MEASUREMENT OF ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION OF

RADIONUCLIDES IN RIVER SOIL SAMPLES

COLLECTED FROM TIRUNELVELI AND TUTICORIN
DISTRICTS.
A Dissertation submitted to
ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
PALAYAMKOTTAI

Affiliated to
MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS

By
PRAVEEN BENOE AMALENE A
(Reg.no.21PPH524)

Under the guidance of

Dr. M. SHEELA UDHAYA ROSELIN, M.Sc., B.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
(Recognized as “College with Potential for Excellence” by UGC)
(Re-accredited by NAAC at “A++” grade with a CGPA of 3.66 out of 4 in IV cycle)
PALAYAMKOTTAI - 627002

APRIL – 2023
 CERTIFICATE

I certify that the project entitled “MEASUREMENT OF ACTIVITY

CONCENTRATION OF RADIONUCLIDES IN RIVER SOIL SAMPLES
COLLECTED FROM TIRUNELVELI AND TUTICORIN DISTRICTS.”
was carried out by PRAVEEN BENOE AMALENE. A (21PPH524), in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE, in St.
Xavier’s college, (Autonomous), Palayamkottai during the period from 2021 –
2023.

SIGNATURE OF THE CO-ORDINATOR SIGNATURE OF THE GUIDE

Dr. R. Mary Jenila, Dr. M. Sheela Udhaya Roselin,
Co-ordinator, Project Guide,
Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Department of Physics, Department of Physics,
St. Xavier’s College, St. Xavier’s College,
Palayamkottai Palayamkottai
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the submission, entitled as “MEASUREMENT OF
ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION OF RADIONUCLIDES IN RIVER SOIL
SAMPLES COLLECTED FROM TIRUNELVELI AND TUTICORIN
DISTRICTS.” is my original work. Wherever the contributions of others are
involved every effort is made to indicate this clearly, with due reference to the
literature, and acknowledgement of collaborative research and discussion. The
work was done under the guidance of Dr. M. SHEELA UDHAYA ROSELIN,
M.Sc., B.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, at St. Xavier’s
college, Palayamkottai.

PLACE: Palayamkottai Signature of the candidate

DATE: (PRAVEEN BENOE AMALENE A)
(21PPH524)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I thank Supreme Almighty Lord, who blessed me with wonderful faculty
members, family and friends whose love and encouragement have given a significant impact
on every accomplishment.

I indent to owe my sincere thanks to Rev. Dr. S. MARIADOSS, S.J., Principal, St. Xavier's
college (Autonomous), Palayamkottai, who always cared to fulfill the needs of the students
and being a moral supporter throughout the year.

I indent to owe my sincere thanks to Rev. Dr. PUSHPARAJ, S.J., Secretary, St. Xavier’s
college (Autonomous), Palayamkottai, who always cared to fulfill the needs of the students
and being a moral supporter throughout the year.

I wholeheartedly thank Dr. MARY JENILA, Assistant Professor and Co-ordinator,

Department of Physics, for providing me with constructive criticism and suggestions to fulfill
my project.

My deep gratitude to my project guide, Dr. M. SHEELA UDHAYA ROSELIN, Assistant

Professor, Department of Physics, for her valuable guidance, support, patience,
encouragement, enthusiasm and immense knowledge. Her continuous support helped me in all
the time of my project work and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a
better advisor and mentor for my project work.

I thank all our faculty members of the Department of Physics for their generous attitude and
pleasing co - ordination and encouragement throughout my project.

I express my sincere thanks with love to my parents, who are my pillars. Without their love
and support over the years, nothing would have been possible.

I also thank R. Chemilas, G. Pushpalatha Rajathi, and all my friends who supported my
aspirations with encouragement and for their comments and suggestions in each phase of my
project. Last but not least I want to thank me for believing in me and being there with me all
times, to complete this project to the most successful one.

PRAVEEN BENOE AMALENE. A

 CONTENTS

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER I

I.INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 2-17

1.1.Radiation ....................................................................................................................... 3

1.1.1.Sources of radiation in soils .................................................................................... 3

1.2.Radioactivity ................................................................................................................. 4

1.2.1.History of Radioactivity.......................................................................................... 5

1.2.2.Artificial Radioactivity ........................................................................................... 6

1.2.3.Natural Radioactivity .............................................................................................. 7

1.3.Ionizing Radiation .........................................................................................................7

1.3.1.Types of Radiation ..................................................................................................8

1.4.Radioactive Series .......................................................................................................10

1.4.1.Uranium Series......................................................................................................10

1.4.2.Thorium Series ......................................................................................................12

1.5.Radioactivity in Rivers ............................................................................................... 13

1.6.Mobility and distribution of radioactive elements in soils.......................................... 15

1.6.1.Effects of radiation in soils on the environment and human health ...................... 15

1.6.2.Management and Remediation of radioactive soils .............................................. 16

Background to the Study ................................................................................................ 18

CHAPTER II

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 20-24

CHAPTER III
 III. MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................. 26-36

3.1. Study Area .................................................................................................................. 26

3.1.1. Map...................................................................................................................... 26

3.1.2. About the Location .............................................................................................. 27

3.1.3. Samples and its Location..................................................................................... 28

3.2. Sample Collection and Preparation ............................................................................. 31

3.2.1. Sample Collection ............................................................................................... 31

3.2.2. Sample Images ....................................................................................................32

3.2.3. Sample Preparation ............................................................................................. 32

3.3. Techniques .................................................................................................................. 33

3.3.1. Gamma ray Spectrometer .................................................................................... 33

3.3.2. Experimental procedures ..................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER IV

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................... 38-44

4.1.Activity Concentration ............................................................................................... 38

4.2.Absorbed Dose Rate ...................................................................................................40

4.3.Radium Equivalent Activity ....................................................................................... 41

4.4.1. Hazard Indices ................................................................................................ 43

CHAPTER V

V. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 45

CHAPTER VI

VI.REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 47
 ABSTRACT

Naturally occurring radioactivity has existed in our environment since the creation of the Earth. Uranium,
Thorium and Potassium radionuclides are relatively abundant in rocks and soils. Poor Agricultural
practices such as excessive use of fertilizers, release of factory waste and nuclear waste into water bodies
and acid rain lead to accumulation of radioactive elements in the soil. Due to these radiation emitted from
radionuclides pose exposure risks which could lead to health related problems like cancer to the people
exposed. Therefore there is a growing concern on the health risks associated with such exposure to natural
sources of radiation in our environment. In this research, the activity concentrations of the natural
radionuclides namely 238U, 232
Th and 40
K were measured for soil samples collected from different river
beds in around Tirunelveli and Tuticorin using NaI(Tl) gamma ray spectrometer. The mean values
obtained are 11.41 Bqkg-1, 94.937 Bqkg-1 and 152.773 Bqkg-1 for 238
U, 232Th and 40K respectively. It is
observed that the values of 238U and 40K are less than the world average values while the value of 232Th
was higher than the world average value. Further the absorbed dose rate, radium equivalent activity and
hazard indices were evaluated using these values in standard analytical method. The results showed that
the mean value of radium equivalent activity is 158.933 Bqkg-1 while the values of absorbed dose rate is
68.983 nGyh-1. The values of external and internal hazard indices are lower than the permissible limit.
This shows that the risk due to radiation contamination in the chosen river beds of Tirunelveli and
Tuticorin is low.

1
CHAPTER I

2
 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Radiation

Radioactivity is the phenomenon of the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei to atomic
nuclei to form more energetically stable atomic nuclei. Radioactive decay is a highly exoergic,
statistically random, first-order process that occurs with a small amount of mass being converted to
energy.

Radioactivity in the environment refers to the presence of radioactive isotopes and their decay products
in air, water, soil, and food. Some of these isotopes are naturally occurring, while others are the result of
human activities such as nuclear power production, nuclear weapons testing, and the use of radioactive
materials in medicine, industry, and research.

Radioactivity can have both beneficial and harmful effects on the environment. On one hand, it can be
used to provide heat and electricity, diagnose and treat medical conditions, and advance scientific
knowledge. On the other hand, radioactive releases into the environment can pose a threat to human
health and the ecosystem, through contamination of air, water, and soil, and the exposure of living
organisms to radioactive substances. Environmental radiation measurements aim to determine the dose
of radiation exposure from environmental sources, and to evaluate the health risks posed by radiation.
(Ayse Durusoy et al., 2017).

Radiation in soils refers to the presence of radioactive elements and their decay products in soil and their
impact on the environment and human health. Some key points to consider whens researching the topic
of radiation in soils include:

1.1.1 Sources of radiation in soils

Both natural and man-made sources of radiation can contribute to the presence of radioactive elements in
soils. Examples of natural sources include the decay of isotopes such as uranium, thorium, and potassium,
while man-made sources include nuclear weapons testing and the operation of nuclear power plants.

