PRODUCTION OF COMPOSITE POLYMERIC

MEMBRANE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

RAJESHWARAN.N [RA1911007010028]
PARTHASARATHY.A [RA1911007010002]
RAKSHITH MU [RA1911007010077]

Under the guidance of

Dr.K.SELVAM, M.Tech., Ph.D.

(Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering)
In partial fulfillment of the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
of
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District – 603203

MAY 2023

1
 SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(Under Section 3 of UGC Act,1956)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled "PRODUCTION OF

COMPOSITE POLYMERIC MEMBRANE" is the bonafide work of

RAJESHWARAN.N [RA1911007010028], PARTHASARATHY

[RA1911007010002], RAKSHITH MU [RA1911007010077] worked on

the project under my direction. According to my knowledge, the work

described here does not constitute any other project report or dissertation

based on which this candidate or any other candidate has previously been

granted a degree or other honor.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. K.SELVAM, M.Tech., PhD Dr.K. SURESH M.Tech., Ph.D.

GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Assistant Professor(Sr.G) Department of Chemical Engineering

Department of Chemical Engineering

Signature of the Internal Examiner Signature of the External Examiner

2
 ABSTRACT

The increasing amount of waste PET bottles in the environment has become a significant
environmental issue worldwide. In this project, a novel approach was proposed to utilize
the waste PET bottles in membrane preparation using polyether sulfone (PES) as a
polymer blend. The main objective of this project was to use the waste-to-wealth idea to
minimize the amount of PET bottle trash in the environment and produce a product with
added value. Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), contact angle
measurements, and X-Ray Diffraction and Tensile Strength Studies were used to assess
the blended PES/PET membranes after they had been created utilizing a Phase Inversion
technique. The membranes were then tested using membrane distillation applications
using a synthetic Ethanol-water solution as the feed solution. The results showed that the
PES/PET blended membranes exhibited superior hydrophobicity and mechanical
properties compared to the pure PES membranes. Moreover, the mixed membranes
showed a good-water flux and good ethanol rejection efficiency, indicating their potential
use in membrane distillation applications. Overall, the results obtained from this study
demonstrate that the PES/PET blended membranes are a promising approach for
sustainable membrane preparation and waste PET utilization.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am honored to offer my genuine appreciation. And appreciation to Dr. K. Selvam, my

project guide and mentor, for his constant support, guidance, and encouragement
throughout this project. His invaluable insights, suggestions, and feedback have helped
me to refine my research work and to explore various avenues in the production of
polymeric membranes. I am honored to offer my genuine appreciation, valuable time,
and expertise, which he selflessly shared with me.

I sincerely thank Dr. K. Suresh, Head, Department of Chemical Engineering, and

Dr.M.Vairamani, Dean, School of Bio-Engineering SRM Institute of Science and
Technology for providing me with the necessary resources, equipment, and laboratory
facilities for conducting the experiments and analyzing the results. The support and
cooperation of the staff members, including the laboratory technicians and administrative
staff, are highly appreciated.

I also appreciate my friend’s consistent encouragement, support, and inspiration., which

helped me to stay focused and motivated throughout this project. Their suggestions,
insights, and discussions were instrumental in shaping my research work and refining my
experimental techniques.

Finally, I want to express my gratitude to my family and friends for being a constant
source of support., support, and inspiration for me during this endeavor. Their
unwavering faith in me and endless motivation helped me overcome the challenges and
obstacles in this research work. In conclusion, I want to sincerely thank everyone who
has supported this initiative in any way, whether directly or indirectly. This work would
not have been possible without your valuable support and guidance. Thank you all for
your contributions to this project.

RAJESHWARAN N

PARTHASARATHY A

RAKSHITH MU

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................. 11
Introduction .............................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER 2 .............................................................................................. 14
Literature Review .................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 3 .............................................................................................. 17
Materials and Methods ............................................................................ 17
3.1 Materials............................................................................................................ 17
3.1.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate ...................................................................... 17
3.1.2 Polyethersulfone ....................................................................................... 18
3.1.2 Solvent of PES Solvent ............................................................................ 18
3.2 Methods ............................................................................................................. 18
3.2.1 Preparation of the PES Membrane .......................................................... 18
3.2.2 Preparation of the PES+PET Membrane ................................................. 20

CHAPTER 4 .............................................................................................. 24
Characterization ....................................................................................... 24
4.1 Pore Density ...................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Water Contact Angle ......................................................................................... 25
4.2.1 Water Contact Angle of the PES Membrane ............................................ 25
4.2.2 Water Contact Angle of the PES+PET Membrane ................................. 26
4.3 Tensile Test ....................................................................................................... 27
4.3.1 Tensile Test for the PES Membrane ......................................................... 27
4.3.2 Tensile Test for the PES+PET Membrane ............................................... 28
4.4 X-Ray Diffraction ............................................................................................. 30
4.4.1 XRD for the PES Membrane ..................................................................... 30
4.4.2 XRD for the PES+PET Membrane ........................................................... 31
4.5 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy......................................................... 32
4.5.1 FTIR for the PES Membrane .................................................................... 33
4.5.2 FTIR for PES+PET Membrane ................................................................ 34
4.6 Membrane Distillation ...................................................................................... 36

5
CHAPTER 5 .............................................................................................. 37
Results and Discussion ............................................................................ 37
5.1 Effect of Non-Solvent ....................................................................................... 37
5.2 Selection of Additive ........................................................................................ 37
5.3 Selection of Solvent .......................................................................................... 38
5.3.1 Solvent for PET Solution.......................................................................... 38
5.4 XRD the Membrane .......................................................................................... 41
5.4.1 Crystallinity Index of the PES Membrane ............................................... 42
5.4.2 Crystallinity Index of the PES+PET Membrane ...................................... 42
5.4.3 Crystalline Size of the PES Membrane .................................................... 43
5.4.4 Crystalline Size of the PES+PET Membrane .......................................... 43
5.5 WCA of the Membrane ..................................................................................... 44
5.5.1 Water Contact Angle of the PES Membrane ........................................... 45
5.5.2 Water Contact Angle of the PES+PET Membrane .................................. 45
5.6 Pore Density of the Membrane .......................................................................... 46
5.7 Tensile Strength of the Membrane .................................................................... 47
5.7.1 Tensile Strength of the PES Membrane ................................................... 48
5.7.2 Tensile Strength of the PES+PET Membrane .......................................... 49
5.8 FTIR of the Membrane ..................................................................................... 50
5.8.1 FTIR Analysis for the PES Membrane ..................................................... 50
5.8.2 FTIR Analysis for the PES+PET Membrane ........................................... 53
5.9 Membrane Performance .................................................................................... 55
5.9.1 Permeate Flux of the Membrane .............................................................. 55
5.9.2 Mean Pore Radius..................................................................................... 55

CHAPTER 6 .............................................................................................. 56
Conclusion ............................................................................................... 56

6
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Composition of the PES Membrane ......................................................... 19

Table 3.2 Blended Composition of the Dope Solution .............................................. 23

Table 4.1 Pore Density of PES and PES+PET Membranes .................................... 24

Table 4.2 Water Contact Angle of the PES Membrane ............................................ 25

Table 4.3 Water Contact Angle of the PES+PET Membrane .................................. 26

Table 4.4 Tensile Test of the PES Membrane .......................................................... 28

Table 4.5 Tensile Test of the PES+PET Membrane ................................................. 29

Table 4.6 Crystallinity index of the PES and PES+PET Membrane .......................... 31

Table 4.7 Crystalline Size of the PES/PES and PET Membrane ............................... 32

Table 4.8 Different Wavelength of Components of the PES Membrane ................... 33

Table 4.9 Different Wavelength of Components of the PES+PET Membrane .......... 35

Table 5.1 Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSP) of PET ........................................... 39

Table 5.2 Solvent Hansen Solubility Parameter (HSP) Components ....................... 39

7
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Components Used in Membrane Preparation .......................................... 17

Figure 3.2 Graphical Representation of the PES Membrane Preparation ................ 19
Figure 3.3 Graphical Representation of the PET Solution Preparation .................... 20
Figure 3.4 Graphical Representation of the PES Solution Preparation .................... 21
Figure 3.5 Graphical Representation of the PES+PET Membrane Preparation ....... 22
Figure 4.1 Water Contact Angle of the PES Membrane ........................................... 25
Figure 4.2 Water Contact Angle of the PES+PET Membrane ................................. 26
Figure 4.3 Tensile Test of the Graph PES Membrane ............................................... 27
Figure 4.4 Tensile Test Graph of the PES+PET Membrane ...................................... 28
Figure 4.5 XRD Graph of the PES Membrane ........................................................... 30
Figure 4.6 XRD Graph of the PES+PET Membrane ................................................. 31
Figure 4.7 FTIR Graph of the PES Membrane ........................................................... 33
Figure 4.8 FTIR Graph of the PES+PET Membrane ................................................. 34
Figure 4.9 Graphical Representation of the Membrane Distillation ........................... 36
Figure 5.1 HSP model for dissolving PET in various solvents ................................ 40
Figure 5.2 Temperature-Based Solubility Analysis .................................................. 40
Figure 5.3 Crystalline Index of the Membrane ........................................................... 41
Figure 5.4 Crystalline Size of the Membrane ............................................................. 42
Figure 5.5 Water Contact Angle of the Membrane .................................................... 44
Figure 5.6 Porosity of the Membrane ......................................................................... 47
Figure 5.7 Tensile Strength of the Membrane ............................................................ 48
Figure 5.8 Structure of Polyether Sulfone ................................................................... 51
Figure 5.9 Structure of PEG 400 ................................................................................ 52
Figure 5.10 Structure of PET ....................................................................................... 53

8
 ABBREVIATIONS

PET – Polyethylene Terephthalate

PES – Polyethersulfone

PEG – Polyethylene Glycol

NMP – N-Methyl Pyrrolidone

XRD – X-Ray Diffraction

FTIR – Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

TTM – Tensile Test Machine

WCA – Water Contact Angle

PC – Polycarbonate

RED – Relative Energy Difference

HSP – Hansen Solubility Parameter

PVP – Polyvinylpyrrolidone

FWHM – Full Width at Half Maximum

NIPS – Nonsolvent Induced Phase Separation

rPET – Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate

GE – Ginger Extract

DMSO – Dimethyl sulfoxide

PS – Polystyrene

UF – Ultrafiltration

FPR – Finger Print Region

9
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

dp – Density of the polymer

dw – Density of the Water

ε – Porosity

2θ – Peak Position

λ – Wavelength of X-Ray Sources

β – FWHM

δP – Polar interaction

δD – Dispersion force

δH – Hydrogen bonding

Ra – Solubility distance

Ro – Solubility radius of polymer

W1 – Weight of the wet membrane

W2 – Weight of the dry membrane

Κ - Scherrer Constant

10
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Plastic trash has significantly increased as a result of the widespread usage of PET
bottles, posing a serious environmental concern. Recycling old PET bottles lowers the
volume of plastic garbage that ends up in landfills or the ocean, minimizing the impact
of plastic waste on the environment. [1]

