CHAPTER ONE

Fundamentals of power system

Power system
Power System is a network of high tension wires/cables
It deals with:
Generation - supply the power. The voltage level at which it is
generated is between 10 to 30 KV.
Transmission - carries (deliver) the power from the generating centers
to the load centers
Distribution- feeds the power to nearby homes and industries
Utilization of electric power system. Consumer(load)
 Structure of power system

Generation Transmission
System System
15,20 kV 400,500 kV 400,500 kV 66,45 kV
Generator-1
Large
Consumers

Step-up Step-down
Transformer 132,230 kV Transformer

Distribution
System
Generator-2 400,500 kV
15,20 kV 132,230 kV
66,45 kV
Step-down
Transformer
Step-up
Transformer 33,15 kV

11,11.5 kV
400/220 V
33/15 kV
Medium
Generator-3 and small
Consumers
  Generation system
Electric Power can be generated from both
Conventional and
Non-conventional (Renewable) Energy sources

Conventional Energy sources

Fossil fuels (Coal, Oil, & Natural Gas) and

 Nuclear fuels
Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Some sources of renewable energy are:
- Sunlight (solar Energy) - wind
- falling-water - sea-waves (tidal)
- Geothermal heat - biomass
Hydro-power
 Power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water,
which may be harnessed for useful purpose.
 Hydro-power
Schematic arrangement of hydro electric power

 Installed capacity 6,450MW

 Generation 15,692Gwh
Ethiopian has
 3,715MW in service
 8,950MW under construction
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
Ethiopian electricity generation in service and
under construction (hydro power)

In service Under construction

 Wind energy
originates from the sun.
As the earth orbits the sun daily, it receives light and heat.
 Across the earth there are areas with different temperatures, so that
heat transfers from one area to another.
Wind is the movement of the air from high pressure to low pressure.
Wind turbine can be classified as:
Vertical-axis wind turbines
Horizontal-axis turbines,
Vertical-axis and Horizontal-axis turbines
The block diagram of a typical wind energy
conversion system
Wind energy

• Ethiopia has installed

51 MW Adama I
The 120 MW Ashegoda
153 MW Adama II
Total of 324MW

A GIS map showing geographic distribution of wind resources

of Ethiopia
 Solar Energy
ultimate source of most of renewable energy sources.
 Solar energy can be used to generate electricity in a direct way with
the use of photovoltaic modules.

Solar system main components

Solar Energy
two ways to generate electricity from sunlight
Solar thermal (indirect) electricity generation

Solar flat plat collector (water heater) solar heat collector (Sun basket)
Solar electricity generation

produce electricity for lighting home and building, running motors,

pumps, electric appliances, and lighting.
They are usually made of silicon (an element that naturally releases
electrons when exposed to light).
 Amount of electrons released from silicon cells depend upon solar
radiation (intensity of light incident on it).
PV Module and Array
 Biomass
Biomass is the term used for all organic material originating from
plants (including algae), trees and crops and is essentially the
collection and storage of the sun’s energy through photosynthesis.
It is derived from numerous sources

By-products of animals (cow dugs, human waste, wood, wood

industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the forest, Household
wastes....)
Biomass
Biomass is the fourth largest source of energy in the world after coal,
petroleum and natural gas,
providing about 14 per cent of the world’s primary energy
consumption
the poor man’s oil
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Potentials in Ethiopia
Energy potential of Ethiopia
Resource Unit Exploitable Reserve Exploited

Amount Percent

Hydropower MW 45,000 3,715 12.1%

Solar/day kWh/m2 4-6 <1%

Wind:Power GW 1,350 324MW <1%

Speed m/s >7

Geothermal MW 7000 7.3 MW <1%

Wood Million tons 1120 560 50%

Agricultural waste Million tons 15-20 ~6 30%

Natural gas Billion m Billionm3 113 - 0%

Coal Million tons >300 - 0%

Oil Shale Million tons 253 - 0%

Over View of Existing and Planned Interconnection
Possible Interconnection Lines with Neighboring Countries

 Ethiopia is already connected to Sudan,

Djibouti and the Border towns of Kenya.

