Chapter One

Fundamentals of power system

 Introduction
 AC and DC Transmission Line
 Single and Three Phase Transmission Line
 Complex Power
 Intr. To Power Transformer (CT & PT)

1
 1.1 Introduction to Power System
 Power System is a network of high tension wires/cables by which
the generated electrical power is transmitted and distributed
throughout a region.
 Power System consists four main components, such as:
Generation Station, Transmission System, Distribution
System, and Load
1. Generation Station (power plant)
 It is place where the Energy Conversion takes place.
 At GS, the prime mover coupled to an alternator for the
production of electric power
 The prime mover (steam turbine, water turbine etc.) converts
energy from some other form into mechanical energy.
 The alternator converts ME of the prime mover into EE.

2
 Cont…
 The electrical energy produced at the GS is transmitted and
distributed with the help of conductors to various consumers.
 Depend on the form of energy converted into EE, the GS are
classified as under :
i. Steam power stations
ii. Hydroelectric power stations
iii. Diesel power stations
iv. Nuclear power stations

3
 Cont.…
2. Transmission System:
 It transmits the bulk electrical energy from generation stations
where it is produced to the main load centres.
 Power from generation plants is carried first through transmission
systems, which consist of transmission lines that carry electric
power at various voltage levels.
 A transmission system is a network (ring) which connecting
generation and substations.
 Transmission line is the long conductor with special design to
carry bulk amount of generated power at very high voltage from
4
one station to another as per variation of the voltage level.
 Cont.…

3.Distribution Systems
 Distribution system is the electrical system between the substation
fed by the transmission system and the consumer end.
 It gives out the energy from the medium voltage substations to
customers’ location. It is composed of: Medium Voltage, Low
Voltage, and Distribution lines (380/220 V).

5
 Cont.…
4. Load
A device which taps electrical energy from the electric power system
is called a load on the system.
It is the end equipment of the power system where the transmitted
electrical energy is converted to other forms of useful energy. The
load may be resistive, inductive, capacitive or combination of them.

Types of loads on the power system:

 Domestic Load (Light, fans, refrigerator, TV, etc),
 Commercial Load (restaurants)
 Industrial Load
 Other Load(street Lighting)

6
 Structure of Electric Power System
The function of an electric power system is to connect the power
station to the consumers’ loads.

7
 Cont…

Generation Transmission
System System
15,20 kV 400,500 kV 400,500 kV 66,45 kV
Generator-1
Large
Consumers

Step-up Step-down
Transformer 132,230 kV Transformer

Distribution
System
Generator-2 400,500 kV
15,20 kV 132,230 kV
66,45 kV
Step-down
Transformer
Step-up
Transformer 33,15 kV

11,11.5 kV
400/220 V
33/15 kV
Medium
Generator-3 and small
Consumers

Fig. Single line diagram of a Power System Structure

8
 Sources Energy
Electrical Energy is produced from energy available in various forms
in nature. The Energy generated from either Renewable or Non-
Renewable resource. Thus, the source of energy can be classified in
to two parts.
1. Non-Conventional (Renewable)
2. Conventional Energy (Non-Renewable) sources
1. Non-Conventional Energy (Renewable) sources
 They are the resources that are continuously replenished by natural
processes.
 A renewable energy system converts the energy found in: sunlight,
wind, water, sea-waves, geothermal heat, biomass
9
 i. Solar Energy
The SE is one of the most widely used source of electrical energy,
which is generated when certain materials are exposed to light. This
effect is called as Photoelectric effect.

Solar energy can be utilized trough two different routs

Solar thermal rout.
Solar thermal route uses the sun's heat to produce hot water or air, to
cook food, drying materials etc.
Solar electric rout (Photovoltaic) rout.
Solar photovoltaic uses sun’s heat to produce directly electricity for
lighting home and building, running motors, pumps, electric
appliances.
10
 Solar Electricity Generation
Solar Photovoltaic (PV): Photovoltaic is the technical term for solar
electric. Photo means "light" and voltaic means "electric".