Polyethylene terephthalate waste can be disposed of in several ways. Reusing PET

products is one option, although this approach is inappropriate for contaminated
products, particularly contaminated food and medical supplies. Recycled materials are
the primary strategy that is developed. Downcycling is recycling, where the material's
additional value is reduced, and upcycling, where the added value is increased.
Modifying the labeling for improved waste management in each region is one technique
to boost the effectiveness of global recycling. The majority of studies continue to
concentrate on recycling techniques, nevertheless. The creation of novel recycling
techniques and the design of new applications for recovered goods are two potential
answers to the issue of PET recycling. Poly (ethylene terephthalate), which has excellent
physical and mechanical properties, chemical resistance, and thermal stability, are just a
few of the advantages that make it useful for making membranes. [2]

PET can be processed using any thermoplastic polymer production technique to create
solid fibers and films of different thicknesses. Water treatment and gas purification are
the main uses for poly (ethylene terephthalate) membranes, as are nanomaterial-filled
matrixes. Furthermore, the reactive ester, hydroxyl, and acid groups found in PET and
other co-polyesters allow for the chemical alteration of surfaces to give membranes
special features. Therefore, the industry's use of recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate)
and its products is pertinent. Due to the higher added value, the methods used to create
PET-based membranes can be categorized as upcycling. [3]

Recycling used PET bottles into ultrafiltration membranes requires less energy than
producing virgin polymer membranes. The process of making pure polymer membranes
involves the extraction of raw materials, which consumes a significant amount of energy.
Using recycled PET bottles significantly reduces energy consumption, lowering
greenhouse gas emissions. Producing PET bottles and virgin polymer membranes

11
involves significant greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to climate change. Recycling
used PET bottles into membranes reduces the carbon footprint, as it requires less energy
and fewer resources to produce. Using recycled PET bottles in membrane production
promotes the circular economy, where waste is reused as a resource, reducing the need
for virgin raw materials. The circular economy aims to establish a closed-loop system
that uses resources effectively while minimizing waste. [4]

Due to their high selectivity, permeability, and durability, polymeric membranes have
become an essential component in various industries, including water treatment,
biotechnology, food processing, and pharmaceuticals. PET is one of the most often
utilized polymers among the several polymeric materials used to create membranes.,
primarily for manufacturing plastic bottles, packaging materials, and textiles. However,
the extensive use of PET has led to significant environmental concerns, as it is non-
biodegradable and takes several hundred years to decompose. As a result, PET waste has
become a major environmental challenge, posing a severe threat to the ecosystem and
human health. [5]

Recycling PET waste is an effective and sustainable way of reducing the environmental
impact of plastic waste. Conversion of used PET bottles into ultrafiltration membranes
offers a viable environmental and economic sustainability solution. The use of recycled
PET (rPET) in membrane production reduces the amount of plastic waste and provides
cost savings compared to the production of virgin polymer membranes. Furthermore,
blending rPET with other polymers, such as polyether sulfone (PES), can enhance the
membrane's mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, stability, and durability,
while maintaining its separation performance. [6]

This project aims to produce ultrafiltration membranes from rPET blended with PES
polymer using a phase inversion technique. The performance of the resulting membranes
will be evaluated in terms of their permeability, selectivity, and mechanical properties
and compared to commercially available membranes. The use of recycled PET as a raw
material for membrane production can promote sustainability and a circular economy [7]

Blending rPET with other polymers, such as PES, can enhance the membrane's
mechanical properties while maintaining its separation performance. PES is a high-
performance polymer widely used in membrane production due to its excellent
mechanical strength, chemical resistance, and thermal stability. Blending rPET with PES

12
can enhance the membrane's mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, peace, and
durability, while maintaining its separation performance. The production of ultrafiltration
membranes involves using various polymers, including PES, due to their excellent
mechanical and thermal properties. However, using PES polymer alone may not offer
the desired mechanical strength for the membrane, which can compromise its durability
and lifespan. To address this limitation, used PET bottles, which are abundant and
inexpensive, can be blended with PES polymer to improve the mechanical strength of
the membrane. PET offers excellent mechanical properties, including high tensile
strength and impact resistance, which makes it an ideal material for blending with PES
polymer. The membrane that results from combining the two polymers has increased
mechanical strength, making it more resilient to extreme temperatures and pressures.
This project aims to optimize the blending process of used PET bottles and PES polymer
to produce a cost-effective and sustainable ultrafiltration membrane with improved
mechanical strength. [8]

Asymmetric ultrafiltration membrane production is influenced by the four process

components: polymer, solvent, nonsolvent, and additive. An additive is required in order
to alter the membrane's characteristics. By preventing the development of macro-voids,
encouraging the development of pores, enhancing pore interconnectivity, and adding
hydrophilicity, the additives create a porous membrane structure. The impact of various
additives on the morphology and performance of membranes has been the subject of
extensive research. According to earlier research, polyethylene glycol (PEG)
significantly affects the thermodynamic and kinetic regulation of the casting system and,
in most instances, acts as a pore reduction or macro-void suppressor. Additionally,
Increases in the additive concentration of PEG have a direct influence on the permeation
flow and rejection rate because PEG contributes to the membrane's hydrophilicity.[9]

In conclusion, this project aims to develop a sustainable and eco-friendly approach for
ultrafiltration membrane production by recycling used PET bottles and blending them
with PES polymer. Using recycled polymer not only helps reduce the environmental
impact of plastic waste but also offers a cost-effective alternative to virgin polymer
membranes. The resulting membranes are expected to exhibit high mechanical strength
and separation performance, making them suitable for various water treatment and
separation applications.

13
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

The resultant polymer solutions were stored at room temperature in glass bottles to
prevent air bubbles from entering the casting solution. Making a variety of casting
solutions allowed researchers to examine the effects of the additions. Prior to testing, the
membrane was cleaned and submerged in distilled water.[10]

POLYETHERSULFONE – is one of the high-temperature engineering thermoplastics

from the polysulfone family.

 It is an amorphous, translucent thermoplastic.

 It is hard, inflexible, and stable, maintaining its proportions across a wide
temperature range. [6]

The gravimetric approach was used to determine the membrane porosity. After
submerging in deionized water, the membranes' weights were determined using an
analytical balance. To completely release the trapped water from the membranes, the
membranes were subsequently baked in an oven at 110 °C for 3 hours. [11]

Tensile strength testing is essential because it can disclose information about a polymeric
membrane's mechanical stability, deformation resistance, and stress capacity. For the
membrane's stability and durability, tensile strength testing can reveal information about
the membrane's ability to tolerate mechanical stress and deformation. Higher loads and
strains can be applied to a membrane with high tensile strength without causing
irreversible deformation or failure. [12]

The nonsolvent was pure water, but because the solvent, which is highly soluble in water,
seeped into the water quickly from the polymer matrix, the membrane developed several
structural issues. [13]

The pore size of the membrane is influenced by the PEG molecular weight, which in turn
influences the membrane's permeability and selectivity. The membrane's pore size will
grow with the addition of greater molecular weight PEG, increasing permeate flow while
decreasing the rejection rate. This is because the larger pores allow more solvents to pass
through the membrane and more solutes to pass through. On the other hand, if lower
molecular weight PEG is used, the permeate flux will decrease, and the rejection rate will

14
increase. This is because the smaller membrane pores created by, the lower molecular
weight PEG are more selective and allow less solvent and solutes to pass through.
Additives like low molecular weight PEG can be used to achieve good permeate flux and
rejection rate. This will increase the rejection rate of the membrane while maintaining a
reasonable permeate flux. Furthermore, the concentration of PEG can also be adjusted to
modify the properties of the membrane. Increasing the concentration of PEG can increase
both permeate flux and rejection rate. [14]

Due to their high selectivity, permeability, and durability, polymeric membranes have
become an essential component in various industries, including water treatment,
biotechnology, food processing, and pharmaceuticals. Among the several polymeric
materials employed in the manufacture of membranes, PET, one of the most frequently
used polymers, is made of polyethylene terephthalate., primarily for manufacturing
plastic bottles, packaging materials, and textiles. However, the extensive use of PET has
led to significant environmental concerns, as it is non-biodegradable and takes several
hundred years to decompose. As a result, PET waste has become a major environmental
challenge, posing a severe threat to the ecosystem and human health. [5]

Polymeric membranes are typically composed of long-chain polymers that can exhibit
various degrees of crystallinity. By performing XRD analysis, the crystal structure of the
membrane can be determined, and the degree of crystallinity can be quantified. The
mechanical and physical characteristics of the membrane can be understood using this
information. The orientation of the crystal structure within the membrane material can
significantly impact the membrane's properties. XRD analysis can help identify the
crystal orientation and its effect on mechanical and physical properties such as
permeability and selectivity. XRD analysis can be used as a quality control tool for
polymeric membrane production. The degree of crystallinity, crystal orientation, and
phase behavior of the membrane material can be monitored to ensure consistent
performance and quality. [15]

Tensile strength is a crucial property for UF polymeric membranes as it affects the

mechanical stability and durability during filtration. The membranes undergo mechanical
stresses such as stretching, compression, and shear forces during the UF process. A
membrane with high tensile strength can withstand these mechanical stresses and
maintain its structural integrity, essential for long-term performance and reliability.

