Screenshot 2564-05-26 at 22.43.17

Thesis Proposal
MICROWAVE-BASED PROCESSING OF C. PAPAYA LEAF EXTRACT FOR

FUNCTIONAL FOOD APPLICATIONS AND ITS SUSTAINABILITY POTENTIAL
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MJU iThesis 6303307001 proposal / recv: 21052564 17:09:44 / seq: 2
LOVE SALVE BELONIO

6303307001
Advisory Committee
Associate Professor Jaturapatr Varith , Ph.D. Associate Chair

Professor Somkiat Jaturonglumlert , Ph.D. Committee
Assistant Professor Kanjana Narkprasom , Ph.D. Committee
Assistant Professor Nukrob Narkprasom , Ph.D. Committee
ACADEMIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT, MAEJO UNIVERSITY

CHIANG MAI
Request for Approval
Thesis Proposal
MICROWAVE-BASED PROCESSING OF C. PAPAYA LEAF EXTRACT FOR

FUNCTIONAL FOOD APPLICATIONS AND ITS SUSTAINABILITY POTENTIAL
LOVE SALVE BELONIO

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PRESENTED TO ACADEMIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT, MAEJO UNIVERSITY

TO REQUEST APPROVAL FOR CONDUCTING THESIS WORK
MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN FOOD ENGINEERING
Approved by Advisory Committee
Chair
(Associate Professor Jaturapatr Varith , Ph.D.)
..................../.................../................
Committee
(Associate Professor Somkiat Jaturonglumlert , Ph.D.)
..................../.................../................
Committee
(Assistant Professor Kanjana Narkprasom , Ph.D.)
..................../.................../................
Committee
(Assistant Professor Nukrob Narkprasom , Ph.D.)
..................../.................../................
Program Chair, Master of Engineering

(Assistant Professor Chanawat Nitatwicit , PhD.)
..................../.................../................
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... D
List of Tables.....................................................................................................................................G
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................... H
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CHAPTER 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Research .............................................................................................. 1

1.2 Objectives of the Research ................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Scope of the Research ........................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Keywords ................................................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 5
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 C. papaya and its phytochemicals .................................................................................. 5
2.2 Extraction methods for C. papaya leaf extract ............................................................ 6
2.3 Microwave-assisted extraction .......................................................................................... 7
2.4 Water as an extracting solvent.......................................................................................... 8
2.5 Drying prior to extraction.................................................................................................... 9
2.6 Microwave drying.................................................................................................................. 9
2.7 Applications of microwave technology in food and nutraceutical processing ...10
2.8 Sustainability in complex food systems .......................................................................11
CHAPTER 3 .......................................................................................................................................12
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................................12
E
3.1 Part 1: Microwave drying of C. papaya leaves ...........................................................12

3.1.1 Sample preparation ................................................................................................12
3.1.2 Microwave drying (MD) ...........................................................................................13
3.1.3 Hot-air drying (HAD) .................................................................................................14
3.1.4 Moisture ratio (MR) and drying curve ..................................................................14
3.1.5 Effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) and activation energy (Ea) ......................16
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3.1.6 Residual and initial moisture content ................................................................17

3.1.7 Microwave-assisted ethanolic extraction of flavonoids and saponins .......18

3.1.8 Total flavonoids content (TFC) and Total saponins content (TSC).............18
3.1.9 Specific energy consumption (SEC) .....................................................................18
3.1.10 Confirmation of the optimum condition for high TFC and TSC ................19
3.1.11 Statistical analysis..................................................................................................19
3.2 Part 2: Microwave-assisted extraction of flavonoids and saponins from
microwave-dried C. papaya leaves...............................................................................19
3.2.1 Initial moisture content..........................................................................................19
3.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) with ethanol as solvent.....................19
3.2.3 Optimization of aqueous MAE..............................................................................20
3.2.4 Hot water extraction ...............................................................................................20
3.2.5 TFC and TSC of the extracts .................................................................................20
3.2.6 Comparison of the energy, water and solvent consumption.......................21
3.2.7 Statistical analysis ....................................................................................................21
3.3 Efficiency of MD-MAE process for obtaining C. papaya leaf extract .....................21
3.4 Sustainability potential of MD-MAE process ................................................................22
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................23
F
CURRICULUM VITAE .......................................................................................................................32

