shortage, meteoric decline
in fossil fuel reserves along with environmental issues have
diverted attention towards Electric vehicles. Electric vehicle is
now the center of the attention and is termed as the future of
transportability model. Use of Electric vehicle gives multiple
advantages that include more use of renewable energy, less use
of non-renewable energy sources, clean environment and energy
storage options. Electric vehicles are capable of serving a dual
purpose in terms of distributed storage units and loads both
upon their integration with the power grid. Increased use of
EVs, despite solving several problems has brought with it some
new problems for power system and the grid. In this paper a
brief review of Electric vehicles and their effects on power
quality and power grid has been presented. In addition to this,
a detailed review of impacts of EVs charging and discharging to
grid is presented too.
Keywords—electric vehicle; power quality, renewable
energy sources; V2G
I. INTRODUCTION
Non-renewable energy sources are decreasing rapidly and
researchers are looking for various renewable energy sources
and constructive control strategies to replace them. The
emerging concerns regarding universal energy deficit,
ecological contamination, rising temperature all around the
world have intensified the whole world’s devotion on the
prospect of clean energy. The International Agency of Energy
mentioned in one of its recent reports that to achieve the preset
2ᵒC target, the long-standing strategy of restraining the
greenhouse gases emission up to 450 ppm CO2-eq has to be
met [1]. In spite of setting this commendable ambition, the
scientific commonality fears that albeit keeping universal
emission steadied at the contemporary levels and pushing it to
zero emission postliminary 2030, there is still a 25%
possibility that the global warming can surpass 2ᵒC preset
target. The above-mentioned facts lay foundation to the
understanding of the necessity of the influx of e-mobility in
world’s current transportation model. The inculcation of
Electric Vehicles (EVs) also negates the uncertainty caused by
Project: 2016 national key R & D program of China to support low-
carbon Winter Olympics of integrated smart grid demonstration project
(2016YFB0900500). Beijing Natural Science Foundation（3182037）
978-1-5386-8549-5/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
highly fluctuating oil prices and offers lower prices along with
environmental benefits [2, 3] and it can have a profound
impact in reducing carbon emissions and fossil fuel reliance
[4].
The idea of electric vehicles first originated in late 1830’s
but couldn’t sustain in the face of evolving fossil fuel-powered
automobile industry. They run on the energy obtained directly
from the grid via any official electric power channel (at home,
work or any general parking service). Hence, whenever there
is enhanced interconnection between EVs and grid it will
stimulate complications for the old-fashioned power systems.
Plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) and plug-in electric vehicles
(PEV) have started to become more prevalent on the system.
As technology matures and customer acceptance increases,
the impacts and benefits of electric vehicles are also of
concern. The services EVs can provide to the existing power
system is rapidly becoming a topic of attraction and
researchers have shown keen interest in it [5, 6]. Electric
vehicles have the potential to increase the load on the system
that may burden the grid. However, they also represent a
significant capacity of distributed energy storage that can be
capable of provide services back to the power grid, even if
they are only charged. The emerging dynamics of global
energy patterns have forced the hand of many countries to pay
enhanced attention towards electric vehicles. It is one of the
key research areas worldwide as it promises to be the
unrivaled future of 21st century transportation system [7].
The huge quantity of electric vehicles accessing the power
grid has brought in a lot of new challenges and complications
with it. The most challenging of these issues are the security
and economics of the current power system [8]. First and the
foremost is the issue of increased power loads due to the
electric vehicles connection with the power grid at the peak
time. This will further increase the difference between demand
and supply and hence cause more deadweight on the central
grid. The charging routine of the electric vehicles and the
individual behavior of their owners varies greatly. This
randomness makes it more difficult to keep the power grid
under control and stable and leaving behind a gloomy
influence on the overall working of the power grid. In the
meanwhile, the charging of electric vehicles also affects the
power quality.
To reconnoiter the outcome of EVs on our existing grid,
this paper aims to evaluate EVs in light of method of
managing the charging schedule then performing the
simulations. It further analyzes the power quality effect,
economic influence, impact on the environment, partaking in
yielding ancillary services and then summarizing it with the
imprint of contemporary charging and discharging patterns of
electric vehicles on the gird working. Ultimately, pointing out
the looming topics and suggesting future recommendations.