15
Moreover, the tensile strength of UF polymeric membranes affects their resistance to
fouling, which is the accumulation of particles and impurities on the surface of the
membrane. The fouling of UF membranes can lead to reduced filtration efficiency,
increased operating costs, and shortened membrane lifespan. [16]

A membrane with a high contact angle may resist the adhesion of foulants and be less
prone to fouling. In contrast, a membrane with a low contact angle may be more inclined
to fouling due to its high surface energy and wettability. Overall, the water contact angle
of polymeric membranes used in filtration applications is a crucial property affecting the
membrane's efficiency, selectivity, and fouling propensity. By selecting a membrane with
the appropriate contact angle for a given filtration application, designers and engineers
can optimize the performance and reliability of the filtration system. [17]

Polyether sulfone (PES) is a thermoplastic polymer that is composed of repeating units

of an aromatic sulfone group (SO2) and an ether group (O). The chemical formula of
PES can be represented as [SO2-C6H4-O-C6H4-O]n, where n represents the number of
repeating units in the polymer chain. The repeating units are connected by covalent bonds
known as ether linkages, resulting in a long chain of interconnected repeating units. [18]

The molecular structure of PET is a linear, long-chain polymer, which means that its
repeating units are linked end-to-end to form a chain. The terephthalic acid and ethylene
glycol units in PET are joined together by ester linkages, which are strong covalent bonds
formed between a carboxyl group in the acid and a hydroxyl group in the glycol. The
repeating units in PET have the chemical formula (C10H8O4)n, where n is the number
of repeating units in the polymer chain. [19]

The chemical formula for Polyethylene Glycol 400 is H(OCH2CH2)nOH, where "n"
denotes the typical number of repeating ethylene glycol units. PEG 400 is a transparent,
colorless, and odorless liquid that has an average molecular weight of around 400 g/mol.
Two ethylene glycol units connected by an oxygen atom make up PEG 400's repeating
unit. Each end of the molecule's linear structure is terminated by a hydroxyl group.[20]

16
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIALS
The Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles that were no longer used were
gathered from the campus and nearby eateries. m-cresol was used as one of the solvents
purchased from Research Lab Fine Chem Industries. Polyether sulfone (PES) was used
as an additional polymer. N-Methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) was used as another solvent.
Polyethylene Glycol 400 (PEG 400) (Bangalore Fine Chemicals) and
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) are used as additives. Acetone was used while casting and
Ethanol (Generic) were used as a nonsolvent while the coagulation bath and distilled
water were used to store the membrane

Figure 3.1: Components used in the Membrane Preparation

3.1.1 POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE

The basic properties of PET, such as its resistance to acids and organic solvents as well
as its mechanical robustness, have made it a popular component for polymeric
membranes. One advantage of employing PET in membrane manufacture over other
polymers is the ability to use recycled bottle-grade PET as trash rather than fresh samples.
This is due to the fact that there are no noticeable physical or chemical differences
between samples manufactured from recycled PET and those made from virgin PET.
With recycled bottle-grade PET, environmental pollution may be lessened and membrane
manufacture can be done more cheaply. It is crucial to compare the physical properties
of recycled PET to pure or virgin PET samples before utilizing it to produce membranes.
There was no difference in the physical features of the virgin and recycled PET samples

17
according to the chemical and physical characteristics of recycled and virgin PET. One
of two polymers for making the ultrafiltration membrane was chosen, PET, since it’s
chemical and tensile properties were equivalent to those of virgin PET [21][29]

3.1.2 POLYETHERSULFONE

The main polymer for the ultrafiltration membrane preparation was PES. PES was chosen
because membranes manufactured from it have great mechanical strength, robust
chemical and thermal stability, and good permeability to gases and liquids. Because they
can withstand high temperatures without losing their mechanical properties or
functionality, PES membranes are ideal for high-temperature applications. PES may be
readily generated into a variety of membrane types, including microfiltration,
ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis membranes, and is flexible for a
variety of applications. PES is a widely used material in various industrial and scientific
applications because it is adaptable and trustworthy for membrane fabrication. [6]

3.1.3 SOLVENT FOR PES SOLUTION

PES is among the several polymers that may dissolve with the highly polar aprotic
solvent NMP (N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone) (Polyethersulfone). The benefit of employing
NMP to dissolve PES is the polymer's ability to degrade at a reasonably low temperature
without significantly degrading the polymer chain. For dissolving high-molecular-weight
polymers like PES, NMP is the best solvent because of its high boiling point and low
vapor pressure. Additionally, because of its polar makeup, NMP has a high solvating
power, making it practical for dissolving PES. NMP's dipole moment, hydrogen bonding,
and capacity to form complexes with the polymer chain all impact its solvating power,
which improves its ability to dissolve PES. Overall, NMP is preferred in manufacturing
PES-based goods because of its high solubility, minimal polymer degradation, and low
toxicity when used to dissolve PES [23]

3.2 METHODS
3.2.1 PREPARATION OF PES MEMBRANE
The PES membrane was made using PES powder as a polymer. The PES polymer is
dissolved in a solvent called N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone. Using the rotary shaker, PES was
dissolved in NMP over the course of 24 hours at room temperature. The pore-forming
agent was added to the PES solution after it had been prepared. Polyethylene glycol was
utilized in this instance as an additive. The PES solution received PEG 400 after being
18
left at room temperature for 24 hours. The rotary shaker was used to thoroughly mix the
fluid.[15] The composition of the PES solution and addition additive was tabulated
below.

Figure 3.2: Graphical representation of the PES membrane preparation

S.No Component wt%

1 Polyether sulfone 15.84
2 N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone 79.21
3 Polyethylene Glycol 400 4.95

Table 3.1: Composition of PES membrane

Membranes made of PES were produced using the phase inversion approach. On a glass
plate measuring 20 by 25 cm, the membrane casting was carried out. To begin the
coagulation process, the casting solution was cast onto the glass plate using a glass rod.
The glass plate was then quickly placed in a nonsolvent bath filled with water that was
25 °C room temperature. According to the preliminary experiment, membrane flaws

19
appeared when the nonsolvent bath temperature was raised above ambient. Following
distilled water washing, membranes were put into a container for storage. Following
distilled water washing, membranes were put into a container for storage.[10]

3.2.2 Preparation of PES+PET Membrane

Once the old PET bottles had been gathered, the bottle tops and labels were removed.
The PET bottles were cleaned with water, treated with acetone to remove any remaining
moisture, allowed to air dry, and then cut into pieces measuring around 3 mm by 3 mm.
The PET was then dissolved in the solvent m-cresol using a heated plate at 100 °C while
being continuously agitated by a magnetic bar.It is crucial to take into account the
physical features of recycled PET in comparison to pure or virgin PET samples before
utilizing it to make membranes. In one research, Lee investigated the chemical and
physical properties of virgin and recycled PET. The results showed no physical
differences between the virgin PET samples and the recycled PET samples. Furthermore,
it was found that recycled PET had many of the same tensile and chemical properties as
virgin PET. [22]

Figure 3.3: Graphical representation of the PET solution preparation

PES powder was simultaneously employed as a polymer to manufacture the PES

membrane. The PES polymer is dissolved in a solvent called N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone.
Using the rotary shaker, PES was dissolved in NMP over the course of 24 hours at room
temperature. The pore-forming agent was added to the PES solution after it had been
prepared. Polyethylene glycol was utilized in this instance as an additive. The PES

20
solution received PEG 400 after being left at 25 degree Celsius for 1 day. The rotary
shaker was used to thoroughly mix the fluid. [23]

Figure 3.4: Graphical representation of the PES solution preparation

The temperature of the PET solution was lowered to room temperature before being
combined with the PES solution after being prepared separately. Then PES was given a
dose of PET Solution. The combined solution was then allowed to mix thoroughly for 8
hours in a rotary shaker. Because phenol diffused quickly from the polymer matrix into
the nonsolvent, membrane flaws are produced as a result of the final casting solution
temperature. The phase inversion method was used to prepare PES+PET membranes. On
a glass plate measuring 20 by 25 cm, the membrane casting was carried out. To begin the
coagulation process, the casting solution was cast onto the glass plate using a glass rod.
The glass plate was placed right away in a nonsolvent bath filled with a hydroalcoholic
solution that was 25 °C room temperature.[10]

21
 Figure 3.5: Graphical representation of the PES+PET membrane preparation

According to the preliminary experiment, membrane flaws appeared when the

nonsolvent bath temperature was raised above ambient. Rapid m-cresol diffusion into the
nonsolvent from the polymer matrix caused membrane defects. Because m-cresol is
soluble, it was released from the polymer membrane into the nonsolvent when the cast
membrane was immersed. The coagulation process started as a result of this. Following
distilled water washing, membranes were put into a container for storage. The bath waste
was submitted to a waste treatment since the nonsolvent and the aqueous solution
containing m-cresol are both regarded as dangerous waste. This was done to prevent
phenol from seeping into the environment. Alcohol is also used in the system of the
nonsolvent combination to lessen the polarity of the nonsolvent mixture.[11] The above
Ultrafiltration membranes were prepared using the below composition:

22
 Table 3.2: Blended Composition of Dope Solution

PET Solution PES Solution

PET, w/w% 16.66 PES, w/wt% 15.84

m-Cresol, w/wt% 83.34 NMP, w/wt% 79.21

PEG, w/wt% 4.95

Blended Dope Solution Composition

PET Solution, w/wt% 20 PES Solution, w/wt% 80

23
 CHAPTER 4

CHARACTERIZATION

4.1 PORE DENSITY

The membrane porosity was calculated using the gravimetric method. The weights of the
membranes were obtained using an analytical balance after immersion in distilled water.
The membranes were then roasted for three hrs at 110 °C to entirely liberate the trapped
water from them.[11]

The following formula was used to calculate the membrane density:

(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)
𝜀=
𝜌𝑤 ……………………………..4.1
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2) 𝑤2
+
𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑝

Where

𝜌w = density of water

𝜌p = density of the polymer

w1 = weight of the wet membrane (g)

w2 = weight of the dry membrane (g) [16]

The pore density of PES and Blended membrane have been tabulated below:

Name W1 W2 𝜌w 𝜌p 𝛆
PES 1.38 0.94 0.998 1.37 0.39
PES+PET 0,99 0.73 0.998 1.375 0.32

Table 4.1: Pore density of PES and PES+PET membrane

A membrane's permeability, selectivity, and mechanical strength can all be determined

by measuring the membrane's porosity.