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List of Tables
Page
Table 1 Mathematical models for thin-layer drying of C. papaya leaves........................16
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List of Figures
Page
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the research. .................................................................12
Figure 2. Setup of the process for MD. .....................................................................................14
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Research
C. papaya is a plant that grows in the tropical and subtropical regions of the
world, the different parts of which possess numerous nutrients (Santana et al., 2019).
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Its leaf is among its widely sought parts due to its antidiabetic and cholesterol-
reducing (Juarez-Rojop et al., 2012), anti-cancer (Hoque et al., 2015), antimicrobial
(Baskaran et al., 2012), and anti-dengue (Sharma et al., 2019) properties, among many
others. These properties are mostly attributed to the presence of food fibers and
polyphenolics, such as flavonoids and saponins, in large amounts (Santana et al.,
2019). Despite its medicinal and therapeutic advantages, however, it is of little to no
appeal due to its bitter taste owing to its saponin content (Syed Amran et al., 2018).
Thus, it rarely finds suitability for use in culinary, the reason for it being rather utilized
in extract form.
In past studies employing extraction of C. papaya leaf extract, decoction was
the most widely used. This is typically because of its actual use in household settings
as a traditional method of preparing natural treatment and cure for diseases. On the
one hand, this extraction method is beneficial in that boiling can increase the level
of phytochemicals present in the plant (Gunathilake et al., 2018). On the other
hand, however, it is detrimental to the environment because of the high input of
both water and energy needed for optimal extraction when adopted to industrial
settings. It is for this downside that researchers have been exploring non-
conventional extraction methods in recent years. Further cemented by the advent
of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), there seems to be a race for the
discovery of novel extraction methods that increase the industrial value of plants,
while at the same time, pose a reduced need for water and energy inputs. Among
the recent technologies studied as of late in terms of their applicability for
sustainability as extraction methods are microwave, ultrasound, pulse electric field,
instant controlled pressure drop, and supercritical fluid. Although these technologies
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have been heavily researched on for more than three decades, it was only until
recently that they are explored on the basis of sustainable process design (Chemat
et al., 2017).
Aside from extraction, drying also helps increase the industrial value of plants
due to increase in phytochemical content catalyzed by elevated temperatures. For
instance, in a study on chrysanthemum flower heads (from two developmental
stages) (Yuan et al., 2015), it was found that oven-drying at 60ºC and 70ºC yielded
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the best quality parameters, including high phytochemical contents, from within a
temperature range of 40ºC to 120ºC. However, this may not always be the case for
all plants. Some plants find a reduction in phytochemical contents beyond 70ºC,
while others find an increase in phytochemical contents even beyond the same
temperature. Thus, it is important to note that the impacts of heating on the changes
in phytochemical contents are dependent on the plant species and drying method
(Gunathilake et al., 2018).
Among the drying methods, microwave drying (MD) is considered to be one of
the most advantageous so far due to its efficiency. In just a matter of minutes, a
high amount of moisture can be removed from the material because the microwaves
selectively target it, not only heating the outer surface but also the inner parts (M.
Youssef and Mokhtar, 2014). On the downside, this drying method still lacks more
solid information as to its scalability for industry adoption. Meanwhile, using certain
assumptions and specific data collected from industrial companies through surveys,
industrial microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was found in a study by Plazzotta et
al. (Plazzotta et al., 2020) to be less impactful than ultrasound-assisted extraction
(UAE) in terms of both greenhouse gas emissions and energy requirements despite its
higher energy density requirements in laboratory scale. This suggests a good future
for MAE which might also be the case for MD since they both employ the same
principles of microwave application.
For decades now, both MD and MAE have been frequently exploited in
studies on retention and extraction of phytochemicals from leaves. Among the most
notable recent studies were on coriander leaves (Hihat et al., 2017), lemon myrtle
leaves (Saifullah et al., 2019), purslane leaves (M. Youssef and Mokhtar, 2014),
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Vernonia amygdalina L. leaves (Alara et al., 2018), Perilla frutescens leaves (Shao et
al., 2012), young barley leaves (Gao et al., 2016), and parsley leaves (El-Hadidy and
Mostafa, 2019), among many others. This exploitation is in large part driven by the
aim of achieving the SDGs by 2030.
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development launched by the United
Nations in 2015 consists of goals for each Member State to achieve within the 15-
year timeframe. These goals are interconnected and consider the environmental,
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economic and social aspects of the planet in order to meet the needs of every
human being at present without jeopardizing the welfare of future generations
(Schaefer and Crane, 2005). Nine of the 17 SDGs are directly related to the global
food and beverage system. These are: SDG 2 Zero Hunger; SDG 3 Good Health and
Well-being; SDG 6 Clean Water and Sanitation; SDG 7 Affordable and Clean Energy;
SDG 9 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure; SDG 12 Responsible Consumption and
Production; SDG 13 Climate Action; SDG 14 Life Below Water; and SDG 15 Life On
Land. The entire food supply chain, from primary to tertiary processing (including
distribution), contributes a total of approximately 13.7 billion metric tons of carbon
dioxide equivalents (CO2eq) to date (Poore and Nemecek, 2018). Considering the
processing side alone, the conversion of raw materials to finished food and beverage
products is already an energy-intensive process. As a result, researchers from both
academe and industry alike have been searching for ways to reduce water and
energy inputs, and hence, greenhouse gas emissions.
Although much work has already been done on MD and MAE, only a few has
considered the sustainability potential of these technologies. At the same time, little
to no information is available on the application of both MD and MAE on C. papaya
leaves.
1.2 Objectives of the Research
The general aim of this research is to obtain C. papaya leaf extract through
microwave-based processing methods for use as a functional food ingredient.
Specifically, it aims:
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• To mathematically model the thin-layer drying of C. papaya leaf and

investigate the relationship between moisture diffusion and retention of
flavonoids and saponins;
• To optimize the microwave-assisted aqueous extraction of C. papaya leaf
extract and mathematically model its optimization; and,
• To analyze the sustainability potential of the MD and MAE process.
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1.3 Scope of the Research