II. ELECTRIC VEHICLE PLANNING
The massive stationing of EVs on the existing grid caused
momentous effects related to overall demand for electric
power, and hence on forecasting the prevailing grid and its
components. Nonetheless, the ongoing furor in view of
recently concluded and referred researches, suggests that the
foremost bearings are regarding the power distribution
networks. Researchers belonging to Energy department of
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (US) has described the
reasons behind the recent outrageous research. It is carried out
in association with the distribution network and claims that it
has been observed that the adequate power expanse is
available at the generation and transmission echelons,
however, on the other hand, the power distribution network
setup is coming up short in this regard [9].
Mahalik et al. [10] carried out a research study about the
effect electrical infrastructure of Illinois (US State)
experienced. Similarly, M. Riveros [11] analyzed the effects
of increased load on the grid due to the EVs interconnection.
The research methodology followed in these studies implied
scrutinizing the power system comportment when EVs are
connected in a different perforation scheme and comparing
with it base level scenario of EV interconnection. In [12], the
setup contemplated adding EVs in the system by estimating
their penetration level in terms of percentage of the overall
vehicle count of the area under consideration. Consequently,
0.8% increase in load was analyzed to be experienced by the
grid in the duration of interconnection of EVs, which is higher
than the routine generation implying the need of additional
power generation.
L. Pieltain Fernández et al. [13] carried out an analogous
research study, though the research methodology was applied
on two different distribution regions. The area comprises of
6,000 household consumers coupled with the low-voltage
level, whereas the leftover region consists of 61,000
consumers (industrial and household). The proposed research
methodology at first takes care of the information regarding
existing regions of distribution. Next, the perforation scheme
is designed by using a load evaluator to consider the
interconnection of EVs in the system at peak and off-peak load
conditions. Ultimately, a model hinged at the idea of the finest
balanced system is enforced to meet the purpose of scheduling
that highlights the peerless investment spots. The outcomes of
this research study exhibit the dependency of investment costs
on the charging tactics of EVs planned in the perforation
scheme in a quantitative manner.
The authors performed a research study on the distribution
system in [14]. It has come up with a multi-year and multi-
objective planning mechanism that gives up the benefit of
acclimatizing higher penetration levels of EVs by adding the
concept of renewable distributed generation in the mix. It cuts
down on the allied expenses like fortifying power system and
energy losses. This study has helped in resolving the issue of
developing a strategy to work out the optimum penetration
levels of EVs with a 38-bus power system. To outline the
optimum renewable distributed generation to be added to the
grid, a met heuristic device of genetic algorithms is
implemented. It gives us all the details like location, size, a
span of setting up the distributed generation units and their
involvement with respect to the penetration level of EVs. This
development dilemma is construed in the form of “non-linear
mixed integer multi-objective programming”.
III. IMPACT OF CHARGING ELECTRIC VEHICLE
Research studies have classified the vigor of EV charging
upon the power grid in four key categories: first, change in
overall load capacity of grid; second, scrutinizing the
consequence of electric vehicles entrée to the grid regarding
power quality; third, EVs ingress to the grid economical
variations; and lastly, environmental influence of EVs. It can
be better understood by the following figure 1:
Impacts of Electric Vehicle
Grid Load Capacity
Power Quality
Charging
Impact on Economy
Impact on Environment
Fig. 1. Impacts of Charging Electric Vehicle
A. Impact on the grid load capacity
A lot of countries have invested a lot of time and money
to investigate if the current power supply capacity or
prearranged power supply capacity for the future is able to
meet the expanding demand of electric vehicles charging load
[15]. The results of research study carried out by S. Hadley
[16] highlighted that the erratic charging behavior will
intensify the peak load demand on the grid, which will lead to
surplus investment for enhancing the power generation and
transmission scope. The study executed to investigate the
capability of grid connection of Ontario (Canada), showed that
the charging behavior of 500,000 hybrid vehicles does not
significantly influence the power grid [17].