24
4.2 WATER CONTACT ANGLE

To examine the PES+PET membranes' hydrophilicity, the water contact angle was
studied. A contact angle meter measured the water contact angle on the PES+PET
Membrane. At 25 °C, deionized water was used to assess the contact angle. The average
values of four were used to calculate the reported water contact angle.[16]

4.2.1 WATER CONTACT ANGLE OF PES MEMBRANE

S. No WCA
1 74.6
2 69.4
3 79.9
4 78.8
Avg 75.6

Table 4.2: Water contact angle of PES membrane

Figure 4.1: Water contact angle of PES membrane

25
4.2.2 WATER CONTACT ANGLE OF PES+PET MEMBRANE

S. No WCA
1 96.1
2 94.8
3 92
Avg 94.3

Table 4.3: Water contact angle of PES+PET membrane

Figure 4.2: Water contact angle of PES+PET membrane

Calculating the water contact angle is frequently used to describe the surface
characteristics of a membrane. It entails putting a water droplet on the membrane's
surface and gauging the angle at which it makes contact. Checking a membrane's water
contact angle is important because it can reveal details about the membrane's surface
energy, wettability, and fouling potential.

Water treatment and gas separation are two situations where a membrane's performance
may be impacted by its wettability. Water or gas can readily travel through a membrane
with good wettability, whereas a membrane with poor wettability can produce fouling
and lower flux.

A water droplet's potential to foul a membrane surface can also be determined by the
contact angle it forms with the membrane surface. A membrane with high contact angle

26
can be more prone to fouling, as it can trap contaminants on the surface and reduce the
membrane's performance [26]

4.3 TENSILE TEST

The tensile strength of the PES and PES+PET blended membranes has been studied using
a tensile testing machine (TTM). Before testing the membrane, Membranes have cut into
dimensions of a length of 80 mm and a width of 15 mm, the hole was made at the edge
of two sides and fitted into the clamp, and then the clamp was attached to TTM, then
stress was measured, and final dimensions were measured.

4.3.1 TENSILE STRENGTH OF PES MEMBRANE

Figure 4.3: Tensile test of PES membrane

The sentence states that the PES membrane has a compression strength of 1.533 MPa
and PES+PET blended membrane has 1.569 Mpa, indicating its ability to resist
deformation or collapse under pressure. This information can help determine the
membrane's suitability for specific applications and optimize its design and production.

27
 Parameter Value
Load At Yield 10.125 N
Elongation At Yield 3.600 mm
Yield Stress 1.350 Mpa
Load At Peak 11.500 N
Elongation at Peak 7.200 mm
Compression Strength 1.533 Mpa
Load At Break 7.375 N
Elongation At Break 7.300 mm
Breaking Strength 0.983 Mpa
% Reduction Area 47.73 %
% Elongation 4.00 %

Table 4.4: Data of Tensile Test of PES membrane

4.3.2 TENSILE STRENGTH OF PES+PET MEMBRANE

Figure 4.4: Tensile test of PES+PET blended membrane

28
 Parameter Values
Load At Yield 11.5 N
Elongation At Yield 3.800 mm
Yield Stress 1.482 Mpa
Load At Peak 12.5 N
Elongation at Peak 7.700 mm
Compression Strength 1.569 Mpa
Load At Break 8.321 N
Elongation At Break 7.7 mm
Breaking Strength 0.988 Mpa
% Reduction Area 47.71 %
% Elongation 6.25 %

Table 4.5: Data of Tensile test of PES+PET blended membrane

Tensile strength is a crucial mechanical characteristic of polymeric membranes that

might reveal details about their functionality and longevity. Tensile strength testing is
essential because it can disclose information about a polymeric membrane's mechanical
stability, deformation resistance, and stress capacity. For the membrane's stability and
durability, tensile strength testing can reveal information about the membrane's ability to
tolerate mechanical stress and deformation. Higher loads and strains can be applied to a
membrane with high tensile strength without causing irreversible deformation or failure.
Researchers and engineers can produce polymeric membranes that are more efficient for
particular purposes by measuring the material's tensile strength. They can customize the
membrane's mechanical properties by modifying the composition and production
conditions to satisfy specific requirements. To ensure that the membrane meets the
requirements and standards for its intended usage, tensile strength measurement can be
employed as a quality control technique. [27]

29
4.4 X-RAY DIFFRACTION
A practical method for examining the crystal structure of materials, particularly polymer
membranes, is X-ray diffraction (XRD). The degree of crystallinity, crystal size, and
crystal orientation of the polymer can all be determined using XRD. The crystal structure
and characteristics of the polymer are then determined by examining the resulting
diffraction pattern. Additionally, the orientation of polymer chains in thin films can be
investigated using XRD. Particularly for membranes made of semi-crystalline polymers,
For examining the crystal structure of polymer membranes, XRD can be a helpful
technique. [28]

XRD studies for PES membrane and PES+PET blended membrane had been studied.

The crystallinity index of the membrane can be calculated using the below formula:

Crystallinity index = …..4.2

4.4.1 XRD FOR PES MEMBRANE

Figure 4.5: XRD graph for PES membrane

30
4.4.2 XRD FOR PES+PET MEMBRANE

Figure 4.6: XRD graph for PES+PET membrane

Name Area of crystalline Area of all crystalline Crystallinity

peaks and amorphous peaks index
PES 7424.94 36272.35 20.46 %

PES+PET 6382.60 31056.17 20.55 %

Table 4.6: Crystallinity index for PES and blended membrane

The crystalline size of a material can be estimated from X-ray diffraction (XRD) data by
using the Scherrer equation, which relates the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of a
diffraction peak to the crystalline domain size:

D= ……………………………..4.3

Where D is the size of the crystalline domain, k is a constant (often taken to be 0.9), is
the X-ray radiation's wavelength, is the FWHM of the diffraction peak, is the diffraction
angle and is the distance between the crystals, and cos is their spacing. We first need to
utilize XRD to determine our sample's diffraction pattern to employ this equation. The
diffraction peak connected to the desired crystal structure can then be found. By
measuring the peak's breadth at 50% of its highest intensity, the peak's FWHM can be
calculated. The X-rays' wavelength would then need to be known for the analysis. This

31
is often offered via the instrument's X-ray source. The diffraction angle for the peak of
interest must then be measured. Using Bragg's law, the peak position can determine the
crystalline plane spacing. We can apply the Scherrer equation to choose our sample's
crystalline domain size with these numbers. The calculated crystalline size is an average
over several domains because the Scherrer equation relies on the assumption that the
crystal domains are roughly spherical and randomly orientated. [29]

The crystalline size of PES and PES+PET blended membrane has been calculated using
the above formula and tabulated below:

Name K FWHM 2θ λ D (nm)

(β)

PES 0.94 2.521 43.93 1.54 3.55

PES+PET 0.94 1.64 43.869 1.54 5.45

Table 4.7: Crystalline size of the PES and PES+PET blended membrane

4.5 FOURIER-TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

A non-destructive method for analyzing the chemical makeup of diverse materials,

including organic and inorganic chemicals, polymers, and biological samples, is FTIR
spectroscopy. It operates by exposing a piece to various frequencies of infrared light and
measuring the amount of energy the model transmits or absorbs at each frequency. An
individual "fingerprint" of the sample is created by the infrared spectrum generated by
FTIR spectroscopy, and this fingerprint may be used to determine the existence of
particular functional groups, chemical bonds, and other molecular properties. This data
may be used to detect unidentified compounds, assess the sample's purity, and track the
development of chemical reactions. FTIR spectroscopy is a kind method that may find
very small quantities of a chemical. It is also a speedy and effective method of analysis,
enabling the quick and accurate examination of a large number of samples. The light
source, monochromator, sample holder, and detector make up the FTIR spectroscopy
device. A monochromator is used to separate a particular frequency band from the
infrared radiation that the light source generates over a range of frequencies. A detector

32
measures the quantity of energy absorbed or transmitted by the sample once it is put in
the path of infrared radiation. The resultant spectrum represents the energy transmitted
or absorbed by the sample at each frequency as a graph. As a function of wavelength or
wavenumber, it is often plotted. To determine the presence of certain chemical bonds or
functional groups in the spectrum and to compare the range to a database of known
spectra in order to identify the sample, the spectrum may be examined using a variety of
software tools. In conclusion, FTIR spectroscopy is an effective analytical technique for
determining the chemical makeup of materials. It has various uses in chemistry, biology,
pharmacology, and materials science and is extensively utilized in research and
development, quality control, and forensic science.[30]

4.5.1 FTIR OF PES MEMBRANE

Figure 4.7: FTIR graph for PES membrane

S.No Wavelength Wavelength Bands Functional Group

(cm-1) based on
literature
(cm-1)
1 395.41 375-400 C-H Methyl and Methylene groups in alkanes
and alkyl halides
2 416.62 400-500 C-Cl Halogens
3 518.85 500-600 FPR -
4 559.36 500-600 FPR -

33
 5 626.87 600-700 FPR -
6 707.88 675-720 C-H Aromatics and Cyclic compounds
7 835.18 675-900 C-H Benzene and Benzoic acid derivatives
8 866.04 855-870 C-H Alkenes and Alkynes
9 1012.63 1000-1150 C-O-C Ethers, Esters
10 1072.42 1050-1100 C-C Alkenes and Alkynes
11 1105.21 1050-1170 C-H Aromatic Compounds
12 1149.57 1100-1150 C-O Alcohols, Ethers and Amines, Phenols
13 1240.23 1200-1250 C-N Secondary Amines
14 1294.24 1260-1375 C-N Amines and Amides
15 1408.04 1350-1450 C-H Alkanes and Alkenes
16 1485.19 1480-1500 FPR -
17 1577.77 1500-1600 N-H Primary and Secondary amines
18 1654.92 1650-1690 C=O Carbonyl Group
19 2065.76 2050-2100 C≡C Alkynes
20 2108.20 2100-2260 C≡N Nitriles

Table 4.8: Different wavelengths of components in the PES membrane

4.5.2 FTIR OF PES+PET MEMBRANE

Figure 4.8: FTIR graph for PES+PET membrane

34
S.No Wavelength Wavelength Bands Functional Group
(cm-1) based on
literature
(cm-1)
1 410.84 410-415 C-H Benzenes and Aromatic Compounds
2 449.41 400-450 far IR Metals and Ceramics
3 553.57 500-600 FPR -
4 623.01 600-650 C-H Disubstituted Benzenes
C-N Nitro compounds
5 692.44 660-700 C-H Benzenes and Monosubstituted alkenes
6 829.39 - - -
7 864.11 860-910 C-H Benzenes and Disubstituted alkenes
8 1008.77 1000-1070 C-C, Cyclic Ether
C-O
9 1101.35 1100-1150 C-O Esters
10 1147.65 1130-1150 C-O Carboxylic Acids
11 1238.30 1200-1300 C-H Disubstituted alkenes and alkynes
12 1292.31 1260-1375 C-N Amines and Amides
13 1406.11 1350-1450 C-H Alkenes and Alkanes
14 1481.33 1480-1500 FPR -
15 1575.84 1500-1600 N-H Primary and Secondary Amines
16 1621.06 1550-1630 C=C-C Aromatic Ring
17 1639.49 1600-1650 C=O Carbonyl Group
18 1990.54 1900-2000 FPR -
19 3900.07 3700-4000 O-H Alcohols, Phenols
20 4478.71 - - -

Table 4.9: Different wavelengths of components in the PES membrane

35
5.6 MEMBRANE DISTILLATION

A hydrophobic membrane is used in the membrane distillation process to separate a hot

feed solution from a cool permeate stream. In this procedure, the permeate is collected
on one side of the membrane while the feed solution is brought into contact with the
other. The difference in vapor pressure between the hot feed solution and the cool
permeate stream is what drives the separation.