This research will cover the 1) microwave drying of C. papaya leaf, 2)

microwave-assisted extraction of C. papaya leaf aqueous extract, and 3) analysis of
the sustainability potential of the process.
1.4 Keywords
Sustainability, Mathematical Modeling, Microwave Drying, Microwave-Assisted

Extraction, Phytochemicals
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 C. papaya and its phytochemicals
Carica papaya L. is a popular tree-like herbaceous plant originating from the

tropical regions of the Americas (Sharma et al., 2019),(Ugo et al., 2019). It spread to
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other tropical regions of the world due to its appealing fruit, but its other plant parts
are also now being used for various purposes (Sharma et al., 2019). It is highly
nutritious, containing vitamins A, C, and E, magnesium, potassium, pantothenic acid,

folate, and fiber (Ugo et al., 2019).
Among its parts used other than as food is its leaf, which contains papain that
is useful for tenderizing meat and treating indigestion (Ugo et al., 2019). Additionally,
its other uses are for mild treatment of asthma, worm infestations, dysentery, cancer,
fever, pyrexia, diabetes, gonorrhea, syphilis, inflammation, and infected wounds
(Sharma et al., 2019). In other studies, it was found to cure dengue as well.
However, despite its numerous properties, C. papaya leaf struggles to find sensory
acceptance due to its bitterness owing to its saponin content. To address this, one
particular study (Syed Amran et al., 2018) explored ways to reduce bitterness by
experimenting on treating the saponin with resin and it was found that the more
saponin adsorbed to the resin, the more acceptable it became.
Other phytochemicals present in C. papaya leaf are flavonoids, alkaloids,
glycosides, phytosterols, phenolics, terpenoids, coumarins, and tannins (Baskaran et
al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2019; Soib et al., 2020b; Ugo et al., 2019) compounds are
known to have beneficial impacts on human health, as such are widely sought in
natural product studies. For instance, phenolics were found to have anti-cancer
properties (Akhtar et al., 2019; Ozcan et al., 2014). Steroids were found to have anti-
cancer, anti-asthmatic and antidiabetic properties (Akhtar et al., 2019). Tannins were
found to have immune-modulatory, antibacterial, antifungal, hypolipidemic, and
cardio-protective properties (Akhtar et al., 2019; Lone and Lone, 2012). Alkaloids
were found to have anti-cancer, antidepressant, antitumor, antibacterial, anti-
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inflammatory, and cardio-protective properties (Akhtar et al., 2019; Patel et al., 2012).
Lastly, flavonoids were found to have blood cholesterol-reducing properties, as well
as, antioxidative, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbleeding, antibacterial, and anti-dengue
properties, among many others (Akhtar et al., 2019; Ghasemzadeh and Ghasemzadeh,
2011; Kumar and Pandey, 2013). Lastly, saponin also has medicinal and therapeutic
benefits, including antidiabetic properties (El Barky et al., 2017). These properties are
only just a portion of the many in different phytochemicals, and it is for this reason
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that phytochemicals are being considered and explored for use in functional foods.
2.2 Extraction methods for C. papaya leaf extract
C. papaya leaf extracts were traditionally prepared in several ways. One is

homogenization in water and filtration (Juarez-Rojop et al., 2012). Another one is by
crushing in cold distilled water, filtering and centrifuging at 10,000 rpm (Ranasinghe et
al., 2012). Still, other studies (Baskaran et al., 2012; Vuong et al., 2013) involve
heating the solvents.
Nowadays, non-conventional extraction methods are employed in obtaining
C. papaya leaf extract. These methods include ultrasound-assisted extraction and
reflux extraction (Soib et al., 2020b). These methods have a significant effect on the
extraction yield, being lowest in ultrasound-assisted extraction, while being highest in
reflux extraction. This is because in reflux extraction, heat breaks down the plant cell
wall, thereby enabling the release of more phytochemicals (Soib et al., 2020b).
Aside from the method of extraction, the choice of solvent also plays an
important role. For instance, when C. papaya leaf extract was extracted using
methanol, ethanol and water as individual solvents, it was found that methanol was
the best solvent to use in terms of extraction yield and antioxidant properties (Soib
et al., 2020a).
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2.3 Microwave-assisted extraction
Among the non-conventional extraction methods gaining more popularity