S.W Hadley, A. Tsvetkova. [15] Estimated in their study
that erratic charging will badly inflate the load on the power
grid in Germany by 2030. The study forecasted the weekly
load curve of power system. The simulation results clearly
exhibited that 1 million electric vehicles will increase power
supply demand by 1.5%. Similarly, once the electric vehicle
proprietorship approaches 42 million, it will consequently
enhance the power supply demand by 92% of the total
electricity supply. In the case of traditional power generation
combined with a tidy charging schedule will still have a
skeptical impact on the power grid. On the other hand, if
renewable energy resources are being used for power
generation, then the systematic charging can counterbalance
the erratic nature of renewable generation to some extent,
hence proving to be constructively useful.
B. Impacts on the Environment
The enormous influx of electric vehicles in our daily lives
will have a direct imprint on the environment and is widely
accepted to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The Chinese
researchers examined three different cases and concluded that
the interconnection of electric vehicles into the grid reduces
carbon dioxide emission. The research scholars investigating
Nordic grid surmised that the inclusion of EVs during the
duration of 2025-2030 would bring down the carbon dioxide
emissions by 1-6% and 3-28% correspondingly. According to
the research study, the cooperation between power and
transport sectors in Denmark can result in the 85% reduction
of carbon dioxide emission owing to the gigantic influence of
the electric vehicle use in the daily transport network [18].
C. Impact on power quality
The impact of the charging on the grid is generally
described through the changes in power quality of the system.
The erratic charging behavior of the users of EVs will cause
many harmful effects on the system e.g. the overvoltage
condition in the distribution network, power quality
deterioration, enhanced damaged of line, downturn of
distribution transformers, increased distortion and higher fault
current [19]. Few of these key effects are discussed in detail
here.
1) Voltage Discrepancies
It is expected that the magnitude related to EVs
interconnection in residential areas of the distribution
networks will rise up in the future, but their associated level
of penetration and corresponding connection spots are still
ambiguous. The residential areas will have single-phase loads,
and as a result, they will have the corresponding EV chargers.
This can lead to the voltage imbalance in the three-phase
distribution system.
Xin et al. [20] researched the erratic and random PHEV
charging process. Random charging method frees the owner
from any kind of restraints, which increase the danger of
higher node voltage offset resulting in the detriment of the
distribution network. Another study proposed an analysis of
delicacy of this very same phenomenon, and further devised a
stochastic assessment to ascertain the position of charging and
discharging the batteries and the corresponding penetration.
The research study concluded that voltage imbalance is
greater in the distribution section of the system [21].
One more noteworthy contribution to this particular matter
is done by Meyer et al. [22], which portray the charging
behavior of EVs battery with five disparate chargers and
proffer the factual measurement data of voltage imbalance in
the distribution network. In addition to this, the study also
performed an arithmetic investigation of the influence on
imbalance of voltage on the distribution system.
2) Harmonic Distortion
Orr et al. [23], investigated the harmonics, distortion in
voltage and power ratings linked with the diverse chargers of
EV. The research is regarded among one of the forerunner
creations correlated with the discussion about the influence of
EVs on grid dating back to the year 1984. Five different kinds
of chargers are thoroughly analyzed, not to mention chargers
including and excluding tranquil current inductor and the
controlled rectifier.
The research study [24] conferred the numerical technique
in 1998 for forecasting vigor of EVs charging on the
harmonics of the power system. It proposes load modeling as
the source of harmonic distortion along with the modelling of
the distribution system and every corresponding fundamental
frequency. Success of the proposed technique was
corroborated with the help of a sample event performed at a
selected distribution system and the obtained results were
conferred. In a nutshell, this technique is useful to find the
Total Voltage Harmonic Distortion (THDV) in the system,
which is triggered by virtue of inoculation of harmonic
currents. It also investigates whether the obtained THDV
values are within the well-established standards or not. In [25],
a similar study was carried out on a fork-lifter and a car and
THD for voltage and current were recorded.