The sources of radiation in soils can be divided into two categories: Natural and Man- Made.

Natural sources of radiation in soils include:

 The decay of isotopes of elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium, which are naturally
occurring in the Earth’s crust.

3
  Cosmic radiation from outer space, which can penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere and contribute to
background radiation levels in soils

Man-made sources of radiation in soils include:

 Nuclear weapons testing, which has led to the release of radioactive isotopes into the environment,
including soils.

 The operation of nuclear power plants, which can release radioactive substances into the
environment through accidents or routine releases.

 The use of radioactive materials in industry, medicine, and agriculture, which can result in the
release of radioactive isotopes into the environment and their accumulation in soils.

 The disposal of radioactive waste, which can result in the migration of radioactive isotopes into
soils.

It’s important to note that the levels of radiation in soils can vary greatly depending on the specific
location and the presence of both natural and man-made sources. In general, the levels of background
radiation in soils are low, but the presence of man-made sources can result in elevated levels of radiation
that may have impacts on the environment and human health.

1.2 Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the property of some atomic nuclei to spontaneously emit energy in the form of particles
or electromagnetic waves, known as radiation. Radioactive decay occurs when an unstable atomic nucleus
undergoes a change to become more stable by emitting radiation. This process can occur naturally in
some elements or can be induced through artificial means.

There are three main types of radiation emitted during radioactive decay:

 Alpha particles.
 Beta particles.
 Gamma rays.

Alpha Particles:

Alpha particles (α) are composite particles consisting of two protons and two neutrons tightly bound
together. They are emitted from the nucleus of some radionuclides during a form of radioactive decay,

4
called alpha-decay. Only a few centimeters of air, or the outer layer of skin, will provide a sufficient
barrier to alpha particle penetration. (Borrelli et al., 1999)

Beta Particles:

A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron
emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. The range of beta
particles in air is ∼4 m per MeV of energy. In water the range in cm is approximately one-half the
maximum beta energy when expressed in MeV. (Borrelli et al., 1999)

Gamma Rays:

A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (γ), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation
arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic
waves, typically shorter than those of X-rays. . Highly dense materials, such as lead or steel, provide
effective barriers to gamma rays. (Borrelli et al., 1999)

Radioactivity has numerous applications in science, technology, and medicine. In nuclear power,
radioactive isotopes are used as fuel for reactors and in the production of electricity. In medicine,
radioactive isotopes are used for diagnostic imaging and cancer treatment. Radioactive isotopes are also
used in industry for sterilization, food preservation, and material testing. However, radioactivity can also
have negative effects on human health and the environment. Exposure to high levels of radiation can
cause radiation sickness, genetic mutations, and an increased risk of cancer. Radioactive waste produced
by nuclear power plants and other industries must be carefully handled and stored to prevent
contamination of the environment.

1.2.1 History of Radioactivity

In the year 1896, Roentgen discovered X-rays. At that time Professor Henri Becquerel investigated the
possibility that this mysterious radiation might be given off spontaneously from natural substances. He
had in mind particularly the class of substances that give off light of their own accord - phosphorescent
substances. Becquerel had been studying the properties of phosphorescent substances and happened to
have in his possession at that time some phosphorescent salts of uranium, which he had prepared fifteen
years before. Almost immediately he discovered that uranium salts do give off a radiation like X-rays for
when the uranium salts were placed near a photographic plate enclosed in a light-tight box, after a period
of time the photographic plate was activated.

5
Very soon Rutherford, then at McGill, showed that the radiations continuously emanating from uranium
could be divided into two types: one called the alpha rays, which were very easily absorbed in matter and
produced intense ionization, and a much more penetrating type called the beta rays. When a still more
penetrating type of radiation was discovered, Villard named them the gamma rays. These names for the
three types are still used, although now it is known that the alpha rays are the nuclei or centers of helium
atoms, the beta rays are high-speed electrons, and the gamma rays are indeed very penetrating X-rays,
which are of the same nature as light. Soon other radioactive substances were discovered and in 1898
Madame Curie isolated radium. At this stage a number of radioactive substances had been found. Some
appeared to give off radiation continuously and constantly, while the radiation from others decreased with
time. This complicated mass of facts was reduced to order by the transformation theory of Rutherford
and Soddy in 1903.

1.2.2 Artificial Radioactivity

Artificial radioactivity is the creation of radioactive isotopes through human-made processes, rather than
through natural processes such as radioactive decay of isotopes in the Earth’s crust. The process involves
bombarding stable nuclei with high-energy particles, such as protons, neutrons, or alpha particles, to
induce a nuclear reaction and create a new, unstable nucleus.
One of the earliest examples of artificial radioactivity was the discovery of the neutron by James
Chadwick in 1932. Neutrons were found to be capable of inducing nuclear reactions, and this discovery
led to the development of the first nuclear reactor by Enrico Fermi in 1942. Nuclear reactors use
controlled nuclear reactions to generate energy and produce a variety of radioactive isotopes for industrial,
medical, and scientific applications. Another method of producing artificial radioactivity is through
particle accelerators, which use electromagnetic fields to accelerate charged particles to very high speeds.
These accelerated particles can then be used to collide with stable nuclei and create new radioactive
isotopes.

Artificially created radioactive isotopes have numerous applications in a wide range of fields, including
medicine, industry, and research. For example, radioactive isotopes can be used in cancer therapy to
destroy cancerous cells, or in medical imaging to diagnose diseases and monitor treatment progress. In
industry, they can be used in quality control, material testing, and sterilization. In research, they can be
used to study the properties of atomic nuclei and to investigate the fundamental principles of the universe.
However, the production and handling of radioactive materials must be done with great care, as they can
pose a risk to human health and the environment if not properly managed.

6
1.2.3 Natural Radioactivity

Natural radioactivity refers to the spontaneous decay of unstable atomic nuclei in naturally occurring
elements. This process occurs without any human intervention and is a naturally occurring phenomenon.
Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes can be found in the Earth’s crust, in the atmosphere, in the oceans,
and even in the human body.

Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes have a variety of applications in geology, archaeology, and
environmental science. For example, the decay of radioactive isotopes can be used to determine the age
of rocks and fossils through a process known as radiometric dating. The levels of naturally occurring
radioactive isotopes in the environment can also be used to study geological processes, track the migration
of pollutants, and monitor changes in the environment over time.

However, exposure to high levels of natural radioactivity can also pose a risk to human health. Radon
gas, which is produced by the decay of uranium in the Earth’s crust, can accumulate in buildings and
increase the risk of lung cancer. Radiation exposure from other sources, such as cosmic rays and natural
background radiation, can also increase the risk of cancer and other health problems. Therefore, it is
important to carefully monitor and manage exposure to natural radioactivity in order to minimize the risk
to human health.

1.3 Ionizing Radiation

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy that has enough force to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms
or molecules, thus ionizing them. This can cause various biological and health effects, depending on the
type and amount of radiation exposure. Examples of ionizing radiation include X-rays, gamma rays, and
alpha and beta particles. Some sources of ionizing radiation include the sun, radioactive materials,
medical imaging equipment, and nuclear power plants. It is important to take appropriate precautions and
follow safety guidelines when working with or near sources of ionizing radiation to minimize potential
risks.

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy that has enough power to remove electrons from atoms or molecules,
resulting in the formation of positively charged ions. This energy can come in different forms, such as X-
rays, gamma rays, or particles. When ionizing radiation interacts with living tissue, it can damage cells
and cause harmful biological effects, including cancer and other health problems. Therefore, exposure to
ionizing radiation should be carefully controlled and monitored to minimize any potential health risks.

7
Examples of sources of ionizing radiation include the sun, radioactive materials, medical devices such as
X-ray machines, and nuclear power plants.