 Ethiopia – Kenya 500 KV D.C. line under

construction (up to 2000 MW)

 Exports to Egypt 2000 MW and

additional 1200 MW to Sudan are
planned for implementation soon.

 signed to Exports to Tanzania, Rwanda,

Burundi, South Sudan and Yemen
Transmission Systems
The transmission system is composed of
Step-up and Step-don substations
Transmission lines can be
DC or AC transmission system
DC Transmission
superior to that by high voltage AC system in many respects
Advantages.
It requires only two conductors
There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge
problems
less voltage drop so it has better voltage regulation.
 DC Transmission
the potential stress on the insulation is less it requires less insulation.
less corona loss and reduced interference with communication
circuits.
there are no stability problems and synchronizing difficulties.
DC Transmission
 Disadvantages
Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to
commutation problems.
The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at
high voltages.
The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
 AC Transmission
Now a day, electrical energy is
almost exclusively generated, Disadvantages
transmitted and distributed in AC
Required more copper
Advantages
more complicated construction
The power can be generated at high
voltages.
An a.c. line has capacitance.
Therefore, there is a continuous loss
The maintenance of AC sub-stations of power due to charging current
is easy and cheaper. even when the line is open.
stepped up or stepped down by
transformers with ease and
efficiency.
Single phase and three-phase transmission
Two types of system available
Single phase
there will be only one phase,
minimum amount of power can be transported.
generating station and load station single phase

Pulsating power due to single phase supply

Single phase and three-phase transmission
Three phase
is the poly-phase system where three phases are send together from
the generator to the load.
Each phase are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e. 120° angle
electrically.
each of the three phases can be used as single phase.
Constant power due to 3-phase system
 Why Three Phase is preferred Over Single Phase?
The three phase power system has been adopted universally for transmission of
AC power because of the ff advantages
Higher power/weight ratio of alternators smaller, lighter and cheaper.
3-phase requires less copper or aluminum to transmit the same quantity of
power of a specific distance than a single phase system.
Three phase motors are self-starting due to the rotating magnetic
But a single phase motor is not self-starting, it requires a capacitor and an
auxiliary winding.
In Single phase systems, the instantaneous power is not constant and is
sinusoidal.
In a three phase the instantaneous power is always the same.
Three phase supply can be rectified into dc supply with a lesser ripple factor.
two types of three phase circuit connections :
• Star Connection
there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral
which is taken from the star point.
Star connection is preferred for long distance power transmission
because it is having the neutral point.
Balanced system: equal current will flow through all the three phases,
when the current will not be equal in any of the phase, then it is
unbalanced current
the line voltage is √3 times of phase voltage.
Star Connection

Line voltage is the voltage between two phases in three phase circuit
phase voltage is the voltage between one phase to the neutral line.
the current is same for both line and phase.

Vab  3Van or VL  3Vph

Iab  Ian or IL  I ph
Delta Connection

Three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken.

Preferred for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced current
in the circuit.

Vab  Van or VL  Vph

Iab  3Ian or I L  3I ph
In three phase circuit, star and delta connection can be arranged in
four different ways-
oReading assignment
Star-Star connection

Star-Delta connection

Delta-Star connection

Delta-Delta connection
Power is independent of the circuit arrangement of the three phase
system.
The net power in the circuit will be same in both star and delta
connection.
The power in three phase circuit can be calculated from as
 Single-phase solution of balanced three-phase networks
 easily carried out by solving the single-phase network corresponding to the
reference phase.
The generator and load neutrals are at the same potential, so that In = 0.
Thus the neutral impedance Zn does not affect network behavior.
 For the reference phase
Ea= (ZG+ZL)Ia
 Three phase Y/Y transformer single phase equivalent of 3-phase Y/Y transformer

Star/delta transformer with equivalent star connection 1-phase equivalent star/delta transformer
Distribution Systems

The distribution system gives out the energy from the medium voltage
substations to customers’ location.
 It is composed of:
Medium Voltage (MV) lines (33kV, 15 kV)

MV/LV transformer substations (33/15/ kV to 400/380/220 V)

Distribution lines (33/15 kV, 380 V 3-phase and 220 v single

phase
Load or Energy Sink
Load is the end equipment of the power system where the transmitted
electrical energy is converted to other forms of useful energy.
Power, current and potential transformers
A transformer
is a static machine

operates on ac supply and works on the principle of mutual induction

Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their purpose.