 PV cells are usually made of silicon, an element that naturally releases

electrons when exposed to light.

Amount of electrons released from silicon cells depend upon

intensity of light incident on it.

The silicon cell is covered with a grid of metal that directs the
electrons to flow in a path to create an electric current.

 This current is guided into a wire that is connected to a battery or DC

appliance.
11
Solar Photovoltaic (PV):

Solar Photovoltaic Array 12

PV system Components

13
Advantage and Dis-advantage of PV System

Advantage of PV System

 Reliable long life, No fuel and no fumes, Easy to install, Low

recurrent costs, static, quite, and free of moving parts.

Dis-advantage of PV System

 More expensive than other energy sources.

 Need large collection area for installation of the panels to get high
power output.

 During the night and cloudy weather conditions, the requirement of

storage system or alternate power sources. 14
 ii. Wind Power
 Wind is the movement of air from an area of high pressure to an
area of low pressure.
 The wind is a free, clean (no air pollution), and unlimited energy
source.
 One of the most critical features of wind generation is the
variability of wind.
 Wind speeds vary with time of day, time of year, height above
ground, and location on the earth’s surface.
 wind power or wind energy describes the process by which the
wind to generate mechanical power or electricity.
 Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical power.

15
 Classification of Wind Turbine Rotors
Wind turbines can be categorized according to the axis of rotation:
1. Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)
2. Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)

1. Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines

 the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the ground (roughly
perpendicular to the wind stream).
 It is suitable for low power applications.

16
 Advantages of VAWT
 Easy maintenance for ground mounted generator and gearbox
 Receive wind from any direction,
 Simple blade design and low cost of fabrication.
Disadvantages of VAWT
 Not self-starting, thus, require generator to run in motor mode at
start,
 Lower efficiency (the blades lose energy as they turn out of the
wind),
 Difficulty in controlling blade over-speed, and
 High Oscillatory component in the aerodynamic torque

17
 2. Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines
 The axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to the ground (and
roughly parallel to the wind stream.)

• It is the most common design of modern turbines.

Based on the direction of receiving the wind, HAWT can be

classified as:

 Upwind and

 Downwind turbines

18
 Cont…
In upwind structure:

the rotor faces the wind directly.

Yaw control mechanism needed, to keep the rotor.

no tower shadow.

The yaw drive can turn the wind turbine compartment

(nacelle) according to the direction of the wind measured by
the wind vane.

In the downwind the rotor is placed on the lee side of the

tower. It may be built without a yaw mechanism. 19
20
Advantages of HAWT
 Higher efficiency

 Ability to turn the blades

 Lower cost-to-power ratio

Disadvantages of HAWT
 Generator and gearbox are mounted on a tower, thus
restricting servicing
 More complex design required due to the need for yaw or tail
drive.
21
 iii. Hydro-Power
Hydroelectric power generation involves the storage of a
hydraulic fluid, water, conversion of the hydraulic (potential)
energy of the fluid into mechanical (kinetic) energy in a hydraulic
turbine, and conversion of the mechanical energy to electrical
energy in an electric generator.

The early generation of electricity from about 1880 often derived

from hydro-turbines, and the capacity of total worldwide
installations has grown at about 5% per year.
Hydro-power now accounts for about 20% of world’s electric
generation. Output depends on rainfall and the landscape.

22
 Hydropower Generation
The term hydro-power is usually restricted to the generation of shaft
power from falling water. The power is then used for direct mechanical
purposes or, more frequently, for generating electricity.

23
24
Gilgel Gibe II Hydro-power Tekeze-300MW

25
Tidal Energy
Bio Energy/Biomass Energy
Geothermal Energy
2. Conventional Energy sources
Fossil fuels - Coal, Oil, & Natural Gas
Nuclear fuel

Read this part……….

26
 1.2 AC and DC TRAMSMISSION SYSTEMS

AC TRAMSMISSION LINE
It transmits the alternating current over a long distance.
It uses three conductors for long power transmission.
The AC transmission has both active and reactive power
with frequency 50Hz.
The AC transmissions line is used for small power
transmission.