Jiang, et al., formulated an all-inclusive probabilistic
technique founded on the Monte Carlo simulation for
investigating the influence cause by EV charging on the
distribution system in 2013 [26]. It encompasses
haphazardness in the key parameters like the charging spell,
charging interval and vehicles locale. F. J. Soares et al. [27]
delved into the aftereffects of harmonic distortion instigated
by the charging of the electric vehicle on the grid by assessing
and simulating it in Matlab. The results showed the overall
current harmonic distortion in the range of 20%-45% at the
instincts when electric vehicles are charging. These results
reiterate the necessity of the presence of an effective harmonic
control and hence put forth three different approaches to tackle
the issue.
M. Masoum et al. [28], proposed a scheme to alleviate the
harmonic distortion in the context of smart grid context. This
technique hinged on the optimum missive of tap changers
bearing in mind that it employs shunt capacitor. The
Supplementary accomplishments included the layout of an EV
charger enveloping power quality. The charger is devised with
the help of static converters (IGBTs) and is governed on the
principle of Pulse-width Modulation (PWM) that favors effect
remuneration of reactive power and active unstable currents.
In reference [29], authors have examined the evolving
notions of micro grids and EVs, linking it to the changes in
power quality standards. The study clinched that protocols
correlated to EVs should be reckoned with the
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) perspective, as EVs
acts as the receptors and origin of disturbances at the same
time. It predicted that the increasing penetration level of EVs
will necessitate unusual contemplation which can lead to the
establishment of a supervisory framework, since it is expected
that the existing criteria of power quality in power distribution
systems is undoubtedly sullied.
IV. EFFECTS OF DISCHARGE OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
In today’s world, the manifestation of renewable energy
generation and the traditional fossil fuel powered power plants
are recurrently in disparity with the demand of electricity. The
primary root cause of this issue is the sporadic nature of the
renewable energy resources but at the same time, the
discharging of electric vehicles interconnected with the grid is
able to lend a supporting hand for the cause of power supply
management and balancing the electricity demand. It is
proposed that in the future, the electric vehicles are connected
for the charging purpose in the duration of lower electricity
demand by the gird. In this way, it can act as a source
distributed energy storage source and in the peak load duration
can connect to the grid to discharge its battery and hence give
back the energy to stabilize the whole power system. This type
of bi-directional collaboration between electric vehicles and
the power grid is one of the new research concepts and is
widely known as V2G (vehicle to grid) method. It can play a
vital role in controlling of charging and discharging schedules
and avoid many problems that can arise from the integration
of EVs in the grid. [30]
A. V2G Theory
The interactive collaboration between electric vehicles and
the grid enables electric vehicles to act as a distributed energy
storage source that can greatly help in the grid regulation
purpose by means of charging and discharging cycle. This
novel approach was first put forth by Amory Lovins and
Professor William Kempton (University of Delaware) in 1995
and it has continuously evolved since then [18]. In contrast,
comparison to the conventional power generation, V2G
endorsed the comprehensive interconnection of erratic
renewable energy sources (e.g. wind, solar) with the gird and
realized their massive capability.
B. V2G Impact on Power System
The influence of discharging of electric vehicles towards
the overall power system is categorized into four crucial tiers
in the light of recent research studies; firstly, to offer support
services to the grid; secondly, to coordinate electric vehicles
discharging and renewable energy sources for establishing an
energy equipoise; thirdly, influence on the grid economy;
lastly, the influence on battery life and overall system
protection. This classification can be more clearly understand
by the following Fig. 2.
Provision of Ancillary
Impact of Electric Vehicle
Services
Compensate the
Discharging
Renewable Energy
Sources
Influence on Grid
Economy
Impact on Battery Life
Fig. 2. Impact of Electric Vehicle Discharge
C. V2G Participation in Providing Ancillary Services
A lot of recent research studies are keen to utilize V2G as
means to unravel long-standing complex hitches like load
shifting, frequency regulation, and implementing control
strategies like AGC. N. Juul and P. Meibom. [18] fixate their
study to enact the goals of managing power peaking and
frequency modulation (FM) with the help of charging and
discharging control approaches. The study aimed at
recommending the ultimate objective of alleviating the load
curve and drafting the scheduled program in the respective
order while keeping in mind the related stifles of EVs charging
and discharging power, total battery volume, offered time slot
and the corresponding user alignments to construct a
mathematical model by making use of the particle swarm
optimization algorithm for the purpose of augmenting
charging and discharging power of EVs. The simulation
results of the study exhibit that V2G participation in frequency
modulation of grid helps greatly in revamping response time
and the overall system stability.