these days is microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). In a review by Routray and Orsat
(Routray and Orsat, 2012), it was found that MAE consumes less time and solvent
than conventional extraction methods yet produces as much yield as other non-
conventional extraction methods. It was also found to retain flavonoids, extract polar
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and non-polar compounds alike, as well as, allows repetitive use of organic solvents
(Routray and Orsat, 2012). Due to its environment-friendly advantages, it has been
described (Llompart et al., 2019) as “an automated green extraction technique”.
These advantages are in large part due to the microwave radiation that is capable of
selective heating.
MAE works by heating the water molecules (and other polar molecules)
inside the material, causing them to vaporize. When this happens, plant cell walls
break and release phytochemicals into the solvent (Destandau et al., 2013). The
effectivity of MAE depends on several factors such as irradiation time, temperature,
material-to-solvent ratio, solvent concentration, and microwave power level (Alara et
al., 2018), as well as, other solvent properties and system attributes (Bagade and
Patil, 2021). Because the effectivity of MAE is determined by various parameters at
play, several optimization methods have been employed to maximize extraction
yield. Among the experimental designs employed in past studies are orthogonal test
(Niu et al., 2020), box-behnken design (Deng et al., 2019; Filip et al., 2017), and face-
centered central composite design (Weremfo et al., 2020).
In a study by Lovric et al. (Lovrić et al., 2017), they found that both total
phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were improved by a higher extraction
temperature. As for extended extraction time, however, only total phenolic content
was improved, and not antioxidant capacity. The same was the case for another
study (Sharma et al., 2020) in that the total phenols reached its maximum
extractable amount and the antioxidant activity slightly increased when the
irradiation time was increased from 30 sec to 90 sec. Moreover, in terms of energy
consumption, laboratory-scale setup seems to show promise. However, a number of
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reviews have found that this setup has not always considered the scale up aspects
(Rosa et al., 2018). Nonetheless, a study on peony seed oil extraction (Sun et al.,
2016) considered energy consumption from a different angle. Manipulating the
amount and composition of solvents as extraction agents, they found that using
ethanol and hexane mixture is a successful energy consumption reduction method.
The downside of this, however, is that hexane is an environmentally toxic substance.
Although MAE has many advantages to offer, it also has disadvantages. For
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the most part, the heating it produces is not uniform, sometimes resulting in
overheating of extract. Another disadvantage is the need for filtration (Al Jitan et al.,
2018). In closed-vessel systems, an additional disadvantage is the risk involved when
operating at high pressures, as well as, the limited capacity (Tatke and Jaiswal, 2011).
The development of MAE dates back to as early as the 1980’s when it was
first used by Ganzler et al. To date, it has encountered several modifications, such as
dynamic microwave-assisted extraction (DMAE), focused microwave Soxhlet
extraction (FMSE), and solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) (Routray and Orsat,
2012).
2.4 Water as an extracting solvent
Water has the highest dielectric constant at 20ºC (=78.5) when compared with
hexane (=1.89), toluene (=2.4), dichloromethane (=8.9), acetone (=20.7), ethanol
(=24.3), and methanol (=32.6), thus making it a good extracting solvent (Nn,
2015),(Kaufmann and Christen, 2002). It is cheap, nontoxic, environment-friendly and
highly polar. On the contrary, it may cause hydrolysis and its heating an energy-
intensive process (Abubakar and Haque, 2020). Another downside of it is that not all
extracts are soluble in it therefore only a selected number of natural substances can
be isolated and in limited amounts. For instance, in a study on extraction of
bioactive compounds from S. buxifolia branches (Truong et al., 2019), they found
that the best solvent to use was methanol because despite the lower dielectric
constant than that of water, it has both polar and non-polar groups which are
capable of bonding both hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds. Fortunately,
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flavonoids and saponins are both soluble in water (Ferreira and Pinho, 2012; Savage,
2003), but only some parts and/or types are hydrophilic.
2.5 Drying prior to extraction
In pharmaceutical industries, drying is considered to be a gamechanger due to

the natural level of moisture in medicinal plants (Mahapatra and Nguyen, 2007).
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Hence, particular attention is given to it in bioactive compounds research. Nguyen

and Le, 2018 study indicated that bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity in
carrot peel increased upon drying. However, the extent of increase greatly
depended on the drying method and condition. Weiguang and Hazel, 2011 study on
selected herbs also agreed when they found that drying can improve the total
polyphenol (TPP) and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), thus increasing
its bioavailability and absorption. An additional advantage of drying is that it also
eliminates the interference caused by water with the solvent (Altemimi et al., 2017).
On the other hand, a significant decrease in phenolic compounds in air-dried and
oven-dried A. zerumbet leaves at 70ºC was observed in Elzaawely and Tawata’s
study (Elzaawely and Tawata, 2011). This finding was in agreement with Nadi, 2017,
Nguyen and Le, 2018 and Saifullah et al., 2019 studies that drying has the possibility
to harmfully affect some natural components that are sensitive to heat.
2.6 Microwave drying
Among the drying methods, microwave drying (MD) is the best due to rapid
volumetric heating via dipole rotation and ionic conduction (Sujinda et al., 2020). In
a study on microwave-dried coriander leaves (Hihat et al., 2017), it was found that
MD at 900 W was faster than oven-drying (OD) at 120ºC. In addition to the drying
rate, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and radical
scavenging activity also showed a positive change after MD. On the contrary, a study
on drying lemon myrtle leaves at different conditions showed freeze-drying (FD) to
be the best method in increasing TPC, TFC, proanthocyanidins, gallic acid, and
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hesperetin (Saifullah et al., 2019). Despite these findings, however, MD was still
suggested for industrial scale drying due to time and energy efficiency.
In a study on purple basil leaves (Altay et al., 2019), they found that shade-
drying (SD), FD and conventional drying (CD) were significantly longer than MD.
Finding the best-fit mathematical models for SD and MD, Modified Henderson and
Pabis, and Page, respectively, were selected. In terms of effective moisture diffusivity
(Deff), increasing the microwave power level exhibited increased Deff. In terms of
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economics, MD exhibited the highest specific moisture extraction rate (SMER) and
moisture extraction rate (MER), as well as, lowest specific energy consumption (SEC).
These findings were in agreement with Varith et al., 2007 study on combined
microwave-hot air drying of longan.