27
DC TRAMSMISSION LINE
 It is used for transmitting the DC over the long distance.
 It uses two conductors for power transmission.
 The DC transmission system is used for large distance
power transmission.

 Have only active power, so:

 Current flow in one direction
 Low transmission losses
 Conductor cross sections fully used

 Requires DC-AC converter to control the voltage level, so

it is expensive
 Switching of higher voltage DC more difficult

28
 Comparison of AC and DC transmission
• The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or a.c.
Each system has its own merits and demerits.
D.C. transmission
 For some years past, the transmission of electric power by d.c. has
been receiving the active consideration of engineers due to its
numerous advantages.
Advantages.
i. It requires only 2 conductors as compared to 3 for a.c. trans.
ii. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and
surge problems in d.c. transmission.
iii. Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c.
transmission line is less than the a.c. line for the same load and
sending end voltage. Thus, a d.c. transmission line has better
voltage regulation. 29
 Cont’d
iv. There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-
section of the line conductor is utilized.
v. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation
is less .Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation.
vi. A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with
communication circuits.
vii. The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric
losses, particularly in the case of cables.
viii. In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and
synchronizing difficulties.

30
 Disadvantages
i. Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to
commutation problems.
ii. The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power
at high voltages.
iii. The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own
limitations.
A.C. Transmission
Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.
Advantages
i. The power can be generated at high voltages.
ii. The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
iii. The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by
transformers with ease and efficiency. This permits to transmit
power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.
31
 Disadvantages
i. An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.
ii. The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than
a d.c. transmission line.
iii. Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the
line is increased.
iv. An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss
of power due to charging current even when the line is open.

From the above comparison, it is clear that high voltage d.c. txn is
superior to high voltage a.c. txn.

32
 1.3 COMPLEX POWER

Review of Phasors:
Goal of phasor analysis is to simplify the analysis of constant
frequency ac systems.

33
Single-Phase Power Consumption

34
Cont.…

35
Advantages of Phasor Analysis

Device Time Analysis Phasor

Resistor v(t )  Ri (t ) V  RI
di (t )
Inductor v (t )  L V  j LI
dt
1t 1
Capacitor 
C0
i (t ) dt  v (0) V 
j C
I

Z = Impedance  R  jX  Z 
R = Resistance (Note: Z is a complex
X = Reactance number but not a phasor)
X
Z = R X
2 2
 =arctan( )
R 36
cont’d

(Note: S is a complex number but not a phasor)

37
 cont’d
Relationships between real, reactive and complex power
P  S cos 

Q  S sin   S 1  pf 2

Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

What are  (power factor angle), Q and S ?
  -cos 1 0.85  31.8
100kW
S   117.6 kVA
0.85
Q  117.6sin( 31.8)  62.0 kVar
38
 cont’d
For a pure resistor: the impedance angle is zero, power factor
is unity apparent power and real power are equal
For a purely inductive circuit: the current lags the voltage by
90°, average power is zero.
For a purely capacitive circuit: the current leads the voltage
by 90°, average power is zero.
Real Power, P RMS based - thermally equivalent to DC power
Reactive Power, Q Oscillating power into and out of the load
because of its reactive element (L or C). Positive value for
inductive load (lagging pf).
 Real power supplied by the source is equal to the sum of
the real powers absorbed by the load and the real losses
in the system. 39
 Example-1:
For the given circuit determine current flowing in
circuit, real and reactive power, and power factor.

40
Power Consumption in Devices

Resistors only consume real power

2
PResistor  I Resistor R
Inductors only consume reactive power
2
Q Inductor  I Inductor X L
Capacitors only generate reactive power
2 1
QCapacitor   I Capacitor X C XC 
C
2
VCapacitor
QCapacitor   (Note-some define X C negative)
XC 41
 Example-2:
For the given circuit determine the supply voltage V, and
apparent power.

42
 Three-Phase Power Circuits
 Almost all electric power generation and most of the power
transmission in the world is in the form of three-phase AC
circuits. A three-phase AC system consists of three-phase
generators, transmission lines, and loads.

 There are two major advantages of three-phase systems over a

single-phase system:
1. More power per kilogram of metal form a three-phase machine;
2. Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all time,
instead of pulsing as it does in a single-phase system.

43
 1.4 Single-phase and three-phase transmission lines

 Now-a days, 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted

for generation and transmission of electric power as an
economical proposition.
 However, distribution of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-
wire a.c. system.
 The underground system is more expensive than the overhead
system. Therefore, in our country, Overhead system is mostly
adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power.
 Single-phase loads may be connected to a three-phase system in
two ways. Either a load may be connected across two of the live
conductors, or a load can be connected from a live phase
conductor to the neutral conductor.

44
 Cont...
why is the three- phase a. c, system most popular?
 It is simpler than d.c. generation through electrical machines
because of absence of commutators in a .c. machines.
 Further, mechanical commutation system in d.c. machines sets
an upper limit of their size. while the rating of the individual
generators in modern power stations is too large. say about
1500 times the rating of a single largest feasible d.c. machine.
 AC. further facilitates in stepping down or stepping-up of a
voltage to suit a particular requirement with help of transformer.

 Changing over from a.c. to d.c. is very easy, due to the rectifiers
of sufficiently high power ratings. so that a wide range of d.c

45
1.4.1 Generation of three-phase voltages and currents

A three-phase generator consists of three single-phase generators with

voltages of equal amplitudes and phase differences of 1200.

46
 Cont.…

Each of three-phase
generators can be connected
to one of three identical loads.

This way the system would

consist of three single-phase
circuits differing in phase
angle by 1200.

The current flowing to each

load can be found as

I = V/Z 47
Cont.…
Therefore, the currents flowing in each phase are

V 00
IA   I 
Z 
V   1200
IB   I   120  
Z 
V   2400
IA   I   240  
Z 

48
 Cont.…

We can connect the negative (ground) ends of the three single-

phase generators and loads together, so they share the common
return line (neutral).

49
 Cont.…

The current flowing through a neutral can be found as

I N  I A  I B  I C  I     I     1200  I     2400
 I cos( )  jI sin( )  I cos(   1200 )  jI sin(   120 0 )  I cos(   240 0 )  jI sin(   2400 )
 I cos( )  cos(  1200 )  cos(  2400 )   jI sin(  )  sin(   120 0 )  sin(   2400 ) 
 I cos( )  cos( ) cos(1200 )  sin(  )sin(120 0 )  cos(  ) cos(240 0 )  sin( )sin(2400 ) 
 jI sin( )  sin(  ) cos(1200 )  cos(  )sin(120 0 )  sin(  ) cos(2400 )  cos( )sin(2400 ) 

 1 3 1 3 
I N  I cos( )  cos( )  sin( )  cos( )  sin( ) 
Which is:  2 2 2 2 
 1 3 1 3 
 jI sin( )  sin( )  cos( )  sin( )  cos( ) 
 2 2 2 2 
0
50
Balanced Three Phase System
The balanced 3 system has No neutral current

I n  I a  Ib  I c
V
In  (10  1   1  
Z
S  Van I an
*
 Vbn I bn
*
 Vcn I cn
*
 3 Van I an
* 51
 Cont.…
 As long as the three loads are equal, the return current in the
neutral is zero. Such three-phase power systems (equal
magnitude, phase differences of 1200, identical loads) are called
balanced.
 In a balanced system, the neutral is unnecessary.
Phase Sequence is the order in which the voltages in the
individual phases peak.

abc acb
52
 Cont.…
Residential balanced 3 phase () system has
Three voltage sources with equal magnitude, but with an angle shift of 120

Equal loads on each phase

Equal impedance on the lines connecting the generators to the loads

Advantage of three phase balanced system

Can transmit more power for same amount of wire (twice as much as single phase)

Torque produced by 3 machines is constant

Three phase machines use less material for same power rating

Three phase machines start more easily than single phase machines

53
 Determining of Voltages and currents for three phase delta and
star connected circuits
There are two types of connections in three-phase circuits: Y and .