Only the water vapor may pass through the hydrophobic membrane employed in
membrane distillation, and it rejects any liquid or solid particles. The method is useful
for desalinating seawater or separating solutions with high boiling points.

Overall, membrane distillation is a promising technique for numerous industrial uses,

such as water treatment and food processing, and separation of organic compounds.

Figure 4.9: Graphical representation of Membrane Distillation

Membrane distillation can help separate azeotropic mixtures such as ethanol-water,

where conventional distillation methods may not be effective. The hydrophobic
membrane selectively evaporates the more volatile component (ethanol) from the
mixture while leaving the less volatile component (water) behind.

36
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 EFFECT OF NONSOLVENT

Since m-cresol was used to dissolve PET polymer and PEG 400 was added to the
membrane as a pore-forming agent, the molecular interactions between m-cresol, PEG
400, and nonsolvent during the phase inversion process had a substantial influence on
the development of the membrane holes. During the phase inversion process, m-cresol
was released from the polymer matrix, interacted with the nonsolvent, and subsequently
broke down in the water bath with the nonsolvent. In order to reduce the polarity of the
nonsolvent combination, alcohol is utilized in the system. In our preliminary experiment,
pure water was utilised as the nonsolvent, and this resulted in a membrane with several
defects because m-cresol, which is highly soluble in water, quickly diffused into the
water from the polymer matrix, causing structural problems with the membrane.
Imperfections on the membranes were found by putting them on a microscope to look
for little damage. All membranes were visually inspected to make sure they had no faults
before continued usage.[13]

5.2 EFFECT OF ADDITIVE

The rate at which a solvent (often water) passes through a membrane is known as the
permeate flux. The percentage of solutes (or contaminants) that are prevented from
flowing through the membrane, in contrast, is known as the rejection rate. Polyethylene
glycol, often known as PEG, is frequently used as an addition to change the
characteristics of membranes for a variety of purposes, such as water treatment, gas
separation, and drug administration. The pore size of the membrane is influenced by the
PEG molecular weight, which in turn influences the membrane's permeability and
selectivity. The membrane's pore size will grow with the addition of greater molecular
weight PEG, increasing permeate flow while decreasing the rejection rate. This is due to
the fact that the membrane can accommodate more solutes and solvents due to the bigger
pores. On the other hand, the permeate flow will drop and the rejection rate would rise if
lower molecular weight PEG is employed. This is so that fewer solvents and solutes can
flow through the more selective, smaller membrane holes made possible by the lower
molecular weight PEG. To get a decent permeate flux and rejection rate, additives like

37
low molecular weight PEG can be employed. By doing this, a reasonable permeate flow
will be maintained while the membrane rejection rate is increased. To change the
characteristics of the membrane, the concentration of PEG may also be changed.
Permeate flow and rejection rate can both rise when PEG concentration is raised. There
is a limit to how much PEG may be used, though, since too much can cause membrane
fouling or deterioration. In conclusion, by varying the molecular weight and
concentration of PEG, the characteristics of a membrane may be adjusted. The rejection
rate can be raised by adding low molecular weight PEG, and both the permeate flow and
rejection rate can be raised by increasing PEG concentration. The ideal circumstances,
however, vary depending on a number of variables, including the type of solutes and the
system's operating circumstances. [14]

5.3 SELECTION OF SOLVENT

5.3.1 SOLVENT FOR PET SOLUTION

Chemical structure affects a polymer's solubility in a liquid; typically, structural

similarity promotes higher solubility. Based on the solubility parameters, it represents
the enthalpy of mixing, the important factor in dissolving the polymer in solvent. Using
dispersion forces, Intermolecular forces, and hydrogen bonds (H) the Hansen solubility
parameter was developed. The temperature change is regarded as one of the important
parameters to increase the solubility of the polymer in the solvent

………………..5.1

Ra is the solubility distance and the Ro is the solubility radius of the polymer used to
determine the likelihood that a substance (such as a polymer) would dissolve in a
solvent.[35]

RED = Ra / Ro ……………………………..5.2

If RED 1, the solvent and polymer are the same. It is believed that the solvent successfully
dissolves the polymer. If RED is 1, the polymer may expand or the solvent may partially
dissolve. But if RED > 1, the solvent is classed as nonsolvent since it won't degrade the
polymer.

38
 S.No Polymer δD, P δP, P δH, P
1 PET 18.2 6.4 6.6

Table 5.1: Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSPs) of PET [35]

S. No Solvents δD,S δP,S δH,S

1 Acetic Acid 14.5 8 13.5
2 n-Butanol 16 5.7 15.8
3 O-Chlorophenol 20.30 5.5 13.9
4 Ethanol 15.8 8.8 19.4
5 Formic acid 14.3 11.9 16.6
6 Glycerol 17.4 12.1 29.3
7 Isopropyl alcohol 15.8 6.1 16.4
8 m-Cresol 18 5.1 12.9
9 Methanol 15.1 12.3 22.3
10 Phenol 18 5.9 14.9
11 o-Propanol 16 6.8 17.4
12 Trifluoroacetic acid 18.3 7 13
13 Water 15.5 16 42.3

Table 5.2: Solvent Hansen Solubility Parameter (HSP) components [35]

At any temperature, RED less than one represents polymer dissolving in the solvent,
RED equals one represents polymer partially dissolving in the solvent, and RED greater
than one represents polymer does not dissolve in the solvent. The temperatures at the
highest and lowest points in RED are also indicated. The temperature which has low
RED has a high solubility point. [35]

According to the Hansen Solubility model, a lower RED number denotes more solvent
and polymer miscibility. As a result, the lowest RED value of the curve may be used to
represent the maximum solubility point.

39
 Figure 5.1: HSP model for dissolving PET in various solvents

The HSP model was taken into account before choosing m-cresol to dissolve PET
material. The temperature is important for dissolving PET with the right solvent. When
heated to 25 C, PET has a RED value of 0.80 and is soluble in m-cresol.[35]

Figure 5.2: Temperature-based solubility analysis

40
5.4 XRD OF THE MEMBRANE

Polymeric membranes are typically composed of long-chain polymers that can exhibit
various degrees of crystallinity. By performing XRD analysis, the crystal structure of the
membrane can be determined, and the degree of crystallinity can be quantified. This
information can be used to understand the membrane's mechanical and physical
characteristics. The orientation of the crystal structure within the membrane material can
significantly impact the membrane's properties. XRD analysis can help identify the
crystal orientation and its effect on mechanical and physical properties such as
permeability and selectivity. XRD analysis can be used as a quality control tool for
polymeric membrane production. The degree of crystallinity, crystal orientation, and
phase behavior of the membrane material can be monitored to ensure consistent
performance and quality.[15]

Figure 5.3: Crystalline index of the membranes

41
 Figure 5.4: Crystalline index of the membranes

5.4.1 CRYSTALLINITY INDEX OF PES MEMBRANE

According to the crystallinity index, only a tiny percentage of the PES membrane's
material is structured in a highly ordered, crystalline structure, which stands at 20.46
percent. The majority of the substance lacks a distinct crystal structure and is amorphous.
The impact of a PES membrane's crystallinity index on the mechanical and chemical
properties of the substance is significant.

A material with a low crystallinity index is often more malleable and flexible, whereas a
high index may be more rigid and brittle. Rodholfo da Silva Barbosa Ferreiraa observed
the same crystallinity behavior of 20.7. [31] Additionally, the degree of crystallinity can
affect the membrane's permeability, selectivity, and resistance to chemical deterioration.
Knowing a PES membrane's crystallinity index can aid in predicting its performance and
behavior in various applications and direct the choice and design of suitable membrane
materials.

5.4.2 CRYSTALLINITY INDEX OF PES+PET BLENDED MEMBRANE

Similar to the PES membrane, PES+PET blended membrane exhibits an amorphous

character. Only a tiny percentage of the PES+PET blended membrane, with a
crystallinity index of 20.46 percent, is structured in a highly ordered, crystalline structure.
The majority of the substance lacks a distinct crystal structure and is amorphous. The
impact of a PES membrane's crystallinity index on the mechanical and chemical
properties of the substance is significant. A material with a low crystallinity index is often
more malleable and flexible, whereas a high index may be more rigid and brittle.

42
Rodholfo da Silva Barbosa Ferreiraa observed the same crystallinity behavior of 20.7.
[31] Additionally, the degree of crystallinity can affect the membrane's permeability,
selectivity, and resistance to chemical deterioration. Knowing a PES membrane's
crystallinity index can aid in predicting its performance and behavior in various
applications and direct the choice and design of suitable membrane materials.

5.4.3 CRYSTALLINE SIZE OF PES MEMBRANE

The size of each crystal that makes up a material's crystalline structure is called its
crystalline size. A PES membrane has crystals with a crystalline size of 3.55 nm, which
indicates that they are relatively tiny. Saly R. El‑Dakkony observed similar values in his
studies.[15] A method frequently used to ascertain a material's crystalline size is XRD
(X-ray diffraction). The process entails illuminating the material with X-rays and
measuring the diffraction pattern that results from the X-rays' interactions with the crystal
structure of the substance. Mathematical models can be used to determine the size of the
individual crystals from this pattern.

A PES membrane's crystalline size is essential since it affects the material's

characteristics. Typically, a material with a smaller crystalline size will have a more
significant surface area, better mechanical elements, and increased reactivity. However,
it may produce material more prone to flaws and instability. A PES membrane's capacity
to filter out molecules and tiny particles may be improved by having a smaller crystalline
size. The mechanical stability and chemical resistance of the membrane might also be
enhanced. However, other elements, such as the membrane's porosity, thickness, and
surface chemistry, will also impact how well the membrane performs.