1.3.1Radioactive Decay

Radionuclides are quantified according a rate of disintegration. This rate is defined by the Curie and the
Becquerel. One Curie is defined as 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second, and one Becquerel is
defined as 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second. These units, however, incorporate neither the total amount
of ionizing energy associated with each disintegration, nor the total existence of the radionuclide. Singular
usage of the Curie or the Becquerel also does not fully reflect the cumulative quantity of ionizing radiation
that will be imparted to a specific biological material. The energy accompanying each radioactive
disintegration is specific to the given radionuclide, and is dependent upon the amount of source material
present. Therefore, the quantity of ionizing radiation that will be released from a radionuclide is specific
to each radionuclide. The total quantity of ionizing radiation that will be released is essentially based
upon a fixed set of radioactive particles and photons that are ejected during disintegration. Additional
factors such as the energy release per each disintegration of the radionuclide, as well as the length of time
that the radionuclide will exist, can provide practical adjustments to the sole use of the unit of activity as
a quantification device. (Borrelli et al., 1999)

1.3.1 Types of Radiation

There are several types of radiation, including:

1. Electromagnetic radiation:

This includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, and radio waves.
Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength or frequency. Electromagnetic radiation
(EM radiation) is a type of energy that travels through space as waves or particles. This energy is
characterized by its wavelength and frequency, which determine its properties and behavior.
Electromagnetic radiation includes a wide range of wavelengths, from very short, high-energy gamma
rays to long, low-energy radio waves. In between are other types of electromagnetic radiation, including
X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, and infrared radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation does not require a medium to travel through, unlike mechanical waves like
sound waves, and it can travel through a vacuum, such as outer space. When electromagnetic radiation
interacts with matter, it can be absorbed, scattered, or reflected, depending on the properties of the
material it encounters.
8
Some common sources of electromagnetic radiation include the sun, light bulbs, microwaves, and radio
and television broadcasting. While some forms of electromagnetic radiation can be harmful, such as high-
energy X-rays and gamma rays, others, such as visible light and radio waves, are relatively benign and
essential for various biological and technological processes.

2. Particulate radiation

This type of radiation is composed of particles, such as alpha particles, beta particles, and neutrons that
are emitted from the nuclei of radioactive atoms. Particulate radiation can be stopped or absorbed by
materials of sufficient thickness or density. Particulate radiation is a type of radiation that consists of tiny,
fast-moving particles that are emitted from the nuclei of radioactive atoms. These particles can be charged
or uncharged and can be either massive, like alpha particles, or smaller and lighter, like beta particles.

Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons and are positively charged. They are relatively
massive and can be stopped by a sheet of paper or the outer layer of human skin. However, if they enter
the body through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption, they can be highly damaging to living tissues.

Beta particles, on the other hand, are high-energy electrons or positrons that are emitted from the nucleus
during radioactive decay. They are smaller and lighter than alpha particles and can penetrate more deeply
into living tissue. However, they can be stopped by thicker materials, such as aluminum or plastic. Other
types of particulate radiation include neutrons, which are uncharged and can penetrate deeply into living
tissue, and protons, which are positively charged and can also penetrate into tissues.

Particulate radiation can have significant biological effects, depending on the type and intensity of
exposure. Exposure to high levels of particulate radiation can damage living tissues, leading to radiation
sickness, cancer, or other health problems. Therefore, proper protection and safety measures are crucial
when working with or near sources of particulate radiation.

3. Cosmic radiation

Cosmic radiation consists of high-energy particles and radiation that originate from outside the Earth’s
atmosphere, including from the sun and other sources in the universe. Cosmic radiation is a type of high-
energy radiation that originates from outer space, including the sun and other sources in the universe.
Cosmic radiation includes a mix of charged particles, such as protons, alpha particles, and heavy ions, as
well as gamma rays and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Cosmic radiation is present everywhere
in space and can penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere, affecting the planet’s surface and atmosphere. The

9
intensity of cosmic radiation exposure depends on various factors, including altitude, latitude, and solar
activity.

At ground level, the dose of cosmic radiation is generally low and not considered a significant health risk
for most people. However, people who work in high-altitude environments, such as pilots, astronauts, or
mountaineers, may be exposed to higher levels of cosmic radiation, which can increase their risk of
radiation-related health effects, including cancer and cataracts. In addition, cosmic radiation can also
cause damage to electronic equipment, satellites, and other technological systems. Therefore,
understanding and monitoring cosmic radiation is essential for both health and safety and technological
reasons.

4. Terrestrial radiation

This includes radiation that comes from natural sources on Earth, such as radon gas and cosmic rays.
Terrestrial radiation is a type of radiation that originates from natural sources on Earth. Gamma rays are
high-energy electromagnetic radiation that can be emitted by natural materials in the Earth’s crust, such
as potassium, uranium, and thorium. Terrestrial gamma rays mainly originates from the primordial
radioactive nuclides, originated in the early stages of the formation of solar system. (Rahman S U et al.,
2011)

The level of exposure to terrestrial radiation depends on several factors, including geographic location,
geological conditions, and building materials. In general, the level of exposure to terrestrial radiation is
low and not considered a significant health risk for most people. However, in some cases, exposure to
high levels of terrestrial radiation can increase the risk of radiation-related health effects, including cancer
and other health problems. Therefore, monitoring and managing exposure to terrestrial radiation is
important to minimize any potential risks.

1.4 RADIOACTIVITY SERIES

1.4.1 Uranium Series

The Uranium series, also known as the actinide series, is a radioactive decay chain of naturally occurring
elements that begins with uranium-238 (U-238) and ends with lead-206 (Pb-206). The series includes a
total of 14 radioactive elements, with each element in the series decaying into the next element over time.

The uranium series begins with the decay of U-238, which has a half-life of 4.5 billion years. U-238
decays into thorium-234 (Th-234), which has a half-life of 24 days. Th-234 then decays into protactinium-

10
234 (Pa-234m), which has a half-life of just 1.17 minutes. Pa-234m quickly decays into uranium-234 (U-
234), which has a half-life of 245,500 years.

The decay chain continues with U-234 decaying into thorium-230 (Th-230), which has a half-life of
75,380 years. Th-230 then decays into radium-226 (Ra-226), which has a half-life of 1,600 years. Ra-226
decays into radon-222 (Rn-222), which has a half-life of just 3.8 days. Rn-222 then decays into polonium-
218 (Po-218), which has a half-life of just 3.1 minutes.

The uranium series continues with Po-218 decaying into lead-214 (Pb-214), which has a half-life of 26.8
minutes. Pb-214 then decays into bismuth-214 (Bi-214), which has a half-life of just 19.7 minutes. Bi-
214 decays into polonium-214 (Po-214), which has a half-life of just 164 microseconds.

Fig 1.1 Uranium Series

The uranium series concludes with Po-214 decaying into lead-210 (Pb-210), which has a half-life of 22.3
years. Pb-210 then decays into bismuth-210 (Bi-210), which has a half-life of just 5.01 days. Bi-210

11
decays into polonium-210 (Po-210), which has a half-life of just 138 days. Finally, Po-210 decays into
stable lead-206 (Pb-206).

The uranium series has important applications in geology and environmental science, as the decay of
uranium and its daughter elements can be used to date rocks and determine the age of geological
formations. It is also important in nuclear physics and engineering, as uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear
power plants.

1.4.2 Thorium Series

The thorium series, also known as the 4n series, is a radioactive decay chain of naturally occurring
elements that begins with thorium-232 (Th-232) and ends with stable lead-208 (Pb-208). The series
includes a total of 13 radioactive elements, with each element in the series decaying into the next element
over time.

Fig 1.2 Thorium Series

12
The thorium series begins with the decay of Th-232, which has a half-life of 14.05 billion years. Th-232
decays into protactinium-234 (Pa-234), which has a half-life of 6.7 hours. Pa-234 then decays into
uranium-234 (U-234), which has a half-life of 245,500 years.

The decay chain continues with U-234 decaying into thorium-230 (Th-230), which has a half-life of
75,380 years. Th-230 then decays into radium-226 (Ra-226), which has a half-life of 1,600 years. Ra-226
decays into radon-222 (Rn-222), which has a half-life of just 3.8 days. Rn-222 then decays into polonium-
218 (Po-218), which has a half-life of just 3.1 minutes.

The thorium series continues with Po-218 decaying into lead-214 (Pb-214), which has a half-life of 26.8
minutes. Pb-214 then decays into bismuth-214 (Bi-214), which has a half-life of just 19.7 minutes. Bi-
214 decays into polonium-214 (Po-214), which has a half-life of just 164 microseconds.

The thorium series concludes with Po-214 decaying into lead-210 (Pb-210), which has a half-life of 22.3
years. Pb-210 then decays into stable lead-206 (Pb-206) through a series of beta decays and alpha decays.

Like the uranium series, the thorium series also has important applications in geology and environmental
science, as the decay of thorium and its daughter elements can be used to date rocks and determine the
age of geological formations. Thorium is also being explored as a potential fuel for nuclear reactors, as it
is more abundant than uranium and produces less long-lived nuclear waste.

1.5 Radioactivity in Rivers

Radioactivity can be present in rivers as a result of natural processes or human activities. Naturally
occurring radioactive isotopes, such as radium and uranium, can seep into rivers from the surrounding
rock formations and soil. Additionally, some human activities, such as the use of nuclear power plants
and the disposal of radioactive waste, can contribute to elevated levels of radioactivity in rivers. In
addition, the presence of radioactivity in rivers can have impacts on aquatic ecosystems, including the
death of fish and other aquatic organisms.

To mitigate the risks associated with radioactivity in rivers, it’s important to carefully manage human
activities that can contribute to elevated levels of radiation. This includes the safe operation of nuclear
power plants and the proper disposal of radioactive waste. In addition, monitoring and testing programs
can help to identify and address any potential sources of radioactivity in rivers.

