EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIOACTIVE FROM RICE CONSUMED IN

KANO STATE, NIGERIA.

By

ABDULLAHI ILIYASU KHAMIS

M.Sc/PHY/17/0004

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, SCHOOL OF

POSTGRADUATE STUDIES, KANO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY, WUDIL, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER SCIENCE DEGREE (M.SC) IN PHYSICS.

SEPTEMBER, 2021.
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this study entitled “Effect of Gamma Radioactive from Rice Consumed

in Kano State, Nigeria” is product of my research effort undertaken under the supervision of

Professor Tijjani Saleh Bichi, and has not been presented elsewhere for the award of a Master

Degree (M.Sc) or any other degrees In Physics. All sources of information used in this study

have been duly acknowledged.

ABDULLAHI ILIYASU KHAMIS Date

(MSc/PHY/17/0004)

2
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the Dissertation entitled “EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIOACTIVE

FROM RICE CONSUMED IN KANO STATE, NIGERIA” submitted by ABDULLAHI

ILIYASU KHAMIS to the KANO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

WUDIL, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master of PHYSICS with

specialization in Nuclear Physics is a research work carried out by him under my supervision and

guidance. To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in this dissertation has not been

submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree or Master’s Program.

Prof. Tijjani Saleh Bichi Date

(Dissertation Supervisor)

Dr. Y. A. SUMAILA Date

(Head of Department)

3
 APPROVAL/CERTIFICATION

This research work has been read and approved as meeting the requirement of the Department of

Physics Kano University of Science And Technology, Wudil for the award of Master of Science

Degree in Physics

Prof. Tijjani Saleh Bichi Date

(Dissertation Supervisor)

Internal Examiner Date

Dr Y. A. SUMAILA Date
(Head of Department)

Dean School of Postgraduate Date

4
 DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah, the One and only God of the World. The

Creator of the Universe for His generous Assistance and Protection. Also for His provision and

abundant blessing given to me before, during and after the research work.

5
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I doubt if a single page would be enough for me to express the sense of gratitude to those whose

guidance and assistance were indispensable for the completion of this project.

I avail this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my

esteemed supervisor Prof Tijjani Saleh Bichi, Department of Physics , Kano University of

Science and Technology, Wudil for his sustained interest, sincere guidance, constant supervision

and encouragement in carrying out this research work.

I feel greatly indebted and record my profound sense of reverence and gratitude to the faculty

members, Lecturers including Head of Department, KUST, Wudil, for their valuable and timely

suggestions and kind co-operation.

I express my gratitude to Lab Technician in Centre for Energy Research and Training ABU Zaria

for their whole hearted cooperation, painstaking effort and pragmatic ideas for my study to be of

good quality.

I also wish to extend my thanks to all my family members and friends who really helped me in

every possible way they could.

6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION...............................................................................................................................................i
CERTIFICATION............................................................................................................................................ii
APPROVAL/CERTIFICATION.........................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..................................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................................................ix
LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................................................x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.............................................................................................................................xi
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION.....................................................................................................1
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT.......................................................................................4
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT..................................................................................................5
1.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY..........................................................................................................5
1.5 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM...........................................................................................................6
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY..................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................................7
2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVITY IN NATURE.......................................................7
2.2 RADIONUCLIDE..........................................................................................................................14
2.3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY PROCESS..................................................................................................15
2.4 Alpha Decay...............................................................................................................................15
2.5 Beta Decay.................................................................................................................................17
2.5.1 Beta Negative Decay..........................................................................................................17
2.5.2 Beta Positive Decay............................................................................................................19
2.5.3 Inverse Beta Decays (aka Electron Capture)......................................................................20
2.6 Gamma Decay............................................................................................................................21
2.7 RADIATION.................................................................................................................................21