1) Primary Frequency Control
The interconnection of EVs to the power grid not only
provide additional power but can also help with the frequency
stability. It can also enhance sturdiness of operation,
particularly in the case of isolated system. EVs can be deemed
as a brand-new mean for the purpose of primary frequency
control by virtue of their quick response to any kind of
variances [31]. It is also seen as an economically beneficial
ancillary service provided by the EVs. EVs discharge when
the command signal shows that the frequency is high and vice
versa in the case of low frequency [32]. The two main loops
in primary frequency control are the droop control loop and
the inertia control loop [33].To placate the anticipated battery
state of charging (SOC), the self-propelled distributed control
system was discoursed in [34]. The aberration in the system’s
fundamental frequency is monopolized by means of normal
distribution.
2) Secondary Frequency Control
Automatic generation control (AGC) acts like the lynchpin
of secondary frequency control and is one of the key control
strategies to maintain frequency stability. The participation of
EVs in load dispatching would lead to AGC reacting quickly
to frequency aberration on the generation end and load end
simultaneously and counterbalance the riposte of peculiar
inadequacy of the conventional generating unit. P.M.R.
Almeida et al. examined the viability of a probable AGC
maneuver with EVs [35]. This research study devised an
approach to drive EV participation in AGC in massive power
system. The study validated the ability of EVs to boost AGC.
Presently, this research topic is in its preliminary phase
because the entire spotlight is the contribution of EV in energy
storage to trim the outlay regarding the prevailing energy
conservation system.
3) Tertiary Control
The participation of EVs in tertiary control is centered on
the concept of “economic dispatch”. Economic dispatch is one
of the core issues, which comes up regarding the discussion of
the operation and administration of smart grid [33]. J.
Donadee and M. Llic [36], applied stochastic dynamic
programming technique in order to hone the issues of EV
charging and regulation of frequency and the economic
dispatch method was also properly addressed for the study.
Outcome of the study signposted that the connection of EVs
with the power system can lessen the gulf amongst required
power and power in stock in varied interval of time via
development of optimum dispatch schedule. Ambivalence and
perplexity of EV and wind power (as renewable generation
resource) was also taken into account.
Apart from this, EVs can help in avoiding congestion in
the distribution and transmission lines in times of peak load
and uncontrolled charging. This type of congestion mitigation
will help reduce power losses, peak load requirements and
maintain demand-supply balance [37]. EV aggregator units
can also act as a big energy storage banks that can store surplus
energy produced from the renewable energy resources and
supply it to the energy market at the required time [38]. This
can be an economically profitable option along with
compensating for the intermittency of the distributed
generation sources [39].
D. V2G Compensate for Renewable Energy Sources
The rising trends of renewable generation offer the
advantages of lower carbon emissions and a cleaner
environment in stark contrast with the fossil fuel-based
conventional power plants. This has been one of the key
reasons behind this swift switching from fossil fuels to
renewable energy resources. However, at the same time, these
new resources like solar panels, wind etc. have greater
sporadic nature that results in higher degrees of variances in
generated power.
EVs can play a constructive role here as distributed power
storage source which can be connected to the grid to make up
for the lack of electricity supply in the times of erratic
renewable generation. Hence, EVs can play a vital and
positive role in grid stability in the future with enhanced
renewable generation penetration in the current power grid.
 Früh et al. [40] premeditated on the impact of V2G on
wind power generation system and proprietors. The research
paper carried out the test case with 1000 individual electric
vehicles and performed the simulations bearing in mind the
contextual of the UK where wind generation makes up almost
30% of total generated power. The trail approach established
in the study will produce a travel itinerary of owners in an
arbitrary manner and perform simulation on the factual travel
circumstances. It also considered the market electricity price
hinged on the real-time price and keeps in mind the balancing
exigencies of the power system to chalk out an effective
electricity price for the charging and discharging of EVs.