MD traces back its origin to when it was first used to dry potato chips, pre-
cook poultry and bacon, temper frozen food, and dry pasta (Decareau, 1985). Over
the decades, it has shown promise over conventional hot air drying (HAD) due to
better time and cost efficiency (Khodifad and Dhamsaniya, 2020).
2.7 Applications of microwave technology in food and nutraceutical processing
Microwave technology, in general, has exhibited huge potential in food and

nutraceutical processing. In particular, it provided the highest concentration of
bioactive compounds in apple extract (Soquetta et al., 2018). Moreover, a review by
Chemat et al., 2019 classified it as among the eco-extraction innovative processes,
along with ultrasound, subcritical and supercritical fluid extraction. This alone
demonstrates how green it is as a technology. When compared with ultrasound
technology in extraction, MAE showed less impact on the environment on the
industrial scale (Plazzotta et al., 2020). However, in order to really determine the
overall industrial-scale efficiency of microwave technology as a green processing
method, important variables such as electric field intensity, power dissipation rate
and liquid & composition of the product to be processed need to be considered.
Thus, there still remains a challenge in the straightforward implementation of
microwave technology in heated industrial processes (Radoiu, 2020). On the positive
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side, it was noted that microwave technology still demonstrates

sustainability resulting in higher drying control and product quality (Radoiu, 2020).
2.8 Sustainability in complex food systems
A review by Patel et al. (Patel et al., 2014) defines green process engineering
as “the design, commercialization, and use of processes and products, which are
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feasible and economical while minimizing generation of pollution at the source and
risk to human health and the environment.” Emphasizing further, they noted that
the development phase is crucial in impacting human and planet health while also
achieving cost effectiveness.

Sustainability has become a vital part of global markets (Radoiu, 2020)
especially after the United Nations launched in 2015 the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030. Among the 17, seven SDGs were noted by
Brooks (Brooks, 2016) as interconnected to agriculture and food. They are SDG 2
(Zero Hunger), SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 12
(Responsible Consumption and Production), SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 15 (Life on
Land), and SDG 14 (Life below Water). In industrial systems, sustainability is measured
in terms of energy saving, emission reduction, resource optimalization, and cost
reduction, among many others (Vrchota et al., 2020).
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research will be divided into two parts – Part 1: microwave drying (MD),
and Part 2: microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) – as shown in Figure 1. The
investigation of the sustainability potential of the MD-MAE process will be done
towards the end and will integrate the two parts.
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Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the research.
3.1 Part 1: Microwave drying of C. papaya leaves
3.1.1 Sample preparation

Randomly-picked fresh, disease-free mature C. papaya leaves will be
procured from a local area. Once the microwave drying experiment will be
started, the leaves will be washed with tap water to remove physical
impurities and will be air-dried until no water droplets are seen. Once
physically dry, the leaves will be sliced into 2 cm x 2 cm sizes.
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3.1.2 Microwave drying (MD)

Preliminary studies will be conducted using a household microwave
oven (Hanabishi HMO-20G, Philippines) with a maximum power output of 700
W at 2450 MHz, and cavity dimensions of 198 mm x 315 mm x 297 mm.
Employing a Complete Randomized Design, the leaves will be subjected to
three microwave power levels - 280 W (40%), 462 W (66%) and 595 W (85%)
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– with the initial weight to be determined during the set up. Drying will be
carried out in two modes: (1) with constant weight as the endpoint, and (2)
with color change as the endpoint. A fresh batch of sample will be used for
each time duration with the weight monitored at 30-sec intervals from the
beginning using a 1-mg precision analytical balance (Citizon CX 265,
Philippines), as depicted in Figure 2. Prior to weighing, the dried sample will
be equilibrated using a desiccator. Weighing will be completed within 10 sec
as in the method of Alibas (Alibas, 2014) and Potisate and Phoungchandang
(Potisate, 2015), by weighing the plastic container containing the sample. This
plastic container will be perforated and elevated from the glass turntable to
enable moisture to escape easily from the product. To assist the removal of
moisture, a suction fan will be attached to the outermost wall of the
microwave oven where existing orifices are already located. For mode 1,
drying will be continued until a constant weight is reached for three
consecutive measurements. For mode 2, drying will be continued until a
color change is observed. This will be done to see which mode will yield
higher flavonoids and saponins. The temperature of the sample will also be
measured quickly using an infrared thermometer at the center point before
the sample will be removed from the microwave oven for weight
measurements to also provide data on the temperature profile of the drying
process. From this experiment, the moisture content (via weight reduction)
will be obtained.
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Figure 2. Setup of the process for MD.