5.4.4 CRYSTALLINE SIZE OF PES+PET BLENDED MEMBRANE

The size of each crystal that makes up a material's crystalline structure is called its
crystalline size. A PES+PET blended membrane has crystals with a crystalline size of
4.55 nm, indicating they are relatively tiny. Saly R. El‑Dakkony observed similar values
in his studies. [15] A method frequently used to ascertain a material's crystalline size is
XRD (X-ray diffraction).

The process entails illuminating the material with X-rays and measuring the diffraction
pattern that results from the X-rays' interactions with the crystal structure of the
substance. Mathematical models can be used to determine the size of the individual

43
crystals from this pattern. A PES+PET blended membrane's crystalline size is essential
since it affects the material's characteristics. Typically, a material with a smaller
crystalline size will have a more significant surface area, better mechanical elements, and
increased reactivity. However, it may produce material more prone to flaws and
instability. A PES +PET blended membrane's capacity to filter out molecules and tiny
particles may be improved by having a smaller crystalline size. The mechanical stability
and chemical resistance of the membrane might also be enhanced. However, other
elements, such as the membrane's porosity, thickness, and surface chemistry, will also
impact how well the membrane performs.

5.5 WATER CONTACT ANGLE OF MEMBRANES

The water contact angle is an essential property of polymeric. The contact angle is the
angle between the surface of the membrane and a water droplet placed on it. The
significance of water contact angle in polymeric membrane filtration lies in its ability to
indicate the surface energy and wettability of the membrane. A hydrophobic membrane
surface with a high contact angle can repel water and promote the passage of non-aqueous
fluids through the membrane. This is desirable in some filtration applications, such as
separating organic solvents from water or removing oil from water. On the other hand, a
hydrophilic membrane surface with a low contact angle attracts water and promotes the
passage of aqueous fluids through the membrane.

Figure 5.5: Water contact angles of membrane

This is useful in other filtration applications, such as removing bacteria or viruses from
water. Additionally, the water contact angle can indicate the fouling propensity of the
membrane. A membrane with a high contact angle may resist the adhesion of foulants

44
and be less prone to fouling. In contrast, a membrane with a low contact angle may be
more prone to fouling due to its high surface energy and wettability. Overall, the water
contact angle of polymeric membranes used in filtration applications is a crucial property
affecting the membrane's efficiency, selectivity, and fouling propensity. By selecting a
membrane with the appropriate contact angle for a given filtration application, designers
and engineers can optimize the performance and reliability of the filtration system. [17]

5.5.1 WATER CONTACT ANGLE OF PES MEMBRANE

The degree to which a material can reject water, or how hydrophobic it is, is determined
by the water contact angle. The PES membrane is moderately hydrophobic or has a
moderate propensity to leave the water, with a water contact angle of 75.6 degrees.
Similar studies of PES membrane by Gunawan S. Prihandana gives Water contact angle
of 74.9 and 78. PES membrane. This further confirms that the contact angle impact of
the water contact angle on PES membrane performance, surface energy, and wetting
behavior are what make this parameter significant. Less than a 90-degree contact angle
shows that the material is hydrophilic, so it can draw water and is easily wetted. If the
contact angle is large (more than 90 degrees), the material is hydrophobic, which means
it has a weak attraction to water and can withstand being wet.

This suggests that a PES membrane with a water contact angle of 75.6 degrees would be
appropriate for uses that call for moderate hydrophobicity, such as separating oils and
water. Even though PES is hydrophobic, the membrane shows the nature of hydrophilic,
and it is because of the addition of PEG 400. While enabling oils and other hydrophobic
compounds to pass through, the moderate hydrophobicity can aid in avoiding fouling or
clogging of the membrane by water and other aqueous solutions. The pore size, surface
chemistry, and processing conditions of the PES membrane, as well as other parameters,
will determine how the water contact angle affects the membrane's overall performance.
Therefore, while choosing a PES membrane for a particular application, it is crucial to
consider the water contact angle and other membrane characteristics.[36]

5.5.2 WATER CONTACT ANGLE OF PES+PET BLENDED MEMBRANE

PES+PET blended membranes have a water contact angle of 94.3 degrees, which shows
that the membrane is very hydrophobic or has a significant ability to reject water. Ilya V.
Korolkov did a membrane using PET has recorded a contact angle of 91 and 99. This
contact angle proves the hydrophobic nature of the membrane. In PES+PET blended

45
membranes, the water contact angle is critical because it affects the membrane's surface
energy, wetting behavior, and performance in various applications. As was previously
established, a high contact angle denotes a hydrophobic substance, which means it has a
low propensity to draw water and can withstand getting wet. The high hydrophobicity of
PES+PET blended membranes, which have a water contact angle of 94.3 degrees, can
make them the perfect choice for uses where water repellency is essential, such as
fabricating waterproof materials or membranes or in the separation of oil and water.

The high contact angle indicates the membrane's ability to successfully withstand fouling
or clogging by water and other aqueous solutions, which can increase the membrane's
performance and lifespan. The effect of the water contact angle on the overall
performance of the PES+PET blended membrane will, however, be influenced by other
elements such as membrane thickness, pore size, surface chemistry, and processing
conditions. Therefore, while choosing a PES+PET blended membrane for a particular
application, it is crucial to take the water contact angle into account along with other
membrane parameters [17]

5.6 PORE DENSITY OF MEMBRANE

Pore density measures the number of pores per unit of a membrane surface. In the case
of a PES membrane with a pore density of 0.39 and a blended membrane having 0.32,
there are 0.39 and 0.32 pores per square micro-meter of the membrane surface area,
respectively. Sameer Imdad & Rajeev Kumar Dohare have studied the porosity of PET
membrane, which replicates the same value as the blended PES+PET membrane. The
significance of pore density in PES membranes lies in its influence on the membrane's
filtration performance. Generally, a higher pore density corresponds to a more significant
number of pores on the membrane surface, which can result in higher filtration rates and
improved selectivity.

However, the pore size, shape, and distribution also play a crucial role in determining
filtration performance. A PES membrane with a pore density of 0.39 may be suitable for
applications requiring moderate to high filtration rates, such as in water, pharmaceuticals,
or food products.[21]

46
 Figure 5.6: Porosity of the membrane

The membrane's pore density can help increase the available filtration area, efficiently
removing contaminants or impurities from the feed solution. It is important to note that
the impact of pore density on the PES membrane's overall performance will depend on
various other factors, such as the pore size, shape, pore distribution, and membrane
thickness. Therefore, it is necessary to consider pore density and other membrane
properties when selecting a PES membrane for a particular application.

5.7 TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE MEMBRANE

Ultrafiltration (UF) polymeric membranes are used in various applications, including

water treatment, dairy processing, and pharmaceuticals. Tensile strength is a crucial
property for UF polymeric membranes as it affects the mechanical stability and durability
during filtration. The membranes undergo mechanical stresses such as stretching,
compression, and shear forces during the UF process. A membrane with high tensile
strength can withstand these mechanical stresses and maintain its structural integrity,
essential for long-term performance and reliability.

47
 Figure 5.7: (A) Yield Stress of the membrane (B) Compression Strength of the
membrane (C) % Elongation of the membrane (D) Load at Peak of the Membrane

Moreover, the tensile strength of UF polymeric membranes affects their resistance to

fouling, which is the accumulation of particles and impurities on the surface of the
membrane. The fouling of UF membranes can lead to reduced filtration efficiency,
increased operating costs, and shortened membrane lifespan. A membrane with high
tensile strength can resist the mechanical stresses associated with fouling and maintain
its pore size, allowing for effective filtration. Finally, the tensile strength of UF polymeric
membranes is critical for their manufacturing process.

The membranes are typically formed by casting a polymeric solution onto a support layer
and then drying and curing the resulting film. A membrane with low tensile strength can
tear or break during this process, leading to defects and reduced performance. Overall,
the importance of tensile strength for UF polymeric membranes lies in its impact on
mechanical stability, durability, resistance to fouling, and manufacturability. Engineers
and designers can ensure efficient and reliable filtration over its lifetime by selecting a
UF membrane with appropriate tensile strength.[16]

5.7.1 TENSILE STRENGTH OF PES MEMBRANE

The tensile strength of the PES membrane was tested using a tensile test machine, and
the membrane has a yield stress of 1.350 MPa. This is the stress required to deform the
PES membrane permanently. Rumiana Kotsilkova has studied the yield stress of the PES
membrane, which had a yield stress of 1.4 Mpa. By comparing with the Rumiana

48
Kotsilkova membrane current, PES performs almost identically. It measures the
material's stiffness and resistance to deformation and indicates the maximum stress it can
withstand before undergoing permanent deformation. This parameter helps determine the
membrane's mechanical stability and resistance to deformation under load. PES
membranes have a compression strength of 1.533 MPa, and this is the maximum
compressive stress the PES membrane can withstand before it collapses or undergoes
irreversible deformation.

This parameter is essential for applications that involve compressive loads, such as
membrane filtration or pressure-driven membrane processes, and breaking strength of
0.983 MPa. This is the maximum stress the PES membrane can withstand before
rupturing or breaking. It measures the material's ultimate power and indicates the
maximum pressure it can withstand before it fails. This parameter helps determine the
membrane's durability and resistance to mechanical damage and load at a Yield of 10.125
N. This is the load at which the PES membrane undergoes plastic deformation during the
tensile test. It measures the material's ability to resist deformation under load. This
parameter helps evaluate the membrane's mechanical properties under tensile stress.
After testing the PES membrane, the dimensions of the membrane are measured, and it
shows a % Reduction Area of 47.73%; this is the percentage of the original cross-
sectional area of the PES membrane that is reduced after the sample is broken during the
tensile test.