Each generator and each load can be either Y- or -connected. Any

number of Y- and -connected elements may be mixed in a power
system.
Phase quantities - voltages and currents in a given phase.
Line quantities – voltages between the lines and currents in the lines
connected to the generators. 54
 Cont
1. Y-connection
Assuming a resistive load:

55
 Cont
Since we assume a resistive load:

Van  V 0 0
I a  I 00
I b  I   1200
Vbn  V   120 0
I c  I   2400
Vcn  V   240 0

The current in any line is the same as the current in the corresponding
phase.
I L  I
Voltages are:

 1 3  3 3
Vab  Va  Vb  V 0  V   120  V    V  j
0 0
V   V  j V
 2 2  2 2
 3 1 56
 3V   j   3V 300
 2 2
 Cont

Magnitudes of the line-to-line voltages and the line-to-neutral voltages

are related as:

VLL  3V

In addition, the line voltages are

shifted by 300 with respect to
the phase voltages.
In a connection with abc
sequence, the voltage of a
line lags the phase voltage.

57
 Cont
Vcn Vab
Vca

(α = 0 in this case)
Van
Vbn

Vbc

Vab  Van  Vbn  V (1  1  120

 3 V   30
Vbc  3 V   90
Vca  3 V   150
58
 Cont
2. -connection
Assuming a resistive load:

Vab  V 00 I ab  I 00

Vbc  V   1200 I bc  I   1200
Vca  V   2400 I ca  I   2400
59
 Cont

VLL  V
The currents are:
 1 3 
I a  I ab  I ca  I 00  I 2400  I    I  j I 
 2 2 
3 3  3 1
 I  j I  3I   j   3I   300
2 2  2 2

The magnitudes: I L  3I

60
 Cont
For the Delta
phase voltages equal
line voltages

For currents
Ia  I ab  I ca
Ic
Ica
 3 I ab   
I b  I bc  I ab
Ib Iab Ic  I ca  I bc
Ibc
S3  3 VPhase I Phase
*
Ia

61
 Cont

For the connections with the abc phase sequences, the current
of a line lags the corresponding phase current by 300 (see
Figure below).

For the connections

with the acb phase
sequences, the line
current leads the
corresponding phase
current by 300.

62
 Power relationships

For a balanced Y-connected load with the impedance

Z = Z0:
and voltages:

van (t )  2V sin t
vbn (t )  2V sin(t  1200 )
vcn (t )  2V sin(t  2400 )

The currents can be found:

ia (t )  2 I sin(t   )
ib (t )  2 I sin(t  1200   )
ic (t )  2 I sin(t  2400   )
63
 Cont

The instantaneous power is:

p (t )  v(t )i (t )
Therefore, the instantaneous power supplied to each phase is:

pa (t )  van (t )ia (t )  2VI sin(t ) sin(t   )

pb (t )  vbn (t )ib (t )  2VI sin(t  1200 ) sin(t  1200   )
pc (t )  vcn (t )ic (t )  2VI sin(t  2400 ) sin(t  2400   )
Since
1
sin  sin    cos(   )  cos(   ) 
2 64
 Cont

Therefore

pa (t )  VI  cos   cos(2t   ) 
pb (t )  VI cos   cos(2t  2400   ) 
pc (t )  VI cos   cos(2t  4800   ) 
The total power on the load

ptot (t )  pa (t )  pb (t )  pc (t )  3VI cos 

The pulsing components cancel each other because of

1200 phase shifts.
65
 Cont

Phase quantities in each phase of a Y- or -connection.

Real P  3V I cos   3I 2 Z cos 

Reactive Q  3V I sin   3I Z sin 2

Apparent S  3V I  3I Z 2

Note: these equations are valid for balanced loads only. 66

 Cont

Line quantities: Y-connection.