Ultimately, the study along with the support of
experimental outcomes validated the fact that EVs can
ameliorate the erratic nature of wind power generation and
additionally fetched the proprietors a slight degree of
monetary perks. It also points out the fact that there is a dire
need of efficient management to maintain the grid balance.
The study also revealed the importance of real-time price
knowledge for the concerned proprietors.
E. Impact of Electric Vehicles Discharging on Grid
Economy
The enhanced role of V2G can play a key role in boosting
grid control capability and operating proficiency. It can also
help in providing fiscal benefits the EV users and the involved
utilities. LIAO Qiangqiang et al. [41] performed a research
study in which 800 MW peak power was supplied for the
duration of 12 hours in Shanghai via bunches of EVs
connected with 30 kWh battery concentrated discharge and
probed the expenses and economic advantages linked with the
V2G operating mode. EVs partaking in the power peaking
market and invoking load shifting can bring economic
advantages for the power utilities and EV possessors.
The study also examined the charging model of plug and
charge and made suggestions like charging at night (smart
charging) that can greatly influence the charging load
characteristics of the power grid in Guangdong. The Plug and
charge model because the peak load to rise 12% in Guangdong
resulting in a 20GW difference between peak load and valley
load. The minimum load in the daytime decreased from 0.57
to 0.52, causing serious repercussions on the planning and
operation of the power grid. The suggested alternative of night
charging mode caused only 1% peak load increment while
augmenting the minimum load that results in reduced variance
between peak load and valley load. The smart use of the V2G
mode notable improved the operating characteristics and
operational competence of the power grid.
F. Impact of Electric Vehicles Discharge on Battery Life
One of the worrisome factors associated with the V2G
mode is the enhanced use of the automobile battery which
cements the fact that it will reduce the battery life of the
vehicle. This issue is attracting a lot of attention in the recent
research studies. LIAO Qiangqiang et al. [41] concluded in the
study that V2G mode will have hugely perturb the battery life
and lessen the cycle life of the battery pack that in turn
momentously enlarge the expenses of electric vehicle holders,
consequently disturbing the development of the electric
vehicle market. J. Donadee and M. Llic [36] also disclosed
that despite the fact that V2G could assist in dealing with load
shifting, it causes a grave effect on the battery life of the
electric vehicle. At present, no comparatively precise methods
are available to quantitively evaluate the V2G effect on the
battery life. The reduction of vehicles battery life grimly
affects the advancement and application of V2G. The
sanctuary and expediency of battery discharging are one of the
key aspects that upsets the car owners.
CONCLUSION
The study epitomized the focal topics correlated to the
impact of EVs interconnection with the current power system.
It discussed many key issues like forecasting, power quality,
effect of charging and discharging of EVs on the grid, and
alluded vacillating matters to present the guidelines to many
research areas. The research studies associated to the
development concluded that the distribution system is the
most effected fragment of the power system due to EVs
integration. In some extreme cases of transmission line
congestion, the effects can also be seen on the generation and
transmission levels. Harmonic distortion and voltage
imbalance are the key topics of research work concerning
power quality. Rising power losses and node voltage drop are
some of the fringe issues. Many researchers agreed that the
significant effects on power quality would be noticeable only
at higher penetration levels of EV integration. The charging of
EVs primarily effect the power grid in the areas of load
capacity, power quality, economy of grid and environmental
changes. EVs are a constructive influence on the
environmental conditions as they diminish CO2 emissions.
In the future, EVs can be interconnected to the grid, which
includes renewable energy resources in the generation
scheme. EVs discharge largely effects the power grid in terms
of economic situation, battery life span, and ancillary services
for the grid and counterbalance sporadic nature of renewable
energy generation. V2G operating mode of EVs helps in
soothing oscillations in renewable energy generation (like
wind and solar). Battery life span, effects on economy, benign
and appropriate EVs discharging remain the major talking
points for the positive advertisement of V2G mechanism.
Smart control techniques are at the heart of the future
researches regarding V2G. Analyzing and formulating
charging and discharging scheduling tactics, relying on the
end-user requirements is a pivotal point of future research
studies
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