It indicates the degree of plastic deformation the material undergoes before it fractures.
This parameter helps evaluate the elasticity of the membrane and its ability to withstand
deformation without breaking and % Elongation of 4.00%, and this is the percentage
increase in the length of the PES membrane during the tensile test. It indicates the
material's ability to stretch and undergo deformation without breaking. This parameter
helps evaluate the flexibility and elasticity of the membrane.[32]

5.7.2 TENSILE STRENGTH OF PES+PET BLENDED MEMBRANE

Similarly, the Tensile strength of the PES+PET Blended membrane was tested using a
tensile test machine, and the membrane has a yield stress of 1.482 MPa. This is the stress
required to deform the PES membrane permanently. Rumiana Kotsilkova has studied the
yield stress of the PES membrane, which had a yield stress of 1.4 Mpa. By comparing
with the Rumiana Kotsilkova membrane current, PES performs better. This shows the

49
good mechanical strength of the membrane. It measures the material's stiffness and
resistance to deformation and indicates the maximum stress it can withstand before
undergoing permanent deformation. This parameter is useful for determining the
membrane's mechanical stability and resistance to deformation under load, and the PES
membrane has a compression strength of 1.569 MPa. This is the maximum compressive
stress the PES membrane can withstand before it collapses or undergoes irreversible
deformation. This parameter is important for applications that involve compressive loads,
such as membrane filtration or pressure-driven membrane processes, and breaking
strength of 0.988 MPa. This is the maximum stress the PES membrane can withstand
before rupturing or breaking.

It measures the material's ultimate strength and indicates the maximum stress it can
withstand before it fails. This parameter is useful for determining the membrane's
durability and resistance to mechanical damage and load at a Yield of 11.5 N. This is the
load at which the PES membrane undergoes plastic deformation during the tensile test.
It measures the material's ability to resist deformation under load. This parameter
evaluates the membrane's mechanical properties under tensile stress. After testing the
PES membrane, the dimensions of the membrane are measured, and it shows a %
Reduction Area of 47.71%. This is the percentage of the original cross-sectional area of
the PES membrane that is reduced after the sample is broken during the tensile test.

It indicates the degree of plastic deformation the material undergoes before it fractures.
This parameter is useful for evaluating the flexibility of the membrane and its ability to
withstand deformation without breaking and % Elongation of 6.25%. This is the
percentage increase in the length of the PES membrane during the tensile test. It indicates
the material's ability to stretch and undergo deformation without breaking. This
parameter is useful for evaluating the flexibility and elasticity of the membrane.[32]

5.8 FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy is known as FTIR. It is a method for examining

a material's infrared spectrum. FTIR measures the amount of light a sample absorbs at
various frequencies after exposure to infrared radiation. The substance may be identified
thanks to the absorption spectrum, which details the chemical bonds and functional
groups present in the sample. In addition to research applications in chemistry,

50
biochemistry, and environmental science, FTIR is employed in various businesses,
including medicines, polymers, and materials science.[33]

5.8.1 FTIR ANALYSIS FOR PES MEMBRANE

A thermoplastic polymer called polyether sulfone (PES) is made up of repeating units of

an ether group and an aromatic sulfone group (SO2) (O). PES has the chemical formula
[SO2-C6H4-O-C6H4-O]n, where n is the quantity of repeating units in the polymer
chain. A lengthy chain of interconnected repeating units is produced when the repeating
units are joined by covalent connections called ether linkages. PES has high-temperature
resistance, chemical resistance, and dimensional stability thanks to the aromatic sulfone
group, while the ether group gives the polymer flexibility and toughness. PES's precise
structure can change based on the individual synthetic process and environmental factors
that are employed to create it. Due to its superior mechanical, thermal, and chemical
qualities, PES is a high-performance polymer that is often utilized in a variety of sectors,
including aerospace, automotive, electronics, and medical equipment. It is a desirable
material for applications that need high-temperature resistance, chemical resistance, and
dimensional stability because to its distinctive structure and qualities.[18]

Figure 5.8: Structure of Polyether sulfone

The chemical formula for PEG 400 (Polyethylene Glycol 400) is H(OCH2CH2)nOH,
where "n" denotes the typical number of repeating ethylene glycol units. PEG 400 is a
transparent, colorless, and odorless liquid that has an average molecular weight of around
400 g/mol. The repeating unit of PEG 400 consists of two ethylene glycol units linked
by an oxygen atom. The molecule has a linear structure and is terminated by hydroxyl
groups at each end. The chemical structure of PEG 400 is shown below: HO-
(CH2CH2O)n-CH2CH2-OH where "n" is the average number of repeating ethylene
glycol units, which is approximately 8 in the case of PEG 400. PEG 400 is a water-
soluble compound with low toxicity and is widely used in various industries, including
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food. Many products use it as a solubilizer, lubricant,

51
plasticizer, and viscosity modifier. The properties of PEG 400 can be tuned by varying
the average molecular weight and the number of repeating ethylene glycol units.[20]

Figure 5.9: Structure of PEG 400

The FTIR analysis performed showed the presence of both these functional groups in the
PES membrane. The S=O group is a characteristic absorption band that occurs in the
region of 1200-1300 cm^-1 in the FTIR spectrum. The ether group (C-O-C) is typically
seen as a strong absorption band in the area of 1000-1100 cm^-1 in the FTIR spectrum.
The presence of these functional groups in the PES membrane is essential for
understanding its properties and behavior. The S=O group is polar and can participate in
hydrogen bonding, making the PES membrane highly resistant to solvents and chemicals.
Conversely, the ether group provides flexibility to the polymer chain and enhances its
thermal stability. Overall, the FTIR analysis of the PES membrane confirmed the
presence of the characteristic functional groups in the polymer and provided insights into
its chemical structure and properties. [34]

The FTIR analysis of the PES membrane confirmed the presence of ethylene in PEG 400
by showing the C-C group in the infrared spectrum. The ethylene unit in PEG 400 is
represented by the repeating unit (-CH2-CH2-O-), which consists of two carbon atoms
linked by a double bond. Each of these carbon atoms is also attached to a single hydrogen
atom. The C-C stretching vibration of the ethylene group typically occurs in the FTIR
spectrum at around 1600-1650 cm^-1. This absorption band is due to the stretching of
the carbon-carbon double bond, which causes a change in the dipole moment of the
molecule. This absorption band is generally solid and sharp in the FTIR spectrum, which
makes it easy to identify the presence of ethylene units in a sample. In addition to the C-
C stretching vibration, the FTIR spectrum of PEG 400 may also show other characteristic
absorption bands, such as the C-O stretching vibration of the ether group, which occurs

52
at around 1100-1200 cm^-1. These bands can further confirm the presence of PEG 400
in the membrane. [34]

Overall, the FTIR analysis of the PES membrane confirmed the presence of ethylene in
PEG 400 by showing the characteristic C-C stretching vibration in the infrared spectrum.

This analysis confirms the presence of PES and PEG 400, which present in the PES
membrane

5.8.2 FTIR ANALYSIS FOR PES+PET MEMBRANE

The molecular structure of PET is a linear, long-chain polymer, which means that its
repeating units are linked end-to-end to form a chain. The terephthalic acid and ethylene
glycol units in PET are joined together by ester linkages, which are strong covalent bonds
formed between a carboxyl group in the acid and a hydroxyl group in the glycol. The
repeating units in PET have the chemical formula (C10H8O4)n, where n is the number
of repeating units in the polymer chain. The terephthalic acid units give PET its stiffness,
while the ethylene glycol units make it flexible and give it good mechanical properties.
The linear structure of PET also makes it highly resistant to moisture and chemicals,
making it ideal for use in applications where it needs to maintain its shape and integrity.
[19]

Polyether sulfone (PES) is a thermoplastic polymer that is composed of repeating units

of an aromatic sulfone group (SO2) and an ether group (O). The chemical formula of
PES can be represented as [SO2-C6H4-O-C6H4-O]n, where n represents the number of
repeating units in the polymer chain. The repeating units are connected by covalent bonds
known as ether linkages, resulting in a long chain of interconnected repeating units. The
aromatic sulfone group provides PES with its high-temperature resistance, chemical
resistance, and dimensional stability, while the ether group provides flexibility and
toughness to the polymer.[18]

Figure 5.10: Structure of PET

53
The FTIR analysis performed showed the presence of both these functional groups in the
PES+ PET membrane. The S=O group is a characteristic absorption band that occurs in
the region of 1200-1300 cm^-1 in the FTIR spectrum. The ether group (C-O-C) is
typically seen as a strong absorption band in the area of 1000-1100 cm^-1 in the FTIR
spectrum. The presence of these functional groups in the PES membrane is vital for
understanding its properties and behavior. The S=O group is polar and can participate in
hydrogen bonding, making the PES membrane highly resistant to solvents and chemicals.
Conversely, the ether group provides flexibility to the polymer chain and enhances its
thermal stability. Overall, the FTIR analysis of the PES membrane confirmed the
presence of the characteristic functional groups in the polymer and provided insights into
its chemical structure and properties. [34]

The FTIR analysis of the PES+PET membrane confirmed the presence of ethylene in
PEG 400 by showing the C-C group in the infrared spectrum. The ethylene unit in PEG
400 is represented by the repeating unit (-CH2-CH2-O-), which consists of two carbon
atoms linked by a double bond. Each of these carbon atoms is also attached to a single
hydrogen atom. The C-C stretching vibration of the ethylene group typically occurs in
the FTIR spectrum at around 1600-1650 cm^-1. This absorption band is due to the
stretching of the carbon-carbon double bond, which causes a change in the dipole
moment of the molecule. This absorption band is generally solid and sharp in the FTIR
spectrum, which makes it easy to identify the presence of ethylene units in a sample. In
addition to the C-C stretching vibration, the FTIR spectrum of PEG 400 may also show
other characteristic absorption bands, such as the C-O stretching vibration of the ether
group, which occurs at around 1100-1200 cm^-1. These bands can further confirm the
presence of PEG 400 in the membrane. [34]

The FTIR analysis results of the PES+PET membrane indicate the presence of various
functional groups. C=O: This shows the company of a carbonyl group consisting of a
double-bonded carbon atom to an oxygen atom. In PET, this group is likely to present in
the ester bonds of the polymer backbone. C-O: This indicates the presence of a single
bond between a carbon atom and an oxygen atom. This group is also present in the ester
bonds of the PET polymer. O-H: This indicates the presence of a hydroxyl group, which
consists of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. This group may be present in
any residual water molecules =or hydroxyl end groups that were not fully reacted during
the synthesis of the PET membrane. C-H: This indicates the presence of a single bond

54
between a carbon atom and a hydrogen atom. This group is present in the hydrocarbon
chains of the PET polymer. Overall, the presence of these functional groups confirms
that the membrane is composed of PET. The FTIR analysis results can also provide
information about the degree of crystallinity, impurities, and the degree of
polymerization of the PET membrane. [34]

The FTIR analysis confirms the presence of PET, PES, and PEG 400, which present in
the preparation of the PES+PET membrane

5.9 MEMBRANE PERFORMANCE

5.9.1 PERMEATE FLUX OF THE MEMBRANE

()
Permeate flux = ( )
= 20.105 ……………………………..5.3
( )

The permeate flux of the PES+PET membrane in MD is 20 L/m²/h, which means that for
every square meter of membrane surface area, 20 liters of water vapor can pass through
the membrane per hour under the specific operating conditions of your process. The
actual permeate flux achieved in MD depends on several factors, such as the temperature
difference across the membrane, the feed flow rate and composition, the membrane
properties (pore size, thickness, and hydrophobicity), and the operating pressure.