Power consumed by a load: P  3V I cos 

Since for this load I L  I and VLL  3V

VLL
Therefore: P3 I L cos 
3

Finally: P  3VLL I L cos 

Note: these equations are valid for balanced loads only. 67

 Cont

Line quantities: -connection.

Real Power consumed by a load: P  3V I cos 

Since for this load I L  3I and VLL  V

IL
Therefore: P3 VLL cos 
3

Finally : P  3VLL I L cos 

Same as for a Y-connected load!

Note: these equations were derived for a balanced load. 68
 Cont

Line quantities: Y- and -connection.

Reactive power Q  3VLL I L sin 

Apparent power S  3VLL I L

Note:  is the angle between the phase voltage and the phase
current – the impedance angle.
69
 Example:
Assume a -connected load is supplied from a 3
13.8 kV (L-L) source with Z = 10020Ω. Find the phase currents
and power factor of the load.

70
 Analysis of balanced systems

We can determine voltages, currents,

and powers at various points in a
balanced circuit.

Consider a Y-connected generator and

load via three-phase transmission line.

For a balanced Y-connected system,

insertion of a neutral does not change the
system. All three phases are identical
except of 1200 shift. Therefore, we can
analyze a single phase (per-phase circuit).

Limitation: not valid for -connections…

71
 Cont

A -connected circuit can be analyzed via the transform of impedances

by the Y- transform. For a balanced load, it states that a -connected
load consisting of three equal impedances Z is equivalent to a Y-
connected load with the impedances Z/3. This equivalence implies that
the voltages, currents, and powers supplied to both loads would be the
same.

72
 Cont
Delta-Wye Transformation Proof

From the  side we get

Vab Vca Vab  Vca
Ia   
Z Z Z
Vab  Vca 73
Hence Z 
Ia
 Cont

From the Y side we get

Vab  ZY ( I a  I b ) Vca  ZY ( I c  I a )
Vab  Vca  ZY (2 I a  I b  I c )
Since Ia  I b  I c  0  I a   I b  I c
Hence Vab  Vca  3 ZY I a
Vab  Vca
3 ZY   Z
Ia
1
Therefore ZY  Z
3
74
 Conservation of Power

Thus,

To simplify analysis of balanced 3 systems:

1) Δ-connected loads can be replaced by
1
Y-connected loads with ZY  Z 
3
2) Δ-connected sources can be replaced by
VLine
Y-connected sources with Vphase 
330 75
 Example

For a 208-V three-

phase ideally balanced
system, find:
a) the magnitude of
the line current IL;
b) The magnitude of
the load’s line and
phase voltages VLL
and VL;
c) The real, reactive,
and the apparent
powers consumed
by the load;
d) The power factor of
the load.

76
 Cont

Both, the generator and the load are Y-

connected, therefore, it’s easy to construct
a per-phase equivalent circuit…

is the load inductive or capacitive??

a) The line current:

V 12000 12000 12000
IL      7.94  37.10
 A
Z L  Z load (0.06  j 0.12)  (12  j9) 12.06  j9.12 15.1237.10

b) The phase voltage on the load:

V L  I L Z L  (7.94  37.10 )(12  j9)  (7.94  37.10 )(1536.90 )  119.1  0.20 V
The magnitude of the line voltage on the load:

VLL  3V L  206.3V 77

 Cont

c) The real power consumed by the load:

Pload  3V I cos   3 119.1 7.94cos36.90  2270W

The reactive power consumed by the

load:
Qload  3V I sin   3 119.1 7.94sin 36.90  1702var

The apparent power consumed by the load:

Sload  3V I  3 119.1 7.94  2839VA

d) The load power factor:

PFload  cos  cos36.90  0.8lagging 78

 1.5 Introduction to power transformers, CTs & PTs
Power transformers can be classified as:
Step-up transformers to be connected between the generator and the
transmission line. They permit a practical design voltage for
generators, and at the same time an efficient transmission line
voltage.

Step-down transformers connected between the transmission line and

various electrical loads.