 Natural Causes:
There are several natural causes that can lead to elevated levels of radiation in river soils. Some
of the most common sources of naturally occurring radioactivity include:
13
 1. Geology: The rock formations and soil in certain areas contain radioactive elements, such
as uranium and radium, which can seep into rivers and increase the levels of radiation in
the water and soil.
2. Soil erosion: The process of soil erosion can lead to the release of radioactive materials
into rivers, particularly in areas where the soil is rich in radioactive elements.
3. Weathering: Weathering and the breakdown of minerals in rocks can also contribute to
elevated levels of radiation in rivers.
4. Groundwater: Groundwater that has come into contact with radioactive minerals can also
contribute to elevated levels of radiation in rivers.

It’s important to note that the levels of naturally occurring radiation in rivers and soils can vary greatly
depending on the local geology and other factors. In some areas, the levels of radiation may be too low
to pose a significant risk to human health or the environment, while in other areas, the levels of radiation
may be high enough to require intervention to mitigate the risks.

 Man-Made Causes
There are several human activities that can contribute to elevated levels of radiation in river soils,
including:
1. Nuclear power plants: The operation of nuclear power plants can result in the release of
radioactive materials into rivers, either through the discharge of wastewater or accidental
releases.
2. Mining: The extraction of minerals, such as uranium and thorium, can lead to the release
of radioactive materials into rivers, particularly if the mining is done without proper
safeguards and waste management practices.
3. Industrial processes: Certain industrial processes, such as the production of fertilizers
and phosphates, can also result in the release of radioactive materials into rivers.
4. Waste disposal: The improper disposal of radioactive waste, such as the dumping of
radioactive materials into rivers, can result in elevated levels of radiation in the water and
soil.

It’s important to note that human activities that contribute to elevated levels of radiation in river soils can
have significant impacts on human health and the environment. To mitigate these risks, it’s important to
carefully regulate and monitor human activities that have the potential to release radioactive materials
into rivers, and to implement best practices for waste management and disposal.

14
1.6 Mobility and distribution of Radioactive Elements in Soils

The mobility of radioactive elements in soils can be influenced by various physical and chemical factors,
such as soil texture, pH, and the presence of organic matter. Understanding the distribution of radioactive
elements in soils is important for evaluating their potential impact on the environment and human health.
The mobility and distribution of radioactive elements in soils are influenced by a variety of physical and
chemical factors, including:

 Soil texture: The type of soil, such as sand, silt, or clay, can affect the movement and distribution
of radioactive elements in soils. For example, sandy soils tend to have better drainage and lower
organic matter content, resulting in lower levels of retention and mobility of radioactive elements.

 Soil pH: The acidity or alkalinity of the soil can affect the solubility and mobility of radioactive
elements, with higher pH values generally leading to increased solubility.

 Organic matter content: Soils with higher levels of organic matter can retain and immobilize
radioactive elements, reducing their mobility and potential for exposure.

 Hydrology: The movement of water in the soil, including precipitation and irrigation, can
influence the distribution and mobility of radioactive elements. For example, water can leach
radioactive elements from the soil and transport them to other areas, increasing their mobility and
potential for exposure.

 Geology: The geology of the site, including the presence of certain types of rocks and minerals,
can affect the distribution and mobility of radioactive elements. For example, the presence of
uranium-bearing minerals can increase the levels of radioactive elements. Understanding the
mobility and distribution of radioactive elements in soils is important for evaluating their potential
impact on the environment and human health, as well as for developing effective management
and remediation strategies.

1.6.1 Effects of Radiation in soils on the Environment and Human health

The presence of radioactive elements in soils can have a range of effects, depending on the levels of
radioactivity and the exposure pathways. For example, radioactivity in soils can contaminate crops and
drinking water, leading to exposure through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. The effects of radiation
in soils on the environment and human health depend on the levels of radioactivity and the exposure
pathways. Some potential effects include:

15
  Contamination of crops and food chain: Radiation in soils can contaminate crops and other
food sources, leading to exposure through ingestion. This can result in elevated levels of radiation
in the food chain and potential health effects, such as an increased risk of cancer.

 Contamination of drinking water: Radiation in soils can contaminate underground sources of

drinking water, leading to exposure through ingestion. This can result in elevated levels of
radiation in drinking water and potential health effects.

 Inhalation of radioactive particles: Dust and other particulate matter contaminated with
radioactive elements can be inhaled, leading to exposure and potential health effects.

 Skin contact: Direct contact with contaminated soils can result in exposure through the skin and
potential health effects.

 Wildlife exposure: Radiation in soils can impact wildlife populations, including plants, animals,
and microorganisms, through exposure pathways such as ingestion and inhalation. This can result
in negative impacts on ecosystem health and biodiversity. It’s important to note that the potential
health effects of radiation in soils will depend on the specific type and levels of radioactive
elements present, as well as the duration and route of exposure. In general, the levels of
background radiation in soils are low and are not expected to cause significant health effects.
However, elevated levels of radiation due to man-made sources can result in increased potential
health effects and the need for management and remediation strategies.

1.6.2 Management and Remediation of Radioactive soils

Strategies for managing and mitigating the impact of radiation in soils may include physical removal and
disposal of contaminated soil, in situ stabilization, or in situ immobilization. The choice of strategy will
depend on the specific characteristics of the site, the nature of the contamination, and the desired
outcomes. The management and remediation of radioactive soils involve a combination of physical,
chemical, and biological processes to reduce the levels of radioactivity in the soil to a safe level. Some
common methods of management and remediation include:

 Excavation and removal: This involves digging up contaminated soil and removing it to a secure
storage or disposal site.
 Stabilization and solidification: This method involves adding stabilizing agents such as cement
to the contaminated soil to prevent the release of radioactive particles.

16
 Phytoremediation: This method uses plants to absorb, accumulate, and break down radioactive
contaminants in soil.
 Bio-venting: This method uses microorganisms to break down and remove radioactive
contaminants from soil.
 Landscaping: This method involves covering contaminated soil with clean soil and vegetation to
prevent human exposure to the radioactive contaminants. The choice of method will depend on
the specific circumstances and the nature of the contamination. Effective management and
remediation of radioactive soils require a comprehensive understanding of the specific conditions
and a tailored approach to achieve the desired results.
The management and remediation of radioactive soils involves a set of procedures aimed at
reducing the risk of exposure to radioactive materials, either naturally occurring or from human
activities, and reducing the contamination levels to levels that are considered safe for human and
environmental health. The following are the key steps involved in the management and
remediation of radioactive soils:
 Characterization: The first step in managing and remediating radioactive soils is to identify the
nature and extent of the contamination. This involves collecting soil samples and analyzing them
for radioactive isotopes and other contaminants.
 Assessment of risk: Once the contamination has been characterized, an assessment of the risk
posed to human health and the environment is conducted. This involves evaluating the potential
exposure pathways, the toxicity of the contaminants, and the likelihood of exposure.
 Remediation options: Based on the results of the risk assessment, various remediation options
can be considered, including removal and disposal of contaminated soils, encapsulation or
containment, dilution with clean soil, or stabilization and solidification. The choice of remediation
option will depend on the specific characteristics of the site, including the type and concentration
of contaminants, the local geology and hydrology, and the intended use of the land.
 Implementation: The chosen remediation option is then implemented, following established
technical and regulatory requirements. This may involve the excavation and removal of
contaminated soils, the construction of containment or encapsulation structures, or the application
of stabilizing agents to reduce the mobility of the contaminants.
 Monitoring and maintenance: After the completion of the remediation, monitoring and
maintenance activities are carried out to ensure that the contamination levels remain below
acceptable levels and that the site continues to pose no risk to human health or the environment.
It is important to note that the management and remediation of radioactive soils can be a complex
17
 and expensive process that requires careful planning and execution to ensure the protection of
human health and the environment.

Background to the Study

Naturally occurring radionuclide materials have been present in the Earth’s surface since its formation.
40
These radionuclides include: K, 238U and 232Th. Their concentrations vary from place to place and can
be artificially introduced to the soil by application of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides to enhance soil
properties and increase crop production. Gamma rays, alpha and beta radiations are released when these
radionuclidesand their daughters in the series undergo decays. Human beings therefore, cannot avoid
continuous exposure to ionizing radiation both inside and outside their dwellings. Inorganic, especially
phosphate (P) fertilizers contain hazardous elements including heavy metals, for example Cd, Cr and Pb,
and radioactive elements, for example U, Th and their daughters, which are considered to be toxic to
animal and human health.
Soil is an important resource to human. It can be used for food production and building shelter. The
chemical, mineral and biological components of soil can be inhaled, ingested or absorbed through the
skin, hence can be harmful to human health, for example cancers due to inhalation of radon gas from the
decay of uranium in soil minerals, radiation sickness and sterility. As soils interact with atmosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere, human health can also be influenced indirectly, for example the frequent
detrimental biological and chemical qualityof recreational and drinking water that are influenced by
processes of soil erosion, leaching, surface runoff and interflow.
The radionuclide concentrations in samples can be determined using several measurement techniques.
Gamma radioactivity can be measured by HPGe and NaI (Tl) detectors. In this study NaI (Tl) detector is
40 238 232
used to measure activity of K, U and Th. Radium equivalent activity and hazard indices are
assessed to evaluate radiological effects of the surface soils.