7
 2.7.1 IONIZING RADIATION.........................................................................................................22
2.7.2 NON-IONIZING RADIATION................................................................................................22
2.8 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER............................................................................23
2.9 SOURCE OF RADIATION.............................................................................................................25
2.9.1 Natural Background Radiation...........................................................................................25
2.9.2 MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION...............................................................................26
2.10 RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION..........................................................................................................27
2.11 RADIOACTIVE LAND POLLUTION................................................................................................28
2.12 RADIATION AND HEALTH...........................................................................................................29
2.12.1 STOCHASTIC HEALTH EFFECTS...........................................................................................29
2.12.2 NON-STOCHASTIC HEALTH EFFECTS..................................................................................30
2.13 RADIATION PROTECTION AGAINST EXPOSURE..........................................................................30
2.14 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LEVELS (ALARA) PRINCIPLE..............................................31
2.15 Controlling the External Radiation Hazard.................................................................................31
2.15.1 Control of Exposure Time...................................................................................................32
2.15.2 Control of Distance............................................................................................................32
2.15.3 Shielding Control................................................................................................................33
2.16 RADIATION EFFECT ON HUMANS..............................................................................................33
2.16.1 Somatic Effects...................................................................................................................34
2.16.2 Genetic Effect.....................................................................................................................35
2.17 GENERAL EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVITY ON THE HUMAN BODY..................................................35
2.18 RADIATION DETECTION INSTRUMENTS.....................................................................................37
2.19 GAMMA RAY SPECTROSCOPY....................................................................................................38
2.20 GAMMA RAY EMISSION.............................................................................................................39
2.21 PRINCIPLES OF GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY WITH GERMANIUM...........................................40
DETECTORS............................................................................................................................................40
2.22 GAMMA RAY INTERACTIONS IN THE DETECTOR........................................................................41
2.23 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT............................................................................................................42
2.24 COMPTON SCATTERING.............................................................................................................42
2.25 PAIR PRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................42
2.26 SYSTEM CALIBRATION................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHOD......................................................................................................44

8
 3.1 STUDY AREA...............................................................................................................................44
3.2 MATERIALS................................................................................................................................44
3.3 SAMPLE COLLECTION.................................................................................................................44
3.4 SAMPLE PREPARATION..............................................................................................................45
3.5 INSTRUMENTATION...................................................................................................................45
3.5.1 Blender..............................................................................................................................46
3.5.2 The Gamma Ray Spectrometer (Sodium Iodide Detector).................................................46
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSUIONS.................................................................................................48
4.1 RESULTS PRESENTATION............................................................................................................48
4.2 DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS.........................................................................................................51
CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................................................57
5.1 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................57
5.2 RECOMMENDATION..................................................................................................................57
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................59

9
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Physical and Biological response to ionizing radiation……………………24

Figure 2.2: The diagram shows different level of radioactive dosage and how they can affect

the human body………………...…………………………………….………………….37

Figure 4.1: 40-K Activity concentration in the Rice sample……………………………51

Figure 4.2: Percentage Activity concentration of 40-K in the Rice samples…………....51

Figure 4.3: 226-Ra Activity concentration in the Rice sample………………………….52

Figure 4.4: Percentage Activity concentration of 226-Ra in the Rice samples………….52

Figure 4.5: 232-Th Activity concentration in the Rice sample………………………….53

Figure 4.6: Percentage Activity concentration of 232-Th in the Rice samples………….53

10
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Result of radioactivity analysis Weight of Container +sample..................................48

Table 4.2 Activity concentrations of Radionuclides in rice samples investigated in this study. 49
Table 4.3 Result of radioactivity analysis of Rice samples with their errors and mean Values…50

11
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

ICRP International Committee on Radiological Protection

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

KUST Kano University of Science and Technology

40
K Potassium Forty

226
R Radium two-two-six

232
Th Thorium two-three-two

137
Cs Cesium one-three-seven

NORM Naturally occurring radioactive materials.

UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation.

HPGe Hyper Pure Germanium

GRS Gamma Ray Spectrometry

BDL Below detection limit.