Electrical Power Transformer

Used in transmission network for stepping up or down the voltage level.

 It operates mainly during high or peak loads and has maximum efficiency at or near full
load.
Generation of electrical power in low voltage level is very much cost effective.
This low voltage power if transmitted results in greater line current which
indeed causes more line losses

But Increase voltage level- decrease current – reduce ohmic loss- reduction in
cross sectional area of the conductor- reduce capital cost- improves the voltage
regulation of the system- improve quality of power

Distribution Transformer- steps down the voltage for distribution purpose to

domestic or commercial users

It has good voltage regulation and operates 24 hrs. a day with maximum
efficiency at 50% of full load.
 Instrument transformers
 Transformers used to reduce high voltages and current to small values
which can be measured by conventional instruments.
Current Transformer (C.T.)(series transformer)
Used to step down the current of power system to a lower level to make it
feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter (i.e. 5A ammeter)
Primary- having very few No. of turn .

Primary -connected in series with the power circuit

secondary -having large no. of turns

Secondary connected directly to an ammeter

Ammeter has very small resistance.
the secondary of current transformer operates almost in short circuited.

One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid the large voltage on

secondary with respect to earth.
Before disconnecting the ammeter, secondary is short circuited through a
switch ‘S’ to avoid the high voltage build up across the secondary.
Potential Transformer (P.T.)(parallel transformer)
Used to step down the voltage of power system to a lower level to make is
feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter i.e. 110 – 120 V voltmeter
Primary -having large no. of turns.
Primary-connected across the line (generally between on line and earth).

Secondary -having few turns and connected directly to a voltmeter.

voltmeter -having large resistance.

Hence the secondary of a P.T. operates almost in open circuited condition.

One terminal of secondary of P.T. is earthed to maintain the secondary

voltage with respect to earth. Which assures the safety of operators.
 Difference between C.T. and P.T.
Sl.
No.
Current Transformer (C.T.) Potential Transformer (P.T.)
1 Connected in series with power circuit. Connected in Parallel with Power circuit.
2 Secondary is connected to Ammeter. Secondary is connected to Voltmeter.
Secondary works almost in open circuited
3 Secondary works almost in short circuited condition.
condition.
4 Primary current depends on power circuit current. Primary current depends on secondary burden.
Primary current and excitation vary over wide range with Primary current and excitation variation are
5
change of power circuit current restricted to a small range.
One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid the insulation One terminal of secondary can be earthed for
6
break down. Safety.
7 Secondary is never be open circuited. Secondary can be used in open circuit condition.
Complex Power
Review of Phasors: The objective of phasor analysis is to simplify the analysis of constant
frequency ac systems. Instantaneous Power

v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv) p(t) instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time
i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi) v(t) instantaneous voltage
i(t) instantaneous current
P(t)= v(t)i(t) = VmIm cos(ωt + θvcos(ωt + θi)
apply the trigonometric identity
Ѳv and Ѳi are the phase angles of the voltage and current,
Vm and Im are the amplitudes (or peak values)
cos A cos B 
1
cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)
2
The first part is constant or time independent
1 1
p(t )  Vm I m cos( v   i )  Vm I m cos(2wt   v   i ) Its value depends on the phase difference between the voltage and
2 2
the current.
The second part is a sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2ω,
which is twice the a of the voltage or current.
 Average power
• The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one
period. The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the
same constant. The second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the
average of a sinusoid over its period is zero

T
1
P(t )   p(t )dt
T0
T T
1 1 1 1
P
T 0 2 Vm I m cos( v   i )dt  T  2V
0
m I m cos(2wt   v   i )dt