Once the optimal drying mode and range that yield good flavonoids
and saponins content is determined, the laboratory experiments will be run
at Maejo University.
3.1.3 Hot-air drying (HAD)

The HAD experiment that will serve as control setup will be done at
60ºC, as in the study of Nguyen and Le, 2018. The equipment that will be
used for this will follow the same dimensions as that of the household
microwave oven to minimize bias. Moreover, the setup in 3.1.2 will be
followed, except that weight measurements will be done every 10 min as this
type of drying method usually takes a longer time to complete. The mode of
drying from the preliminary studies in 3.1.2 identified to be better will be
applied in this setup. For this drying process, however, the volumetric flow
rate of the heated air will also be measured and controlled. As in the MD
experiment, the moisture content (via weight reduction) will be obtained.
3.1.4 Moisture ratio (MR) and drying curve

The moisture contents from 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 will be used to compute
for the MR, using Equation (1). The obtained MR will then be plotted against
drying times to obtain the drying curves which will be the basis in determining
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the best-fit thin-layer mathematical models to describe the drying behavior of

the C. papaya leaves during MD and HAD.
Mt −Me
MR =
Mi −Me
(1)
Where MR is the Moisture Ratio; Mi and Mt are the initial moisture content
and moisture content at time t, respectively; and Me is the equilibrium
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moisture content.
The mathematical models that will be fitted with the experimental
data are enumerated in Table 1, as was found by Onwude et al., 2016 to be

the most suitable models to describe the drying of most fruits and
vegetables. The model with the highest coefficient of determination (R2)
(Equation 2) and lowest root mean square error (RMSE) (Equation 3) values
will be selected as the best fit. Moreover, regression analysis will be
conducted to determine the drying rate constants.
∑N
i=1(MRpre,i −MRexp,i )
2
R2 = 1 − ∑N 2 (2)
i=1(MRpre −MRexp,i )
1 1⁄2
RMSE = [ ∑N
I=1(MR exp,i − MR pre,i )2]
N
(3)
16
Table 1 Mathematical models for thin-layer drying of C. papaya leaves

Model Equation
Model name Model equation
no. no.
Page
1 MR = exp (−kt n ) (4)
(Page, 1949)
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Modified Page
2 MR = exp[−(kt)n ] (5)
(Overhults et al., 1973)
Logarithmic
3 MR = a exp(−kt) + c (6)
(Yagcioglu et al., 1999)
Two-term
4 MR = a exp(−k 0 t) + b exp (−k1 t) (7)
(Henderson, 1974)
Two-term exponential
5 (App. of diff.) MR = a exp(−kt) + (1 − a) exp (−kat) (8)
(Sharaf-Elden et al., 1980)
Midilli et al.
6 MR = a exp(−kt n ) + bt (9)
(Midilli et al., 2002)
Where MR, moisture ratio; a, b, c, coefficients and n, microwave drying exponent

specific to each equation; k, k0, k1, drying coefficient specific to each equation;
and t, time.
3.1.5 Effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) and activation energy (Ea)

While MR is a good property for drying curve determination, another
property called Deff provides a holistic description of the possible mechanisms
of mass transfer within the sample. These mechanisms include vapor
diffusion and liquid diffusion, to name a few. Yet another property is the Ea
17
that is the minimum energy required to initialize drying (Angelopoulos et al.,

2016). The movement of moisture during drying warrants an unsteady state
diffusion and therefore can be interpreted well by Fick’s second law (Alibas,
2014). From the MR, the Deff can be obtained using Equation 10, assuming
that the 2 cm x 2 cm-sliced C. papaya leaves have a geometrical
characteristic of that of a rectangular slab.
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8 Deff ×π2
ln(MR) = ln ( 2 ) − (
π 4L2s
)t (10)
Where MR is the dimensionless moisture ratio, Deff is the effective moisture

diffusivity (m2/min), Ls is the half thickness (drying from both sides) of C.
papaya leaves (m), and t is the drying time (min).
Moreover, despite also measuring the temperature of the sample
regularly using an infrared thermometer, the Ea will be calculated as an
illustration of the relationship between the Deff obtained in Equation 10 and
the ratio of the microwave output power density to sample amount (Alibas,
2014),(Potisate, 2015) as in the modified Arrhenius equation in Equation 11.
−Ea ×m
Deff = D0 exp (
P
) (11)
Where Deff is effective moisture diffusivity (m2/min), D0 is the pre-exponential

factor (m2/min), Ea is the activation energy (W/g), m is the amount of sample
(g), and P is the microwave power level (W).
3.1.6 Residual and initial moisture content

The dried C. papaya leaves will then be reduced to powder form
using an electric grinder and will be sieved using a wire mesh sieve for
homogeneity. The residual moisture content will be determined using oven-
dry method. The remainder of the sample will be stored at room
temperature in airtight containers covered with aluminum foil until further
investigation. To get a good insight on the effect of drying on moisture
18
content, the initial moisture content of the fresh C. papaya leaves will also
be measured prior to beginning the drying experiments.
3.1.7 Microwave-assisted ethanolic extraction of flavonoids and saponins

Obtaining the crude extract from the powdered C. papaya leaves will
be done using ethanol as solvent and assisted by microwaves. The
procedure for this will be according to Waziiroh et al., 2018, where the
3283532899
solvent-to-material ratio is 15:1 (v/w), extraction time is 180 sec (because

beyond this, the saponins content might either stop increasing or begin
decreasing), and microwave power level according to Alara et al., 2018 is 500
W per 10 g of leaf powder (because beyond this, the flavonoids content will
begin to decrease). The extracts will be filtered and concentrated using
rotary vacuum evaporator at 50 rpm and 50ºC for 15 min, exactly as in the
method by Waziiroh et al., 2018.
3.1.8 Total flavonoids content (TFC) and Total saponins content (TSC)
The C. papaya leaf ethanolic extract will be sent to an analytical
laboratory for determination of TFC and TSC through UV-Vis spectroscopy for
preliminary studies and through FTIR spectroscopy for final study. The
procedure for this will depend on the laboratory’s official procedure for
phytochemical analysis.
3.1.9 Specific energy consumption (SEC)