18
CHAPTER II

19
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Different studies on radiations in soil and sediments have been done worldwide. A study on the
levels of radionuclides in Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Norte found that the average activity
concentrations of Radium-226, Thorium-232 and Potassium-40 in soil samples from the area of
study were 29Bqkg', 46.6 Bqkg-1 and 677 Bqkg-1 respectively. The bed rock of Santana do Matos
showed high radioactivity, which was 90 Bqkg-1, 285.6 Bqkg-1 and 1414 Bqkg-1 for 226Ra, 23Th and
40
K respectively. The gamma radiation dose ranged from 200 nGyh-1 to 330 nGyh-1. (Malanca et al.,
1993)

A research on radioactivity in soils of Johor state in Malaysia found out that the concentration of
naturally occurring radionuclide Uranium-238 was in the range of (58.8 Bqkg-1 - 484.88 Bqkg-1 )
and that of Thorium-232 ranged from (59.68 Bqkg-1-1203 Bqkg-1) (Ramli et al, 2005).

In a research on activity concentrations in phosphate and soil samples from El-Sabaea Aswan in
Egypt, it was observed that the activity concentration of Ra, Th and K ranged from 59.7 ± 6.7 Bqkg-
1
to 638 ± 31.0 Bqkg-1, 9.9±14 Bqkg-1 to 40.6±6.3 Bqkg-1 and 213.1±9.5 Bqkg-1 to 798.9±30.6 Bqkg-
1
respectively. The studies showed that phosphate rocks contain relatively high concentration of
NORM from 238U and 232Th decay series. (Harb et al., 2008)

A ground survey in Mrima hill was carried out and annual doses as high as 106mSvy were reported.
From this study, Mrima hill was categorized as one of the areas with high background radiations in
the world. (Patel, 1991)

High concentration levels of Radium-226 and Thorium-232 was reported in soil samples from
different parts in the country. In the study, samples (geological materials and water) from different
geological terrain, particularly the more densely populated areas; Nairobi, Kiambu, Kwale,
Mombasa, Machakos, Bungoma and Trans Nzoia districts were analyzed. The overall mean
concentrations of Radium-226, Thorium-232 and Potassium-40 in the geological materials were
found to be 65 Bqkg-1, 163 Bqkg-1 and 705 Bqkg-1 respectively. The estimated annual effective dose
due to external exposure to gamma radiation varied from 0.06 to 2.00 mSvy-1 with an average of
0.76 mSvy-1. Radon concentrations in various water sources were reported to be high compared to
the accepted world average value of 37.1 Bqkg-1. (Mustapha, 1999)

20
A low annual effective dose rates (below the ICRP limit of 1 mSvy-1) from gamma radiation as a
result of NORM was reported along Kenyan coast. In some samples, traces of Ceasium-137 were
detected (Hashim et al., 2004).

Normal radioactivity level has also been reported around the proposed Kwale Titanium mines (Osoro,
2007).

Natural radioactivity in the soil is the main reason behind this research. So, the natural radioactivity
(40K, 238U, and 232Th) in soil samples have been measured in ten primary schools at north of Al -
Najaf province. Most of the detected readings are in the recommended values by (UNSCEAR, OECD,
and ICRP) When compared with the worldwide average (K- 40 =412 Bqkg-1, U-238 =35 Bqkg-1, and
Th- 232= 45 Bqkg-1). In other words, ten primary schools at Al - Najaf governorates are safe for
work and free of radiation hazards to students. (Q.J. Tarbool et al., 2022).

226 232 40
The main reason for this study is to analyze the concentration activities of Ra, Th and K in
soil samples collected from Pangi valley, Himachal Pradesh by means of gamma spectrometry with
NaI(TI) detector and has been found to vary between 39.61 to 79.72 Bqkg -1 with average of 57.66
Bqkg-1, 32.8 to 66.57 Bqkg-1 with average of 49.69 Bqkg-1 and 495.62 to 653.85 Bqkg-1 with average
of 579.41 Bqkg-1, respectively.(Punam Kumari et al., 2020).

A series of surveys were undertaken in different areas of Punjab state of India to assess the levels of
natural radioactivity in air, soil and drinking water. In the present paper we report the results of
measurements of dissolved radon in drinking water in some areas of the state along with the summary
of results of earlier surveys so as to present a holistic picture of radioactive environment in the state
of Punjab, India. The inhalation dose rate and radioactivity in soil and water samples has been found
to be within permissible limits. (Navjeet Sharma et al., 2011).

A ground survey is taken to determine the enhancement in natural radioactivity level of soils due to
the usage of fertilizers, particularly phosphate fertilizers in agricultural lands of Gediz River basin,
Western Turkey. In addition, the activity concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides in some
vegetables collected from the same lands were investigated in order to assess any contribution to the
effective internal dose after ingestion. (M Bolca et al., 2007).

The study has been carried out to measure the activity concentration of natural and anthropogenic
radionuclides in fifteen (15) soil samples of Natore, Kushtia and Pabna district, which are around the

21
30 km peripheral area of Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, by gamma ray spectrometry system using a
226
High Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector. It is found that the activity concentration of Ra, in the
collected sample was from 3.52 Bqkg-1 to 28.5 Bqkg-1 with the average value of 12.42 Bqkg-1. For
232
Th, the range was from 4.18 Bqkg-1 to 34.5 Bqkg-1 with the average value of 12.6 Bqkg-1. Finally,
the activity concentration of 40K, in the collected sample was in the range of 84 Bqkg-1 to 345 Bqkg-
1
, and the average value was 198.9 Bqkg-1. (MD Samuel Ehsan et al., 2019).

The main purpose of this study was to measure the natural radioactivity in some foodstuffs and
agricultural soils from the Abyan Delta in Yemen and study the interaction between soil and
foodstuffs by calculating the transfer factor (TF). The annual effective doses to individuals were also
calculated and compared with the reference levels. The average effective dose to individuals from
the intake of the food types was 8.448 µSvy−1, which is much lower than the worldwide average
annual effective dose. (Hany El-Gamal et al., 2019).

This study describes the results of a radiological survey for the purpose of establishing a basic
database of radioactive elements in soil from one of the regions proposed for the establishment of a
nuclear power plant in Sudan. Herein, we focus on analyzing radioactivity indices in 105 locations.
As such, the data provide the basis for a reference map to detect emissions or a significant increase
in radiation levels in the region. Soil radioactivity were measured by a high-precision gamma ray
spectrometer using a highly pure Germanium detector encased in a copper lined lead shield located
in a low background environment. Ambient dose (Dair) at each location was calculated based on Ra,
Th and K concentrations in soils. (Nessreen A et al., 2020).

A total of 48 soil samples from the University of Ibadan practical year farmland were collected and
analyzed using gamma ray spectrometer in order to determine the activity concentrations of the
natural radionuclides. From the activity concentrations determined, the radium equivalent activity,
the external hazard index, the internal hazard index, the absorbed dose rate and the effective dose
rate in the soil were evaluated. The activity concentrations and hazard indices values were less than
the accepted world average values. (Araromi Olufunmbi I et al., 2016).

An Assessementon radiation exposure levels associated with construction sand from Tharaka-Nithi
County in Kenya reported that mean activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40 K were 98±4 Bqkg-
1
, 53±3 Bqkg-1 and 1069±46 Bqkg-1, respectively. The mean values of radium equivalent activity,
eternal hazard index, internal hazard index, outdoor absorbed dose rate, indoor absorbed dose rate,

22
outdoor and indoor annual effective dose rates were 256±13 Bqkg-1, 0.69±0.04, 0.95±0.05,
120.99±6.07 nGyh-1, 166.67±8.31nGyh-1, 0.30±0.02 mSvy-1 and 0.61±0.06 mSvy-1, respectively.
(Kamunde, 2016).

Further studies on soil and rock samples in soapstone quarries in Kisii annual effective dose in the
ranging from 1.03 mSvy-1 to 1.27 mSvy-1 was observed. (Kinyua et al., 2011)

Another study involving clay samples from Aswan, South Egypt found average activity
concentrations of natural radionuclides to be within the recommended safe limits (Alharbi and Taher,
2016).

A research on assessment of human exposure to natural source of radiation on the soil in Tongaren
constituency of Bungoma county, Kenya reported that the mean activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th
and 40K were 260.3±13.0 Bqkg-1, 85.0±4.3 Bqkg-1 and 981±49.1 Bqkg-1, respectively. The average
values of radium equivalent activity, absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose rate, external hazard
and internal hazard indices were 456.4±22.8 Bqkg -1, 206.4±10 nGyh-1, 0.63±0.03 mSvy-1, 1.24±0.06
and 1.94±0.10, respectively (Wanjala, 2016).

Surface soils around Mrima hill were analysed and the activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K
in the samples were found to be 207.03±11.3 Bqkg-1, 500.7±20.3 Bqkg-1 and 805.4±20.7 Bqkg-1
respectively. It was found out that the radioactivity concentrations were higher than the world mean
values. The calculated radiation absorbed dose from the different points where sampling was done
ranged from 253.8±2.5 nGyh-1 to 733.1±3.4 nGyh-1 with a mean of 440.7±16.8 nGyh-1. (Kebwaro et
al., 2009)

In Cyprus, a survey involving various geological formations reported maximum concentrations of

232
Th, 238U and 40K of 39.8 Bqkg-1, 39.3 Bqkg-1 and 565.8 Bqkg-1 respectively with maximum gamma
absorbed dose of 51.3 nGyh-1 which is below the world average of 60 nGyh-1 (Tzortzis and Tsertos,
2004).
232 238 40
The activity concentrations of naturally occurring Th, U and K radionuclides and of the
137
artificial, Chernobyl accident-induced Cs radionuclide were measured in soil samples collected
from Rize Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. (Ayse Durusoy et al., 2017).

Ionizing radiation is produced as the result of the decay of an unstable nucleus. The standard measure
of radioactivity is quantified according to the rate of disintegration of the unstable nucleus. This

23
method of quantification does not incorporate the total amount of ionizing radiation that is associated
with each disintegration of the radionuclide. The ionizing radiation that is produced as a result of
decay is specific to a given radionuclide. A radionuclide can be conceptualized as a source of ionizing
radiation. Disintegration of the unstable nucleus will therefore result in the continual release of
ionizing radiation throughout the fixed existence of the radionuclide. (Borrelli et al., 1999)

Radiation doses from indoor radon exposure, before and after the 2005 earthquake, have been
assessed from measurements taken in the city of Muzaffarabad and Jhelum valley, Azad Kashmir,
Pakistan. Indoor radon concentration was measured in dwellings in Muzaffarabad city and the
Jhelum valley after the devastating 2005 earthquake using CR-39 based radon box type detectors
which were exposed to indoor radon for 60 days. (Rahman S U et al., 2011)

24
CHAPTER III

25
 METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1 Study Area

The Samples are collected from various rivers in and around Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts. The
below map shows the sampling sites.

3.1.1 Map

Fig 3.1 Sampling Sites

26
3.1.2About the Location

Tirunelveli is administered by the Municipal Corporation, established on 1 June 1994 by the

Municipal Corporation Act. The city covers an area of 189.9 km2 (73.3 sq mi), and holds a
population of 473,637 in 2011. The total population after the inclusion of other municipalities is
968,984. Tirunelveli is well-connected by road and rail with the rest of Tamil Nadu and India. The
nearest domestic airport is Tuticorin Airport. The nearest international airports are Madurai
International Airport and Thiruvananthapuram International Airport. The nearest seaport is Tuticorin
Port. Industries in Tirunelveli include administrative services, agricultural trading, tourism, banking,
agricultural machinery, information technology and educational services.

SAMPLE RIVER PLACE LOCATION

CR1 Chithaar Kuppakurichi 18km from Tirunelveli
TN2 Thamirabarani C.N Village 3km from Tirunelveli
K3 Karumaniyar Sattankulam 49km from Tirunelveli
TH4 Thottavilai River Thisayanvillai 63km from Tirunelveli
U5 Uppar Ottapidaram 32km from
Tuticorin

Table 3.1 Sample and its Location

Tuticorin is a port city, a municipal corporation and an industrial city in Tuticorin district in the
Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The city lies in the Coromandel Coast of Bay of Bengal. Tuticorin is the
capital and headquarters of Tuticorin district. It is located about 590 kilometers (367 miles)
southwest of Chennai, 190 kilometers (118 miles) northeast of Thiruvananthapuram and 580
kilometers (360 miles) southeast of Bangalore. According to Confederation of Indian Industry,
Tuticorin has the second highest Human Development Index in Tamil Nadu next to Chennai.
Tuticorin is an “Emerging Energy and Industrial hub of South India”. Tuticorin is known as “Pearl
City” due to the pearl fishing carried out in the town. It is a commercial seaport which serves the
inland cities of Southern India and is one of the sea gateways of Tamil Nadu. Tuticorin is a port town
situated in the Gulf of Mannar about 125 km (78 mi) North of KanyaKumari and its environs form
part of the coastal belt which forms a continuous stretch of the flat country relieved here and there
by small rock outcrops.

27
 SAMPLE NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE
CR1 8.798222 77.807269
TN2 8.719549 77.705308
K3 8.452361 77.917357
TH4 8.351330 77.784856
U5 8.763425 78.126486

Table 3.2 Geographical Location

3.1.3 Samples and its Location

Chithaar (CR1)

Fig. 3.2 Chithaar (CR1)

Chithaar (CR1) originates in Courtallam Hills in Tenkasi District. It is the main tributary of the
Thamirabarani. It is 80km long and covers 1722sq.km. It joins the Thamirabarani river at Seevalaperi
near Kuppakurichi. The Chithaar runs for about 80 kilometers before it meets with its first tributary
which has an anicut and irrigates about 293 hectares (720 acres) of land. One of its next tributaries
has a reservoir provided by an anicut, feeding about 142 hectares (350 acres). The next tributary has
seven anicuts and a reservoir and irrigates about 465 hectares (1,150 acres) of land altogether.

28
Thamirabarani (TN2)

Fig. 3.3 Thamirabarani (TN2)

Thamirabarani (TN2) is a perennial river that originates from Poongulam of Podhigai Hills of the
Western Ghats. It flows through Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts. It is 120km long and covers
4400sq.km and flows into the Gulf of Mannar at Punnakayal. The Thamirabarani River originates
from the peak of the Pothigai hills on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats at an elevation of 1,725
meters above sea-level. The river is joined by its headwater tributaries Peyar, Ullar, Pambar before
it flows into the Karaiyar Dam reservoir, where it meets Karaiyar. The river forms the
Paanatheertham waterfalls, 40 meters (130 ft) high, as it enters the Kariyar reservoir.

Karumaniyar (K3)

Fig. 3.4 Karumaniyar (K3)

29
Karumaniyar (K3) originates from the surplus water from the Vijayanarayanam tank of about 100m.
It traverses a total distance of 56.5km and flows into the Gulf of Mannar near Manapaddu village.
The Karumaniyar is in the northern part of the basin. The Karumaniyar river feeds about 75 tanks
and has a registered irrigation lands of 2976 hectares. Covering blocks are Alwarthirunagari,
Tiruchendur, Sathankulam, Kalakkadu and Radhapuram either part or full.

Thottavilai (TH4)

Fig. 3.5 Thottavilai (TH4)

Thottavilai River (TH4), a part of Nambiyaaru that flows through the Thottavilai village is 14km
long and flows into the Indian Ocean at Koothanguli. The Thottavilai river starts as an ephemeral
stream at Thulukkarpatti, which is a place of archaeological importance and joins a part of Nambiyar
river. During the monsoon it flows flooding filling the ponds in Kannanallur, Panakattuvilai dam,
Sithoor Thenkarai, Nambi Dam and joins the sea at Koothanguli beach which is a place of tourist
attraction. During summer the water gets seeped into the red sand of the river bed and remains
marshy and helps the supply of groundwater in that locality.

30
Uppar (U5)

Fig. 3.6 Uppar (U5)

Uppar (U5) originates from Kadambur with the rain water collected from Kayathar, Kadambur,
Gangikondan and Maniyachi. It flows through Ottapidaram filling many ponds in and around the
area and flows into the Gulf of Mannar at Korampallam. During the monsoon there was always a
threat of the rains at Kayathar, Kadambur, Gangaikondan, Maniyachi, Ottapidaram and Kombadi
flood and flow as an ephemeral stream and cause immeasurable damage to the city of Tuticorin. To
avoid it the British built a lake of 1000ft. breadth with 48 shutters in 1888 at Uppar odai at
Korampallam and that flows as Uppar. This greatly protected the city of Tuticorin and its
surroundings from the hazards of floods.

3.2 Sample Collection and Preparation

3.2.1 Sample Collection

The 5 different Soil samples were collected from various river banks in and around Tuticorin and
Tirunelveli. About 2 to 3 kg of wet soil was collected from each place and was made to dry. After
been dried, the sample was filtered using the sieving process. Minute particles were collected and
filled in containers of same weight and volume. The containers were closed with lid and sealed. The
weight of each sample is measured and recorded.

31
3.2.2 Sample Images

Fig. 3.7 Collected Samples

3.2.3 Sample Preparation

 About 2 to 3 kg of wet soil samples was collected from each place.

 To find the radioactivity levels, the samples were dried in an oven till a constant dry weight
was obtained.
 Then these samples were powdered and sieved through a 150-mm mesh.
 The processed soil samples were packed in a 250 ml plastic container to its full volume with
uniform mass.
 These containers were sealed hermetically and sealed externally to ensure that all the
daughter products of uranium and thorium and in particular, radon isotopes formed do not
escape.
 A time of 30 days was allowed after packing to attain secular equilibrium between 226Ra and
its short-lived daughter products.
 The net-weight of each sample was determined before counting.
 To reduce the contribution from background radiation while recording the spectrum in the
laboratory, the samples were kept in a lead shield, which has a shielding efficiency of 95%.

32
3.3 TECHNIQUES

The technique used to determine the concentration of 238U, 232Th and 40K in the samples is Gamma
Ray Spectrometer. The activity concentration is determined using the gamma ray spectrometer
present in the radiological laboratory in Scott Christian College, Nagercoil.

3.3.1 Gamma Ray Spectrometer

Gamma Ray Spectrometry: This method measures the gamma radiation emitted by radioactive
isotopes in the soil and can be used to determine the presence and concentration of specific isotopes.
Gamma spectrometry is a nuclear analytical technique used to measure the energy and intensity of
gamma rays emitted from a radioactive source. This information is used to identify the nuclides
present in the sample, to determine their abundance and to quantify the amount of radioactivity
present.

The method works by passing gamma rays through a detector, typically a scintillation crystal or a
gas-filled chamber, which detects and records the gamma rays’ energy levels. The resulting gamma-
ray spectrum can then be analyzed to determine the type and amount of radioactivity in the sample.
Gamma spectrometry is widely used in fields such as environmental monitoring, nuclear power
generation, medical imaging and treatment, and homeland security.

Fig. 3.8 Block Diagram of Gamma ray Spectrometer

33
NaI(Tl) gamma ray spectrometer:

A NaI(Tl) gamma ray spectrometer is a type of radiation detector that is commonly used for gamma
ray spectroscopy. It consists of a crystal of sodium iodide (NaI) that has been doped with thallium
(Tl) to improve its sensitivity to gamma rays. When gamma rays interact with the crystal, they
produce scintillation light, which is detected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT) located at the end of
the crystal. The iodine provides most of the stopping power in sodium iodide (since it has a high Z
= 53). These crystalline scintillators are characterized by high density, high atomic number, and
pulse decay times of approximately 1 microsecond (~ 10-6 sec). The wavelength of maximum
emission is 415 nm. Scintillation in inorganic crystals is typically slower than in organic ones. They
exhibit high efficiency for detection of gamma rays and are capable of handling high count rates.
Inorganic crystals can be cut to small sizes and arranged in an array configuration so as to provide
position sensitivity. This feature is widely used in medical imaging to detect X-rays or gamma rays.
Inorganic scintillators are better at detecting gamma rays and X-rays. The NaI(Tl) scintillator has a
higher energy resolution than a proportional counter, allowing for more accurate energy
determinations. This is due to their high density and atomic number which gives a high electron
density. A disadvantage of some inorganic crystals, e.g., NaI, is their hygroscopicity, a property
which requires them to be housed in an airtight container to protect them from moisture. The crystals
are usually coupled with a photomultiplier tube, in a hermetically sealed assembly.

The PMT converts the scintillation light into an electrical signal, which is then processed by a
multichannel analyzer (MCA). The MCA records the energy of each gamma ray detected by the
detector, creating a gamma ray spectrum. By analyzing the spectrum, it is possible to identify the
radionuclides present in the sample and determine their activity concentration.

The energy resolution of the NaI(Tl) detector depends on the size of the crystal and the quality of
the electronics used to process the signals. Generally, larger crystals provide better energy resolution
but are less sensitive to low-energy gamma rays. The typical energy resolution of a NaI(Tl) detector
is in the range of 6-10% at 662 keV, which is the energy of the gamma ray emitted by Cs-137.

NaI(Tl) detectors are widely used in environmental monitoring, nuclear medicine, and other
applications where gamma ray spectroscopy is required. They are relatively inexpensive compared
to other types of detectors and can be easily operated by non-experts. However, they have some

34
limitations, such as poor energy resolution at low energies and sensitivity to environmental factors
such as temperature and humidity.

Fig. 3.9 Gamma Ray Spectrometer

3.3.2 Experimental Procedures

The experimental procedure for using a NaI(Tl) gamma ray spectrometer typically involves the
following steps:

 Detector preparation: The NaI(Tl) detector must be properly prepared before it can be used
for gamma ray spectroscopy. This typically involves cooling the detector to a stable
temperature, calibrating the high voltage supply, and adjusting the photomultiplier tube
(PMT) gain.
 Sample preparation: The sample to be analyzed must be properly prepared for gamma ray
spectroscopy. Depending on the sample type, this may involve drying, grinding, or
homogenization. The sample is then typically placed in a sample holder, such as a Marinelli
beaker or a counting geometry that is compatible with the detector.
 Data acquisition: The detector is connected to a multichannel analyzer (MCA) and a data
acquisition system, which allows gamma ray spectra to be collected. The acquisition time
and other measurement parameters, such as the energy range and resolution, are set
depending on the characteristics of the sample and the analytical requirements.
 Background measurement: Before the sample is analyzed, a background spectrum is
typically acquired to account for the contribution of natural and man-made sources of

35
 radiation in the laboratory environment. This background spectrum is later subtracted from
the sample spectrum to obtain the net counts due to the sample.

Yg − Yb = Yn
Where Yg is the gross spectra count, Yb is the background radiation and Y n is the net
spectra count of the sample.

Fig. 3.10 Graphical representation of the Output Spectrum

 Sample measurement: The sample is then placed in the detector and a gamma ray spectrum
is acquired for a specified measurement time. The spectrum is typically analyzed using
gamma spectroscopy software to identify the radionuclides present in the sample and
determine their activity concentrations.
 Quality control: To ensure the accuracy and precision of the measurements, quality control
procedures such as duplicate measurements, spike recovery tests, and inter laboratory
comparisons may be performed.
 Data interpretation: The results obtained from gamma ray spectroscopy are typically
reported as activity concentrations in units of Becquerel per kilogram (Bqkg-1) or activity per
unit area. The data may be compared to regulatory limits or background levels to assess the
potential impact of the sample on human health or the environment.

36
CHAPTER IV

37
 RESULTS AND DISUSSION

The study was aimed at measuring natural radioactivity levels in river beds in and around Tirunelveli
and Tuticorin districts using NaI(Tl) detector. In this chapter the activity concentration of soil
samples and the radiological parameters were measured.

Analysis of samples
A time of 1000 seconds for acquiring data for each sample and determining background radiation
was set. The reference sample was also analyzed. From the counting spectra, the activity
concentration of 238U, 232Th and 40K was determined. The peak corresponding to 1460 keV (40-K)
for 40K, 583 keV (Tl-208) for 232Th and 609 keV (Bi-214) for 238U were considered in arriving at the
activity levels. These peaks were chosen because they weakly interfere with other peaks hence
forming pure peaks of the spectrum. The total counts were obtained after a region of interest was
selected at the peak. A peak consists of a number of counts in adjacent channels. In order to obtain
the region of interest (ROI) net area, the underlying continuum is subtracted from the gross area. The
gross area is simply the summation of channel contents overall channels within the peak. The
intensity of the background was subtracted to obtain residual intensity of sample for use in activity
calculation.
4.1 Activity Concentration

Activity Concentration refers to the amount of radioactive material in a given volume or mass of a
substance. It is expressed in units of Becquerel per unit mass (Bqkg-1). It is an important parameter
in radiation protection and is used to assess the potential radiation exposure to humans and
environment from radioactive sources.

Activity concentration can be measured by using the formula

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Activity (Bqkg-1) = ∗𝜼∗𝒎∗𝜺
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Where, η is the detector efficiency at a specific gamma ray energy, m is the mass of the sample and
ε is the emission probability of the specific gamma ray. The activity concentration of radionuclides
238
U, 232 Th and 40K in soil samples from various river bed in and around Tirunelveli and Tuticorin
have been measured. The minimum activity concentration of 238U, 232 Th and 40K observed are 3.825
Bqkg-1, 54.696 Bqkg-1 and 132.775 Bqkg-1 and the maximum values are 23.433 Bqkg-1, 118.598

38
Bqkg-1 and 210.489 Bqkg-1 respectively. The mean activity concentration of 238U, 232 Th and 40K are
11.410 Bqkg-1, 94.937 Bqkg-1 and 152.773 Bqkg-1 respectively. The values are tabulated in 4.1.