The transformer consists of two or more insulated windings wrapped

around an iron core. By definition, the primary winding is the input
winding, and the secondary winding is the output winding.

79
Instrument Transformers
Some other types of transformers are used in measuring voltage,
current, and power flow in the power system.
The majorities are potential transformers and current transformers.
Potential transformers (PT) are single-phase transformers of special
design, which step down the voltage to be measured to a safe value.
Current transformers (CT) step down the currents and have
insulation adequate to isolate metering equipment and personnel
from the line voltage.
One terminal of the secondary of both potential and current
transformers is usually grounded for safety.

80
 Current Transformers
•These transformers are used with low-range ammeters
to measure currents in high-voltage ac circuits where it
is not practicable to connect instruments and meters
directly to the lines.
•In addition to insulating the instrument from the high
voltage line, they step down the current in a known
ratio.
•The current (or series) transformer has a primary coil
of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series
with the line whose current is to be measured as shown
in the following figure (a). 81
 Cont
 The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire
and is connected across the ammeter terminals.

 As regards voltage. the transformers is of step-up variety but it

is obvious that current will be stepped down. Thus, if the current
transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 100: 5.
then it steps up the voltage 20 times whereas it steps down the
current to 1/20th of its actual value.

 Hence. if we know current ratio I, of the transformer and the

reading of the a.c. ammeter. the line current can be calculated. 82
 Cont
• in fact, line current is given by the current transformation ratio times
the reading on the ammeter.
• One of the most commonly used current transformer is the one
known as clamp-on or clip-on type.
• it has a laminated core which is so arranged that it can be opened out
at hinged section by merely pressing a trigger-like projection.
• When the core is thus opened. it permits the admission of very heavy
current- carrying bus bars or feeders whereupon the trigger is
released and the core is tightly closed by a spring.
• The current carrying conductor or feeder acts as a single-turn
primary whereas the secondary is connected across the standard
ammeter conveniently mounted in the handle.
It should be noted that. since the ammeter resistance is very low the
current transformer normally works short circuited.
83
 Cont
 If for any reason, the ammeter is taken out of the secondary winding, then this winding

must be short-circuited with the help of short-circulating switch S.

 If this is not done then due to the absence of counter amp-turns of the secondary, the

unopposed primary m.m.f. will set up an abnormally high flux in the core which will

produce excessive core loss with subsequent heating and a high voltage across the

secondary terminals.

 This is not the case with ordinary constant-potential transformers. because their primary

current is determined by the load in their secondary whereas in a current transformer the

primary current is determined entirely by the load on the system and not by the load on

its own secondary.

 Hence. the secondary of a current transformer should never be left open under any

circumstances.
84
 Example:
 1. A 100: 5 transformer is used in conjunction with a 5-amp ammeter: If the
latter reads 3.5 A, find the line current.

Solution. Here, the ratio 100 : 5 stands for the ratio of primary-to-secondary
currents i.e.
I1/I2=100/5
therefore, Primary (or line) current= 3.5 x(100/5)=70 A

 Example 2. It is desired to measure a line current of the order of 2,000A to

2500A. If a standard 5-amp ammeter is to be used along with a current
transformer. what should be the turn ratio of the latter? By what factor
should the ammeter reading be multiplied to get the line current in each
case?

Solution. I1/I2= 2000/5 = 400 or 2500/5 = 500.

Since I1/I2 =N2/N1 hence N2/N1 = 400 in the first case and 500 in the
second case. It means that N1 : N2:: 1: 400 or 1: 500.
Ratio or multiplication factor in the first case is 400 and in the second case
is 500.

85
 Potential Transformers
These transformers are extremely accurate-ratio step-down
transformers and are used in conjunction with standard low-range
voltmeters (usually 150-V) whose deflection when divided by
voltage transformation ratio gives the true voltage on the high
voltage side.
• For safety, the secondary should be completely insulated from the
high-voltage primary and should be in addition grounded for
affording protection to the operator.
• The following Fig. shows the connections of such a transformer

86