The specific energy consumption (SEC) to complete the drying will be
calculated using Equation 12.
P×t
SEC =
m
(12)
Where SEC is the energy consumption per mass of sample (kWh/g), P is the
average actual power input (kW), t is time elapsed (h) and m is the sample
mass (g).
19
The actual power input will be measured using a power meter (OMNI
MMA-D02P, Philippines) at 30-s intervals throughout the process to obtain the
average.
3.1.10 Confirmation of the optimum condition for high TFC and TSC
After determining through FTIR spectroscopy the microwave drying
treatment that yields the highest TFC and TSC, a confirmation experiment will
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be performed for that specific treatment. The microwave power level and
drying time from the final study will be repeated to confirm the results. In
this confirmation test, the residual moisture content, TFC and TSC will again
be determined. The remainder of the sample will be stored at room

temperature in airtight containers covered with aluminum foil to be used in
Part 2.
3.1.11 Statistical analysis

The experiments will be done in triplicate. Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) will be used to determine significant difference at p < 0.05 using
Minitab Software.
3.2 Part 2: Microwave-assisted extraction of flavonoids and saponins from

microwave-dried C. papaya leaves
3.2.1 Initial moisture content

The initial moisture content of the powder prior to extraction will be
determined using oven-dry method. This will be done to gain an insight on
whether or not the moisture content has an effect on the extracted
flavonoids and saponins yield during the single-factor experiments.
3.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) with ethanol as solvent

The extraction parameters for ethanolic MAE will be performed as in
3.1.7. This will serve as benchmark for the optimization of MAE using water
20
as solvent. With the flavonoids and saponins yield obtained from this, the
aqueous MAE extraction parameters will be manipulated to reach, if not
exceed, the same yields. The amount of obtained crude extract will be
recorded. As in 3.1.7, the extracts will be filtered and concentrated using
rotary vacuum evaporator at 50 rpm and 50ºC for 15 min.
3.2.3 Optimization of aqueous MAE

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The MAE using water as solvent will be optimized employing

Response Surface Methodology. The experimental design will employ a 3-
factor x 3-level Box-Behnken Design. Extraction time (min), microwave power

level (W) and solvent-to-material ratio (mL/g) will be the factors. The levels
for each factor will be determined through conduct of single-factor
preliminary studies to determine the suitable range for each. The amount of
obtained crude extract will be recorded. Also as in 3.1.7, the extracts will be
filtered and concentrated using rotary vacuum evaporator at 50 rpm and 50ºC
for 15 min.
3.2.4 Hot water extraction

Hot water extraction will be done as in the study of Hoque et al.
(Hoque et al., 2015), being a typical conventional extraction method for plant
materials. Two hundred grams powdered leaf will be placed in 2 L of
distilled water and heated at 60ºC for 1 h. The amount of obtained crude
extract will be recorded. Additionally, the extracts will be filtered and
concentrated using rotary vacuum evaporator at 50 rpm and 50ºC for 15 min.
3.2.5 TFC and TSC of the extracts

The TFC and TSC determination for the ethanolic and aqueous
extracts will be done as in 3.1.8.
21
3.2.6 Comparison of the energy, water and solvent consumption

The SEC for both ethanolic and aqueous MAE will be calculated as in
3.1.10. As for hot water extraction, the SEC will be computed using Equation
13.
V × CF
SEC =
m
(13)
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Where SEC is the energy consumption per mass of sample (kWh/g), V is the
amount of LPG consumed (L), CF is the conversion factor (kWh/L) and m is
the sample mass (g).

The exact gas consumption will be measured using a gas flow meter.
As for comparing the water and solvent consumption, the total volume
consumed to extract the same amount of flavonoids and saponins will be
the basis. The water consumption of aqueous MAE will be compared with
that of hot water extraction. Meanwhile, the volume of ethanol consumed
for ethanolic MAE will be compared with the volume of water consumed for
aqueous MAE. These volumes will be correlated with the SECs to better
describe how green the extraction methods are. Furthermore, these
correlations will be supplemented with an intensive mini review of literature
comparing water and ethanol as solvents for MAE in terms of environmental
impacts.
3.2.7 Statistical analysis

The experiments will be done in triplicate. Optimization will be carried
out using Design-Expert Software.
3.3 Efficiency of MD-MAE process for obtaining C. papaya leaf extract
Lastly, the efficiency of the overall process from drying to extraction will be
critically analyzed in terms of amount of valorized extract obtained from an amount
of fresh C. papaya leaves, using Equation 14.
22
Amount of extract produced (g)