1 1T 1 1T
P  Vm I m cos(v  i )  dt  Vm I m  cos(2wt  v  i )dt
2 T0 2 T0

1
P  Vm I m cos( v   i )
2
,

Complex power
• using phasors V and I
• S=1/2VI*=VrmsIrms* 12=V m I m ( v   i )

1 1
Vm I m cos( v   i )  j Vm I m sin( v   i )
2 2

Apparent power
that the magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power
Active or real power
P = Vrms I rms cos( v   i )
S  Vrms I rms

V Vrms
Z  ( v   i ) Reactive power
I I rms
Q = Vrms I rms sin( v   i )
2
V
2
I rms Z rms
*
Z
R  jX

S= I rms ( R  jX )  P  jQ
2
Phasor Analysis

Device Time Analysis Phasor

Resistor v (t )  Ri (t ) V  RI
di (t )
Inductor v (t )  L V  j LI P  V I cos
dt
1 t
1 SV I
Capacitor
C  i (t ) dt  v (0) V 
j C
I
Q  S sin   V I sin 
0
Z = Impedance  R  jX  Z  px(t )  Q sin 2(t   v)
R = Resistance   Q  P P
cos   cos  arc     
X = Reactance   P  P2  Q2 S
X
Z = R2  X 2
 =arctan( )
R S= is complex number
S  V I  cos(V   I )  j sin(V   I )  P= real power (W, kW, MW)
 P  jQ Q= Reactive power (var, var, Mvar)
 V I* S= complex power (VA,Kva, MVA)
Power factor (pf) = cosϕ
Relationships between real, reactive and complex power

P  S cos  , P  V I cos 
Q  V I sin  For a purely capacitive : the current leads the voltage by 90°,
Q  S sin    S 1  pf 2

For a pure resistor: the impedance angle is zero,

pf= 1,S=P

For a purely inductive :the current lags the voltage by 90°, Reactive Power: Oscillating power into and out of the
load
because of its reactive element (L or C).
Positive value for inductive load (lagging pf)
 Real power supplied by the source is equal to the sum of the real powers absorbed
by the load and the real losses in the system
0   Pgen   Ploads   Plosses
 Reactive power must also be balanced: The balance is between the
sum of leading and the sum of lagging reactive power producing
elements 0   Qleading   Qcaps   Qlagging   Qinduc

 The total complex power delivered to the loads in parallel is the sum of the complex
powers delivered to each

0 S gen   Sloads  Slosses

Chapter two
• Representation of power system components
Power System Representation
•
The interconnections of the power system components cab be shown
in one-line diagram.
• analysis, the equivalent circuits of the components are shown in a
reactance diagram or an impedance diagram.
• ONE-LINE DIAGRAMS
ONE-LINE DIAGRAMS

Symbolic Representation of Elements of a Power System.

 A One-Line Diagram of a Portion of a Power
System.

The components are: generators, transformers, transmission lines, and

loads.
IMPEDANCE AND REACTANCE DIAGRAMS

In power system analysis it is necessary to draw an equivalent circuit for

the system.
This is an impedance diagrams.
However, in several studies, including short-circuit analysis it is sufficient
to consider only reactance neglecting resistances.
Hence, we draw reactance diagrams.
For 3-phase balanced systems, it is simpler to represent the system by a
single line diagram without losing the identity of the 3-phase system.
Thus, single line reactance diagrams can be drawn for calculation.
The one-line diagram may serve as the basis for a circuit
representation components of the power system is impedance diagram
or a reactance diagram if resistances are neglected
The following assumptions have been incorporated
A generator can be represented by a voltage source in series with an inductive
reactance.
The internal resistance of the generator is negligible compared to the
reactance.
The loads are inductive.
The transformer core is ideal, and the transformer may be represented by a
reactance.
The transmission line is a medium-length line and can be denoted by a T or
𝜋 circuit.
The delta-wye-connected transformer T1 may be replaced by an equivalent
wye-wye-connected
Transformer (via a delta-to-wye transformation) so that the impedance
diagram may be drawn on a per-phase basis.
• PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION