ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

Chapter 1
Introduction to Power Systems
(ECEG-3154)

Instructor:
Abiy. E (MSc)
Electrical & Computer Engineering Department
Wollega University
College of Engineering and Technology
 ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

0.1 Basic Structure of Power System

 Power System is a network of high tension wires/cables by which Electrical power

transmitted and distributed throughout a region. Power system is defined as a
network of one or more generating units, loads and power transmission lines
including the associated equipment’s connected to it.
Power System consists of the following main components:
Generation System- Energy Conversion Methods
Switchgear – Step-up transformer in the Generation station
Transmission System- Ultra-high, Extra-high, High and Medium Voltage levels
Substation-Step up or step down Transformer or switching substation
Distribution System- Low voltage levels
The Load or Energy sink- Resistive, Capacitive or inductive Electrical devices
ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

Single line diagram of a Power System Structure

Generation Transmission
System System
15,20 kV 400,500 kV 400,500 kV 66,45 kV
Generator-1
Large
Consumers

Step-up Step-down
Transformer 132,230 kV Transformer

Distribution
System
Generator-2 400,500 kV
15,20 kV 132,230 kV
66,45 kV
Step-down
Transformer
Step-up
Transformer 33,15 kV

11,11.5 kV
400/220 V
33/15 kV
Medium
Generator-3 and small
Consumers
 CONSISTANCE OF TYPICAL POWER SUPPLY SCHEME
 Generating station
 Primary transmission
 Secondary transmission
 Primary distribution
 Secondary distribution

The conveyance of electric power from a power station to

consumers’ premises is known as electric supply system.
ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

Energy Resource Options:

•They can be defined as net providers of energy

• Primary Energy Resources are subdivided into:

 Non-renewable energy sources: fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas (CH4))
Definition: Nonrenewable energy is energy obtained from static stores of
energy that remain bound unless released by human interaction.
Nonrenewable energy supplies are also called finite supplies.

 Renewable energy sources: solar energy, wind energy, Hydropower,

biomass sources; geothermal energy are seasonally and slowly recovered
energy sources.
Definition: Renewable energy is the term used to cover those energies that
occur naturally and repeatedly in the environment and can be harnessed for
human benefit. The ultimate sources of most of these energies are the sun,
gravity and the earth’s rotation
ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

Brief description of the main Power System Components:

1.Generation System
Types of Energy Resources:
• Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, Atomic energy (Fossil fuel resources)
• Solar, Hydro, wind, hot water/spring, Biomass (Renewable energy
Resources)
Types of Energy Conversion Methods/Generation Systems:
• Diesel Generator, Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine, Combined Cycle Gas
Turbine (CCGT), Steam Injected Gas Turbine, Nuclear power (Conventional
systems)
• PV System, Solar Thermal, Hydropower, Wind Power, Geothermal,
Biomass (Renewable conversion systems)
 ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

2. Transmission Systems:
This component of the power system transmits bulk electrical energy from
generation stations where it is produced to the main load centres. The
transmission system is composed of:
•Step-up and Step-don substations
•Transmission lines

3.Distribution Systems
The distribution system gives out the energy from the medium voltage
substations to customers’ location. It is composed of:
•Medium Voltage (MV) lines (33kV, 15 kV)
•MV/LV transformer substations (33/15/ kV to 400/380/220 V)
•Distribution lines (33/15 kV, 380 V 3-phase and 220 v single phase)

4. Load or Energy Sink:

Load is the end equipment of the power system where the transmitted
ctrical energy is converted to other forms of useful energy.
 The main objectives of the power system are
 An electric power system is a dynamic system which is a balance of supply and
demand:
(a) The supply of electricity, consisting of physical devices that must be designed,
constructed, operated, maintained, and eventually replaced as each device wears
out, and
(b) The demand for electricity, which changes as a function of time from
instantaneous (seconds, minutes), to short term (hours, days) and to the longer
term (months, years).
Therefore, a major objective for an electric power system is to keep a continual
balance between the supply and demand for electricity.
To generate adequate energy for supplying the customers’ demand at low price,
efficient conversion system and low environmental and social impacts
To transmit this energy from long distances of generation stations to the load centres
at low price, more efficient, stable and reliable conditions.
To distribute the transmitted energy from substations to customers’ at a quality
service, low price and efficient utilization of the energy. The function of an electric
power system is to connect the power station to the consumers’ loads
Generators – An essential component of power systems is the three phase ac
generator known as synchronous generator or alternator.
 Synchronous generators have two synchronously rotating fields: One field is
produced by the rotor driven at synchronous speed and excited by dc current. The
other field is produced in the stator windings by the three-phase armature
currents.
 The dc current for the rotor windings is provided by excitation systems. In the
older units, the exciters are dc generators mounted on the same shaft, providing
excitation through slip rings. Current systems use ac generators with rotating
rectifiers, known as brushless excitation systems.
 The excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive
power flow. Because they lack the commutator, ac generators can generate high
power at high voltage.
 The source of the mechanical power, commonly known as the prime mover, may
be hydraulic turbines. Hydraulic turbines, particularly those operating with a
low pressure, operate at low speed. Their generators are usually a salient type
rotor with many poles. In a power station, several generators are operated in
parallel in the power grid to provide the total power needed. They are connected
at a common point called a bus.

 The capital cost of hydro-electric scheme depends upon the nature of the
scheme, but is usually high. Such schemes usually are located at some
distance from load centres, therefore have associated high transmission costs.
Once the plant is operational, the subsequent costs are very low and
therefore are attractive for base load operation.
ECEG-3154, Generation - Hydro-electric Plant
 ECEG-3154, Generation - Hydro-electric Plant

The quick starting facility of hydro-electric plant and its ability to handle rapidly
changing loads make it ideally suited to peak-load operation. It might appear at the
first sight that the high capital cost and low operating cost of a hydro-electric
scheme are the reverse of what is required for peak-load plant, I.e. it also can be
used as Base load Operation

Hydroelectric power plant:

 Is one of the prevailing energy-producing technologies

 It provides about 20% of the world’s electricity
 In the ”developing world” the proportion rises up to 40%
Fig. Balanced 3-phase Generation, Transmission, Distribution and utilization
Ethiopia currently: at this time most of the Ethiopia electric source is
hydropower and it’s connected at Grid connection at Addis Ababa and distribute
from grid to different sub city and different area including Djibouti and Sudan.
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
The major portion of all electric power presently used in generation, transmission, and
distribution uses balanced three-phase systems. A balanced three-phase voltage system is
composed of three single phase voltages having the same magnitude and frequency but
time-displaced from one another by 120°.
 TRNSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER

TRANSMISSON LINE
TRANSMISSON LINE

A.C. TRANSMISSION
A.C. TRANSMISSION D.C.TRANSMISION
D.C.TRANSMISION

A.C.THREEPHASE
A.C.THREE PHASE MIDPOINT
MID POINTEARTH
EARTH D.C.TWOWIRE
D.C.TWO WIRE MIDPOINT
MID POINTEARTH
EARTH
FOURWIRE
FOUR WIRESYSTEM
SYSTEM A.C.SINGAL
A.C. SINGALPHASE.
PHASE. SYSTEM.
SYSTEM. TYPESYSTEM.
TYPE SYSTEM.

A.C.SINGAL
A.C. SINGALPHASE
PHASE A.C.THREEPHASE
A.C.THREE PHASE
TWOWIRE
TWO WIRESYSTEM
SYSTEM THREEWIRE
THREE WIRE
 Transmission of electric power has been along the years and will still
continue one of the most important elements of today’s electric
power systems. Power transmission from generating stations to
industrial sites and to substations is the fundamental objective of
the transmission systems.

 This function is accomplished by overhead AC or DC transmission

lines or underground cables that connect the power plants in to the
transmission network, interconnect various areas of transmission
networks, interconnect one electric utility with another, or deliver
the electric power from various areas within the transmission
network to the distribution substations, from which the distribution
systems supply residential and commercial consumers.
(i) When transmission is by overhead system. In the overhead system, the
maximum disruptive stress exists between the conductor and the earth.
Therefore, the comparison of the system in this case has to be made on the basis
of maximum voltage between conductor and earth.
(ii) When transmission is by underground system. In the underground system,
the chief stress on the insulation is between conductors. Therefore, the
comparison of the systems in this case should be made on the basis of maximum
potential difference between conductors.
For reasons associated with economy, transmission of electric power is done
at high voltage by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system.

ELEMENT
ELEMENT OF
OF TRANSMISSION
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
SYSTEM

PROTECTIVE
PROTECTIVE DEVICE
DEVICE STEP
STEP UP
UP TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER

REGULATOR
REGULATOR STEP
STEP DOWN
DOWN TRNSFORMER.
TRNSFORMER.

CONDUCTOR
CONDUCTOR LINE
LINE SUPPORT.
SUPPORT.

LINE
LINE ISULATOR
ISULATOR
 Comparison of D.C. and A.C. Transmission
The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or a.c. Each system
has its own merits and demerits.

i. AC power systems use sinusoidal currents and voltages. Because AC makes it

relatively easy to change the voltage levels, power grids tend to have many voltage
different levels.
ii. AC networks tend to be large and have a meshed core.
(b) Explain several reasons why AC power was ultimately chosen over DC.
i. Primarily losses. AC allowed for the relatively inexpensive conversion of
voltages, and thus moving power with lower currents.
 Ehvdc transmission
HVDC TRANSMISSION

Ts-sending end transformer

Tr-receiving end transformer
Rectifier -to convert the ac- dc.
T.line- to transfer the dc voltage.
Inverter-dc convert into ac voltage.
The ac voltage is step down by
receiving end transformer.
Advantage of HVDC Transmission
• It require less space.
• It require only 2 conductors as compared to EHVAC
transmission.
• Bulk power transmission long distance.
• No skin effect.
• No voltage drop.
• Less corona loss.
• No charging current.
• Fast fault clearing time.
• No short circuit current.
• Ground can be used as return conductor
Disadvantages of HVDC transmission
• Installation cost of EHVDC is high.
• Circuiting breaking is difficult.
• Cost of dc circuit breaker high.
• Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c.
voltage due to commutation problems.
• The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for
transmission of power at high voltages.
• The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their
own limitations.
A.C. transmission. Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.

Advantages
The power can be generated at high voltages.
The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and
efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe
potentials.
Disadvantages
 An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.
 The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a d.c.
transmission line.
 Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is
increased.
 An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due
to charging current even when the line is open.
 Advantages of High Transmission Voltage
Reduces volume of conductor material.
Increases transmission efficiency
Decreases percentage line drop
Limitations of high transmission voltage
The increased cost of insulating the conductors
The increased cost of transformers, switchgear and other
terminal apparatus.
Electric Power/ Transformer Sub station
Electric Power/ Transformer Sub station
 SUBSTATIONS
Substations are locations where transmission lines are tied together.
They fulfill a number of functions.
• They allow power from different generating stations to be fed into the main
transmission corridors.

• They provide a terminus for interconnections with other systems.

• They provide a location where transformers can be connected to feed power into
the sub transmission or distribution systems.

• They allow transmission lines to be segmented to provide a degree of redundancy

in the transmission paths.

• They provide a location where compensation devices such as shunt or series

reactors or capacitors can be connected to the transmission system.

• They provide a location where transmission lines can be de-energized, either for
maintenance or because of an electrical malfunction involving the line.

• They provide a location for protection, control, and metering equipment.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION:-

According to Design.

1.Indoor type 2.Out door type

Sub-station. Sub-station.

(b) Foundation
(a) Pole mounted
mounted
Sub-station.
Sub-station.
 Substation Equipment

There are a number of designs used for substations. however, there are elements
common to all:
• Bus − the electrical structure to which all lines and transformers are
connected. - open air and enclosed type.

• Protective relays
- monitor the voltages and currents − The relays actuate circuit breakers.
• Circuit breakers
• Capable of interrupting the flow of electricity to isolate either a line or a
transformer.
 Extinguishing the arc that forms using a variety of technologies such as oil,
vacuum, air blast or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
 These fault current levels can be 20 or 30 times larger than the current
flow under normal operating conditions, that is, thousands of amperes.
 Circuit breakers also allow lines or transformers to be removed from service for
maintenance.
 Circuit breakers normally interrupt all three phases simultaneously.
 Substation Equipment
• Transformers
 To connect facilities operating at two different voltage levels.
 On load and Off load or both Tap changing at the higher voltage side
 An autotransformer, which is used when facilities at nearly the same voltage are to
be connected
• Disconnect switches
 Used to open a circuit when only “charging” current present is due.
 To connect or disconnect circuit breakers or transformers which are not carrying load current.
• Lightning arrestors
 To protect transformers and switchgear from the effects of high voltage due to lightning
stroke or a switching operation.
 To flashover when the voltage at the transformer exceeds a pre-selected level which is
chosen by the station design engineers to coordinate with the basic insulation level of the
transformer (BIL).
• Metering equipment
 To measure line and transformer loadings and bus voltages so operating
personnel can ensure that these facilities are within acceptable limits.
• SCADA (system control and data acquisition)
 The improvements in measurement, telecommunications and computing technologies
 Electric Power/ Transformer Sub station
Depending on the electrical characteristics of the transmission system, other equipment
that may be located at a substation are:
• Shunt reactors
 To control high voltages that occur especially at night due to the capacitive effect of lightly loaded
transmission lines.
 to reduce or control the high voltages that can occur when a sudden loss of a block of customer
load occurs.
 The windings, insulation and the external tank are similar to those used for transformers.
• Series reactors
 Installed in a transmission line to increase the impedance of the line, to decrease current levels
in the event of short circuits, or to reduce its loading under various operating conditions.
• Shunt capacitors
• To provide mVArs to the system to help support voltage levels.
• Series capacitors
 To reduce the effective impedance and the electrical angle between the sending and the receiving parts
of the system of a long transmission line and enabling more power to flow over the line and increasing
stability limits..
• Phase angle regulating transformers
• To control power flow through a transmission line
• FACTS (Flexible ac Transmission Systems)
 Increased power transfer capability, rapid voltage control, improved system stability, and
mitigation of sub-synchronous resonance
Power distribution:
 The final stage in the delivery of electricity to the end user
 The network of a distribution system carries electricity
from the transmission system and delivers it to the
consumers.
 The distribution system begins as the primary circuit
leaves the sub‐station and ends as the secondary service
enters the consumer meter.
 The Consumer may be Industrial, Commercial or Domestic.
 It is usual for Industrial Consumers and some Commercial

Consumers to receive power supply at High Voltage because of

the sizes of their loads.
 Domestic Consumers generally receive power at low voltage.
 The Distribution voltages are 33KV,11KV and 400/230
 The Low Voltage Phase‐to‐Phase Voltage is 400 Volts while the

Phase‐to‐Neutral Voltage is 230Volts.