% Efficiency =
Amount of fresh 𝐶. 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑎 leaves (g)
× 100% (14)
3.4 Sustainability potential of MD-MAE process
The sustainability of the overall process in terms of economic and

environmental aspects will be critically analyzed.
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For economic aspect, the total amount and cost of resources used (water,
energy etc.), SEC in kWh/g of extract (as in Equations 12 and 13), and estimated
reduction in wastes produced (including potential utilization of the wastes) will be

considered.
For environmental aspect, the GHG emissions (in CO2 equivalents) and toxicity
of ethanol as solvent will be considered. For calculating the CO2 emissions from
electrical use, Equation 15 will be used. For calculating that from thermal use,
Equation 16 will be used.
GHG Emissions in CO2 equivalents = ECe × (7.09 × 10−4 ) (15)
Where GHG Emissions in CO2 equivalents is in metric tons CO2, ECe is the total
electrical energy consumption (kWh), and 7.09x10-4 is the emission factor (metric tons
CO2/kWh) according to the EPA (EPA, 2020).
GHG Emissions in CO2 equivalents = ECt × 0.03 × 0.0053 (16)
Where GHG Emissions in CO2 equivalents is in metric tons CO2, ECt is the total
thermal energy consumption (kWh), 0.03 is the conversion factor (therm/kWh), and
0.0053 is the emission factor (metric tons CO2/therm) according to the EPA (EPA,
2020).
For Part 1, MD will be compared with HAD, and for Part 2, MAE with HWE.
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CURRICULUM VITAE
CURRICULUM VITAE
NAME Love Salve Hamor Belonio

DATE OF BIRTH 18 December 1994
EDUCATION Love holds a Bachelor of Science in Food Technology and
a Certificate in Basic Culinary Arts.
3283532899
WORK EXPERIENCE Love has a total of about three and half years of
professional work experience. The first five months was as
a research assistant for a Philippine government-funded

project on gamma irradiation of carabao mangoes for
potential export. The next two years was as regulatory
affairs officer and a quality assurance officer for a baked
and cooked food manufacturing company. The remaining
one year was as a research and development and quality
assurance specialist for a start-up freeze-dried fruit
manufacturing company.

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Thesis Proposal

MICROWAVE-BASED PROCESSING OF C. PAPAYA LEAF EXTRACT FOR

LOVE SALVE BELONIO

Associate Professor Jaturapatr Varith , Ph.D. Associate Chair

ACADEMIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT, MAEJO UNIVERSITY

MICROWAVE-BASED PROCESSING OF C. PAPAYA LEAF EXTRACT FOR

LOVE SALVE BELONIO

PRESENTED TO ACADEMIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT, MAEJO UNIVERSITY

MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN FOOD ENGINEERING

Approved by Advisory Committee

Program Chair, Master of Engineering

1.1 Background of the Research .............................................................................................. 1

3.1 Part 1: Microwave drying of C. papaya leaves ...........................................................12

3.1.6 Residual and initial moisture content ................................................................17

3.1.7 Microwave-assisted ethanolic extraction of flavonoids and saponins .......18

CURRICULUM VITAE .......................................................................................................................32

1.1 Background of the Research

1.2 Objectives of the Research

• To mathematically model the thin-layer drying of C. papaya leaf and

1.3 Scope of the Research

This research will cover the 1) microwave drying of C. papaya leaf, 2)

Sustainability, Mathematical Modeling, Microwave Drying, Microwave-Assisted

2.1 C. papaya and its phytochemicals

Carica papaya L. is a popular tree-like herbaceous plant originating from the

nutritious, containing vitamins A, C, and E, magnesium, potassium, pantothenic acid,

2.2 Extraction methods for C. papaya leaf extract

C. papaya leaf extracts were traditionally prepared in several ways. One is

2.3 Microwave-assisted extraction

Among the non-conventional extraction methods gaining more popularity

2.4 Water as an extracting solvent

2.5 Drying prior to extraction

In pharmaceutical industries, drying is considered to be a gamechanger due to

Hence, particular attention is given to it in bioactive compounds research. Nguyen

2.6 Microwave drying

microwave-hot air drying of longan.

2.7 Applications of microwave technology in food and nutraceutical processing

Microwave technology, in general, has exhibited huge potential in food and

side, it was noted that microwave technology still demonstrates

2.8 Sustainability in complex food systems

achieving cost effectiveness.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the research.

3.1 Part 1: Microwave drying of C. papaya leaves

3.1.1 Sample preparation

3.1.2 Microwave drying (MD)

Figure 2. Setup of the process for MD.

3.1.3 Hot-air drying (HAD)

3.1.4 Moisture ratio (MR) and drying curve

the best-fit thin-layer mathematical models to describe the drying behavior of

data are enumerated in Table 1, as was found by Onwude et al., 2016 to be

Table 1 Mathematical models for thin-layer drying of C. papaya leaves

Where MR, moisture ratio; a, b, c, coefficients and n, microwave drying exponent

3.1.5 Effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) and activation energy (Ea)

that is the minimum energy required to initialize drying (Angelopoulos et al.,

Where MR is the dimensionless moisture ratio, Deff is the effective moisture

Where Deff is effective moisture diffusivity (m2/min), D0 is the pre-exponential

3.1.6 Residual and initial moisture content

3.1.7 Microwave-assisted ethanolic extraction of flavonoids and saponins

solvent-to-material ratio is 15:1 (v/w), extraction time is 180 sec (because

3.1.9 Specific energy consumption (SEC)

be determined. The remainder of the sample will be stored at room

3.1.11 Statistical analysis

3.2 Part 2: Microwave-assisted extraction of flavonoids and saponins from

3.2.1 Initial moisture content

3.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) with ethanol as solvent