A high permeate flux is desirable in MD since it indicates a higher rate of water vapor
production and, thus, higher process efficiency. However, a trade-off exists between
permeate flux and selectivity or purity, as higher flux rates may lead to more vapor
leakage and reduced separation efficiency. Therefore, achieving an optimal balance
between permeate flux and selectivity is critical for optimizing MD performance.

5.9.2 MEAN PORE RADIUS

(𝟐.𝟗 𝟏.𝟕𝟓𝜺)𝑿𝟖𝜼𝒍𝑸 -6
r =
m 𝜺 𝑿 𝑨 𝑿 ∆𝑷
= 7.97 X 10 m ……………………………..5.4

PES+PET membrane, the pore radius is 7.97 X 10-6 m, which is relatively tiny and falls
in the range of microfiltration or ultrafiltration membranes. This means the membrane
will likely retain particles or molecules larger than this size while allowing smaller
species to pass through.

55
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

In recent years, the increasing amount of waste PET bottles in the environment has
become a pressing issue worldwide. These bottles take a long time to degrade, releasing
harmful chemicals into the environment and polluting our land, waterways, and oceans.
It is essential to find ways to reduce the amount of waste and prevent further damage to
our planet. The proposed approach in this project to utilize waste PET bottles in
membrane preparation using PES as a polymer blend is a promising solution to address
this issue. This project aims to create a value-added product by utilizing a waste-to-
wealth concept, reducing the amount of waste in the environment while creating a
valuable product. The preparation of blended PES/PET membranes using a NIPS method
showed superior hydrophobicity and excellent thermal and mechanical properties
compared to pure PES membranes. The membranes were tested for membrane distillation
applications, and the results showed high water flux and high ethanol rejection efficiency,
indicating their potential use in various industrial applications. This study has provided
a promising solution for sustainable membrane preparation and waste PET utilization,
emphasizing the importance of implementing sustainable practices in all industries.
Using waste materials to produce valuable products is a critical aspect of the circular
economy concept. This study demonstrates the potential to apply this approach in various
industries. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that the PES/PET blended
membranes are a promising approach for sustainable membrane preparation and waste
PET utilization, which can positively impact the environment, the economy, and society.
The study's results can serve as a valuable reference for researchers, policymakers, and
industry professionals to promote sustainable practices and contribute to a more
sustainable future.

56
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60
Batch 9
ORIGINALITY REPORT

9 %
SIMILARITY INDEX
5%
INTERNET SOURCES
6%
PUBLICATIONS
2%
STUDENT PAPERS

PRIMARY SOURCES

1
Syed Shujaat Karim, Sarah Farrukh, Takeshi
Matsuura, Muhammad Ahsan et al. "Model
1%
analysis on effect of temperature on the
solubility of recycling of Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) plastic", Chemosphere,
2022
Publication

2
dr.ntu.edu.sg
Internet Source <1 %
3
Isloor, Arun M., B.M. Ganesh, Shrikrishna M.
Isloor, A.F. Ismail, H.S. Nagaraj, and M.
<1 %
Pattabi. "Studies on copper coated
polysulfone/modified poly isobutylene alt-
maleic anhydride blend membrane and its
antibiofouling property", Desalination, 2013.
Publication

4
gyan.iitg.ac.in
Internet Source <1 %
5
Rajesh, Smitha, and Zagabathuni V.
Panchakshari Murthy. "ULTRAFILTRATION
<1 %
MEMBRANES FROM WASTE POLYETHYLENE
 TEREPHTHALATE AND ADDITIVES: SYNTHESIS
AND CHARACTERIZATION", Química Nova,
2014.
Publication

6
www.mdpi.com
Internet Source <1 %
7
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Internet Source <1 %
8
Submitted to University of Greenwich
Student Paper <1 %
9
Fitri Khoerunnisa, Putri Citra Amanda, Mita
Nurhayati, Hendrawan Hendrawan et al.
<1 %
"Promotional effect of ammonium chloride
functionalization on the performance of
polyethersulfone/chitosan composite-based
ultrafiltration membrane", Chemical
Engineering Research and Design, 2022
Publication

10
Submitted to Cyprus International University
Student Paper <1 %
11
www.freepatentsonline.com
Internet Source <1 %
12
Jeganes Ravi, Mohd Hafiz Dzarfan Othman,
Takeshi Matsuura, Muhammad Ro'il Bilad et
<1 %
al. "Polymeric membranes for desalination
 using membrane distillation: A review",
Desalination, 2020
Publication

13
Tadashi Nittami, Hiroshi Tokunaga, Akihito
Satoh, Minoru Takeda, Kanji Matsumoto.
<1 %
"Influence of surface hydrophilicity on
polytetrafluoroethylene flat sheet membrane
fouling in a submerged membrane bioreactor
using two activated sludges with different
characteristics", Journal of Membrane Science,
2014
Publication

14
Submitted to Universiti Teknologi MARA
Student Paper <1 %
15
Submitted to VIT University
Student Paper <1 %
16
iconiet.sgu.ac.id
Internet Source <1 %
17
Kirill Kirshanov, Roman Toms, Gadir Aliev,
Alina Naumova, Pavel Melnikov, Alexander
<1 %
Gervald. "Recent Developments and
Perspectives of Recycled Poly(ethylene
terephthalate)-Based Membranes: A Review",
Membranes, 2022
Publication

18
Law Yong Ng, Hoey Syean Chua, Ching Yin Ng.
"Incorporation of graphene oxide-based
<1 %
 nanocomposite in the polymeric membrane
for water and wastewater treatment: A review
on recent development", Journal of
Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2021
Publication

19
Submitted to University of Sunderland
Student Paper <1 %
20
Nasrul Arahman, Afrilia Fahrina, Mukramah
Yusuf Wahab, Umi Fathanah. "Morphology
<1 %
and performance of polyvinyl chloride
membrane modified with Pluronic F127",
F1000Research, 2018
Publication

21
omnexus.specialchem.com
Internet Source <1 %
22
Samuel P. Kusumocahyo, Syarifa K. Ambani,
Shelly Marceline, Franzesca Michelle. "Effect
<1 %
of Additive on Microstructure, Hydrophilicity
and Ultrafiltration Performance of
Polyethylene Terephthalate Membranes", IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering, 2021
Publication

23
s3-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com
Internet Source <1 %
24
Patrizia Marchetti, Maria F. Jimenez Solomon,
Gyorgy Szekely, Andrew G. Livingston.
<1 %
 "Molecular Separation with Organic Solvent
Nanofiltration: A Critical Review", Chemical
Reviews, 2014
Publication

25
core.ac.uk
Internet Source <1 %
26
cris.vub.be
Internet Source <1 %
27
jestec.taylors.edu.my
Internet Source <1 %
28
riunet.upv.es
Internet Source <1 %
29
www.coursehero.com
Internet Source <1 %
30
Submitted to University of Sheffield
Student Paper <1 %
31
K. Wang, A.A. Abdala, N. Hilal, M.K. Khraisheh.
"Mechanical Characterization of Membranes",
<1 %
Elsevier BV, 2017
Publication

32
Masamichi Tsuboi. "Application of Infrared
Spectroscopy to Structure Studies of Nucleic
<1 %
Acids", Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 1970
Publication

33
ijtech.eng.ui.ac.id
Internet Source <1 %
34
mafiadoc.com
Internet Source <1 %
35
ulspace.ul.ac.za
Internet Source <1 %
36
www.omicsonline.org
Internet Source <1 %
37
"Advances in Manufacturing Systems",
Springer Science and Business Media LLC,
<1 %
2021
Publication

38
Beibei Tang. "Effect of PEG additives on
properties and morphologies of membranes
<1 %
prepared from poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-
phenylene oxide) by benzyl bromination and
in situ amination", Journal of Applied Polymer
Science, 12/15/2005
Publication

39
Submitted to City University of Hong Kong
Student Paper <1 %
40
Prihandana, Gunawan Setia, Hikaru Ito, Yuya
Nishinaka, Yoshihiko Kanno, and Norihisa
<1 %
Miki. "Polyethersulfone Membrane Coated
With Nanoporous Parylene for Ultrafiltration",
Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems,
2012.
Publication
41
Saly R. El-Dakkony, Mahmoud F. Mubarak,
Hager R. Ali, Amany Gaffer, Y. M. Moustafa,
<1 %
A.-H. Abdel-Rahman. "Composite thin-film
membrane of an assembled activated carbon
thin film with autoself-healing and high-
efficiency water desalination", Environment,
Development and Sustainability, 2021
Publication

42
Submitted to Trinity College Dublin
Student Paper <1 %
43
Submitted to University of Newcastle
Student Paper <1 %
44
Submitted to Imperial College of Science,
Technology and Medicine
<1 %
Student Paper

45
Guo, R.. "Preparation and pervaporation
performance of surface crosslinked PVA/PES
<1 %
composite membrane", Journal of Membrane
Science, 20080901
Publication

46
Huang, Jian, Kaisong Zhang, Kun Wang, Zongli
Xie, Bradley Ladewig, and Huanting Wang.
<1 %
"Fabrication of polyethersulfone-mesoporous
silica nanocomposite ultrafiltration
membranes with antifouling properties",
Journal of Membrane Science, 2012.
Publication
47
www.researchgate.net
Internet Source <1 %
48
www.slideshare.net
Internet Source <1 %
49
www.vedantu.com
Internet Source <1 %
50
Syawaliah, N Arahman, Mukramah, S Mulyati.
"Effects of PEG Molecular Weights on PVDF
<1 %
Membrane for Humic Acid-fed Ultrafiltration
Process", IOP Conference Series: Materials
Science and Engineering, 2017
Publication

51
Wei, X.Z.. "New type of nanofiltration
membrane based on crosslinked
<1 %
hyperbranched polymers", Journal of
Membrane Science, 20081015
Publication

52
eprints.binadarma.ac.id
Internet Source <1 %
53
kpu.pressbooks.pub
Internet Source <1 %
54
res.mdpi.com
Internet Source <1 %