 Medium Voltage (MV) lines (33kV, 15 kV)
 MV/LV transformer substations (33/15/ kV to 400/380/220 V)
 Distribution lines (33/15 kV, 380 V 3-phase and 220 v single

phase)
 Distribution system components

Feeder: It is mainly used to connect the substation

through a conductor.
Distributor: It is a conductor from which tapping are
taken for supply to the consumers.
Service Main: It is a small cable which connects the
distributor to consumer terminals.
 Classification of the Distributing Systems

• Nature of Current:
 AC distribution system:
Primary distribution system
Secondary distribution system
 DC distribution system:
2- wire dc system,
3- wire dc system.
• Type of Construction: OHL,UG
• Scheme of Connection:
radial system, ring main system and inter connected system.
 AC distribution
• AC distributor with concentrated load;
1. three-phase, Three-wire distribution system-
Primary Distribution
2. three-phase, four-wire distribution system-
Secondary Distribution
 Ac distribution system

Primary Distribution

Primary distribution voltages are

11KV,6.6KV,3.3KV.
Primary distribution carried out by
3ф-3wire system.
 Secondary distribution

Secondary distribution carried out by

400/230V,3ф-4 wire system.
Domestic loads are connected between
any one phase and neutral 230V.
Load: consumes power; ideally with a constant resistive value. Load is
the end equipment of the power system where the transmitted electrical
energy is converted to other forms of useful energy. The Electrical load
can be light bulb, motors, heaters, cookers, refrigerators, TV,
Computers and other devices.
Complications
No ideal voltage sources exist
Loads are seldom constant
Transmission system has resistance, inductance, capacitance and
flow limitations
Simple system has no redundancy so power system will not work if
any component fails.
ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

Residential customers use energy for domestic purpose,

commercial and industrial customers use energy for commercial purpose

and industrial purpose respectively,

The agricultural sector includes energy demand for low and medium
scale agro-industries and farming.

The public service sectors may include schools, medical centres, street
lighting, public offices and entertainments.

Other can include government offices, electric utility own consumption,

power pool interconnections, electric railways, etc.
Classification of loads is important to study the group behaviour as load behaviour
for the different groups varies significantly. Within the broad class mentioned,
further subdivisions or sub-sectors may be defined as follows
ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems
Complex Power (S)
Complex power is a way to conveniently expressing the various power parameters
and their relationships
• Magnitude of S = Apparent Power
• The complex sum of Real Power (P) and Reactive Power (Q)
• Apparent power is the product of voltage and current of the source.
• Apparent Power (|S|): the magnitude of the complex power measured
in volt amps (VA).
Power Factor is the ratio of real power to apparent power
Power Factor is also the Cosine of the angle between the load voltage and the load
current. If the load current leads the load voltage, the power factor is leading; if it lags the
load voltage, the power factor is lagging
  Q = Power exchanged between source and load

P = Useful Output from the device being powered (Watts)

True Power (P): power that performs work measured in Watts (W)
Real Power only flows in one direction; its average value is zero or positive

Reactive Power always oscillates in one direction and then reverses an equal amount. Its
average value is always zero.

Reactive Power (Q): power that does not perform work (sometimes called “wattless power”)
measured in VA reactive (VAr)
· Complex Power (S): the vector sum of the true and reactive power measured in volt amps
(VA)
Phase angle . This is the angle used to describe the phase shift between the voltage and current.
The larger the phase angle, the greater the reactive power generated by the system.
This
  is also called the real power (it’s the power that’s provided to the resistive part
of the load over time)
• We want to assess the power delivered by different types of time-varying
signals
– The power delivered to a resistive load:
• P=R

Find a DC (constant) value which delivers the same average power as the time-varying
signal Called the effective or RMS value of the signal Used to “compare” different time-
varying signals.
• Effective DC value:
• VRMS, IRMS notation (RMS = “effective”)
Definition of RMS values
• The effective (or RMS) value of a signal is equal to the DC value which provides
the same average power to a resistor
• For sinusoidal signal with no DC offset:

Apparent power and power factor

• Power in terms of RMS values:
• The average (real) power is the product of apparent power and the
power factor
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