238
SAMPLE U (Bqkg-1) 232
Th (Bqkg-1) 40
K (Bqkg-1)
CR1 14.01 82.302 135.045
TN2 23.433 118.598 132.775
K3 3.825 54.696 147.217
TH4 9.615 104.148 138.339
U5 6.168 114.941 210.489
Mean 11.410 94.937 152.773

Table 4.1 Activity Concentration (Bqkg-1)

The Graphical representation of Activity Concentration is given in 4.1.1 and 4.1.2.

Activity Concentration of 238U & 232Th

140 (Bqkg-1)
Activity Concentration (Bqkg-1)

U-238 Th-232
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
CR1 TN2 K3 TH4 U5
SAMPLE

Fig. 4.1.1 Activity Concentration of 238U & 232Th (Bqkg-1)

It is observed that the activity concentration of 238U & 232Th is relatively higher in Thamirabarani
(TN2) compared to the other samples while the concentration of 238U & 232Th is lower in
Karumaniyar (K3) than the others.

39
 Activity Concentration of Potassium
(Bqkg-1)
K-40

Activity Concentration (Bqkg-1)

250

200

150

100

50

0
CR1 TN2 K3 TH4 U5
SAMPLE

Fig. 4.1.2 Activity Concentration of 40K (Bqkg-1)

It is observed that the activity concentration of 40K is higher in all samples. The activity concentration
of 40K in Uppar (U5) is higher than the other samples. This may be due to the industrial wastes that
are dumped into the river which makes the activity of 40K higher.

4.2 Absorbed Dose Rate: (AD)

Radiation damage to tissue or organs depends on the dose of radiation received or the absorbed dose.
The absorbed dose of radiation is the energy imparted per unit mass of the irradiated material.
Absorbed dose rate refers to the amount of radiation absorbed or deposited per unit mass of substance.
The absorbed gamma dose rates due to gamma radiations in air at 1 m above the ground surface for
the uniform distribution of the naturally occurring radionuclides ( 238U, 232Th and 40K) was calculated
based on the guidelines provided by (UNSCEAR, 2000). Absorbed Dose Rate refers to the amount
of energy deposited by ionizing radiation in a specific material per unit time. It is expressed in units
of nano grays per hour (nGyh-1). The Dose rate can be calculated by

AD (nGyh-1) = [0.462 CU+ 0.604 CTh + 0.0417 CK]

Where, CU is the activity concentration of 238U, CTh is the activity concentration of 232Th and CK is
the activity concentration of 40K. The values are tabulated in 4.2

40
 SAMPLE DOSE RATE (nGyh-1)
CR1 61.814
TN2 87.996
K3 40.942
TH4 73.116
U5 81.051
Mean 68.983

Table 4.2 Absorbed Dose Rate (nGyh-1)

The gamma dose rate for various river beds in and around Tirunelveli and Tuticorin ranges from
40.942 nGyh-1 to 87.996 nGyh-1. The Calculated average dose rate is 68.983 nGyh-1 which is much
less than the optimum harmful level prescribed by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the
Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). The graphical representation of the Absorbed Dose
Rate is given in the Bar Diagram in fig. 4.2.1

Dose Rate (nGyh-1)

Dose Rate (nGy/h)
100
90
80
Dose rate (nGyh-1)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
CR1 TN2 K3 TH4 U5

SAMPLE

Fig. 4.2.1 Absorbed Dose rate (nGyh-1)

4.3 Radium Equivalent Activity: (Raeq)

Radium Equivalent Activity is defined as the activity of radium that would produce the same gamma
-ray exposure rate as the actual material, taking into account the contribution of all the radioactive

41
isotopes present. It is measured in units of Bqkg -1. The radium equivalent allows us to describe the
238 232 40
gamma output from different mixtures of, U, Th and K in soil samples from the study area.
Radium equivalent activity is the common index for assessing the radiological hazards of
radioactivity in environmental materials. The higher the Radium Equivalent value of a material, the
greater the potential radiation hazard it poses. The Radium Equivalent Activity can be calculated by

Raeq = [CU + 1.43 CTh + 0.077 CK] Bqkg-1

Where, CU is the activity concentration of 238U, CTh is the activity concentration of 232Th and CK is
the activity concentration of 40K.

SAMPLE RADIUM EQUIVALENT ACTIVTY

(Bqkg-1)
CR1 142.101
TN2 203.252
K3 93.376
TH4 169.199
U5 186.741
Mean 158.933

Table 4.3 Radium Equivalent Activity (Bqkg-1)

The Raeq estimated for the collected samples ranges from 93.376 Bqkg-1 to 203.252 Bqkg-1 with a
mean value of 158.933 Bqkg-1 which is lower than the recommended maximum value of 370 Bqkg-
1
. The values are tabulated in 4.3. The graphical representation of Radium Equivalent Activity is
given below in fig. 4.3.1.

42
 Radium Equivalent Acivity (Bq/kg)

Radium Equivalent Activity(Bqkg-1)

250 Radium Equivalent Acivity (Bq/kg)

200

150

100

50

0
CR1 TN2 K3 TH4 U5
SAMPLE

Fig. 4.3.1 Radium Equivalent Activity (Bqkg-1)

4.4 Hazard Indices

Hazard Index (HI) is a measure used in environmental risk assessments to estimate the potential
health risk associated with exposure to multiple contaminants. The Hazard index provides an
indication of the cumulative health risk from multiple exposures and is used to help identify potential
risks and prioritize actions to reduce exposures. If the Hazard index is greater than 1, it suggests that
the combined exposures to contaminants of concern may pose a potential health risk, and further
evaluation and risk management strategies may be needed.

4.4.1 External (Hex) and Internal (Hin) Hazard Indices

External Hazard Index (H ex) is a measure of the external radiation hazard from gamma rays emitted
by radioactive materials in the environment. It is calculated by

Hex = CU + CTh + CK ≤ 1

370 259 4810

Internal Hazard Index (Hin) is a measure of the internal radiation hazard from the ingestion of
radionuclides in food and water or the inhalation of radioactive particles in the air. It is calculated by

Hin = CU + CTh + CK ≤ 1

185 259 4810

43
 SAMPLE INTERNAL HAZARD EXTERNAL HAZARD
INDEX (Hin) INDEX (Hex)
CR1 0.421 0.383
TN2 0.612 0.548
K3 0.262 0.252
TH4 0.482 0.456
U5 0.520 0.504
Mean 0.459 0.428

Table 4.4 Internal (Hin) and External (Hex) Hazard indices

The mean internal and external hazard indices for the studied soil samples are 0.459 and 0.428
respectively. These values are less than 1, which implies that exposure to radiations in the area is
negligible. The values are tabulated in 4.4. The graphical representation of the Internal and External
hazard indices are given below in fig. 4.4.1

Hazard Indices
Internal Hazard Indices External Hazard Indices
0.7
0.6
0.5
Hazard Indices

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
CR1 TN2 K3 TH4 U5
SAMPLE

Fig. 4.4.1 Internal (Hin) and External (Hex) Hazard indices

44
CHAPTER V

45
 CONCLUSION
238 232 40
The radioactivity levels of radionuclides U, Th and K in the prescribed river beds in and
around Tirunelveli and Tuticorin are studied. According to the analysis the following results are
found. The activity concentration of 238U, 232
Th and 40K in the samples lies between 3.825 Bqkg-1
and 23.433 Bqkg-1, 54.696 Bqkg-1 and 118.598 Bqkg-1 & 132.775 Bqkg-1 and 210.489 Bqkg-1
238 232
respectively. The absorbed activity concentration of U, Th is high in Thamirabarani (TN2)
(23.433 Bqkg-1 and 118.598 Bqkg-1 respectively) and low in Karumaniyar (K3) (3.825 Bqkg-1 and
54.696 Bqkg-1 respectively). But invariably both the rivers traverse through large agricultural area.
The mean value of absorbed rate of the samples is slightly higher (68.983 nGyh-1) than the world
reference value (60 nGyh-1) prescribed by UNSCEAR (2016) whereas the average radium equivalent
activity of the sample sites is very much lower (158.933 Bqkg-1) than the world reference value (370
Bqkg-1) prescribed by UNSCEAR (2016). Besides the internal and external hazard indices of all the
samples are less than 1 which indicates that sample locations are harmless regarding the radioactive
emission. On the whole, the chosen sample sites are less radioactive and harmless to human health
and environment.

46
CHAPTER VI

47
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