TYPES OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER:-

CURRENT POTENTIAL
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

CURRENT POTENTIAL
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER

 Series connection  Parallel connection

 Step up transformer  Step down transformer
 Never open secondary  Should be open secondary
These are special type of transformers used for the measurement of voltage, current, power and
energy. As the name suggests, these transformers are used in conjunction with the relevant
instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and energy meters.
Two Types of Instrument Transformer
Uses of Instrument Transformer
1. To insulate the high voltage circuit from the measuring circuit in order to protect the
measuring instruments from burning
2. To make it possible to measure the high voltage with low range voltmeter and high current
with low range ammeter.
These instrument transformers are also used in controlling and protecting circuits, to operate
relays, circuit breakers etc. The workings of these transformers are similar as that of ordinary
transformers. Measurement of current as CT
The primary winding is so connected that the current to be measured passes through it and the
secondary is connected to the ammeter. The function of CT is to step down the current.
Measurement of voltage by PT
The primary winding is connected to the voltage side to be measured and secondary to the
voltmeter. The function of PT is to steps down the voltage to the level of voltmeter.
One-line (single-line) diagram and impedance or reactance diagram

A simplified diagram by omitting the completed circuit through the neutral and by
indicating the components of the power system by standard symbols rather than by
their equivalent. The purpose of the single line diagram is to supply in concise
form of the significant information about the system.
Almost all modern power systems are three-phase systems with the phases of equal
amplitude and shifted by 120˚. Since phases are similar, it is customary to sketch
power systems in a simple form with a single line representing all three phases of
the real system.
 Example: a power system containing two synchronous machines, two loads, two busses,
two transformers, and a transmission line to connect busses together.

The components are: generators, transformers, transmission lines, and loads

Equivalent Circuit and Reactance Diagram
The equivalent circuit of the components Figure 1(a) based on the following assumption
A generator can be represented by a voltage source in series with an inductive reactance. The
internal resistance of the generator is negligible compared to the reactance.
The motor load is inductive.
The static load has a lagging power factor.
A transformer is represented by a series impedance on a per phase basis.
The transmission line is of medium length and can be represented by a T section.
All devices are protected by oil circuit breakers (OCBs). We notice that the diagram
indicates the type of connection for each machine and transformer, and also the
points in the system connected to the ground.
The ground connections are important since they affect the current flowing in
nonsymmetrical faults. These connections can be direct or through a resistor or
inductor (they help reducing the fault current that flows in unsymmetrical faults,
while having no impact on the steady-state operation of the system since the current
through them will be zero). Machine ratings, impedances, and/or consumed (or
supplied) powers are usually included in the diagrams.
The impedance diagram is the equivalent circuit of power system in which the
various components of power system are represented by their approximate or
simplified equivalent circuits. The impedance diagram is used for load flow studies.
Approximation:
(i)The neutral reactance is neglected.
(ii)The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of transformers are neglected.
 The reactance diagram is the simplified equivalent circuit of power system in
which the various components of power system are represented by their
reactance. The reactance diagram can be obtained from impedance diagram if
all the resistive components are neglected. The reactance diagram is used for
fault calculations.
Approximation:
(i) The neutral reactances are neglected.
(ii) The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of transformers are neglected.
(iii)The resistances are neglected.
(iv) All static loads are neglected.
(v) The capacitance of transmission lines are neglected.
Per unit (PU) system.

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of the
any quantity to the base value of the same quantity as a decimal.
Per unit value= (Actual value)/ (Base value)
Need for per unit value
1. The per unit impedance referred to either side of a single phase transformer is
the same.
2. The chance of confusion b/n line and phase quantities in a three phase balanced
system is greatly reduced.
3. The manufacturers usually produce the impedance values in per unit.
An advantage of per-unit representation is that circuits containing transformers
can be easily analyzed.
Real power systems are convenient to analyze using their per-phase (since the system is three-
phase) per-unit (since there are many transformers) equivalent circuits. The per-phase base
voltage, current, apparent power, and impedance are