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency.

EMR Electronic medical record

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

RNA Ribonucleic acid

LET Linear energy transfer

USNRC United States nuclear regulatory commission.

12
ALARA As low as reasonably achieved

CERT Centre for energy research and Training

PMT Photomultiplier tube.

Bq/Kg Becquerel per kilogram

CPS Count per second.

13
 ABSTRACT

In these Research the Effect of Gamma Radioactive from Rice Consumed in Kano State,

Nigeria was investigated by taking twelve Samples of Rice grind and stored it for at least four

weeks, after which the targeted natural radionuclides of 40K, Ra and

226 232
Th Concentrated was

determined by the use of gamma ray spectrometer ( Sodium Iodide Detector). The mean values

and Standard deviation values of radionuclide was obtained from the samples as (126.9028 ±

6.8304) Bq/Kg- (32.2764 ± 2.0549) Bq/Kg, (61.0267 ± 5.5231)Bq/Kg-(24.3458 ± 2.1199)

Bq/Kg, and (84.6744 ± 6.2464) Bq/Kg-(31.6719 ± 1.3873) Bq/Kg for K,

40
Ra and
226 232
Th

respectively. 40K percentage activity contribution shows that Thailand rice sample has the highest

radionuclide contribution of 11% while Kura rice sample has the lowest contribution of 3%.

Birnin-Kebbi and India rice samples contributed highest with 14% of the gross Radium 226

activity and Warawa Rice sample contributed with 3% moreover Riruwai-Doguwa and Hadejia-

Jigawa Rice Sample contributed the highest percentage of 12% to the total Thorium activity

concentration while Kura Rice sample is 3% concentrated. The overall results show that natural

radioactivity concentration in Rice Samples found and consume in Kano State are low and are

within the ICRP recommended limits. However the research work has revealed that there is a rise

in the level of naturally occurring radioactive in some Rice samples.

14
 CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION.

Radioactivity can be defined as the spontaneous disintegration of nucleus of an atom with

an emission of alpha, beta particles and gamma ray. The radiation burden of the environment is

constantly being enhanced by ionizing radiation from natural sources and their transfer to flora

and fauna as have been noted by many researches (Badran, et al., 2012).

Radioactivity in the environment originates from natural and anthropogenic (man-made)

sources. Natural radio nuclides include isotopes of potassium (40K), uranium (238U and its decay

series), and thorium (232Th, and its decay series). These naturally occurring radioactive materials

(NORM) are long-lived and are typically present in environmental samples (Hosseini et al.,

2006). Anthropogenic radionuclides are products of nuclear processes in industrial,

medical, and military applications, releases to the environment that can be either controlled

(regulated discharges) or uncontrolled (accidents). For example, it was estimated that 9×1016Bq of

the Cesium isotope 137Cs, were released to the environment from the Chernobyl accident (IAEA,

2015). The presence of anthropogenic radio nuclides in environmental samples is an indicator of

a previous contaminating event.

Natural and anthropogenic radionuclides are found in terrestrial and aquatic food chains,

with subsequent transfer to humans through ingestion of food. Therefore, there is a global

15
interest in human radiation exposure due to radionuclide intake from food (Ababneh et al.,

2009). Dietary path ways become contaminated with radioactive materials from these man-made

applications during routine operation.  Since radioactivity was first discovered, there has been

concern regarding the damage that it might pose to humans, living creatures and the

environment. Many studies have been dedicated to monitoring amounts of radionuclides activity

in food and nutritional supplements, particularly related to the human diet, seeking to determine

the risks those amounts may bring Concern with radiation levels in food samples is also very

important, because ingestion is one of the most common way radionuclides enter living

organisms.

Radiation plays an important and sometimes vital role in our everyday lives, every day we

are exposed to naturally occurring quantities of radiation. We get exposed to naturally occurring

radioactive materials (NORM) through the air we breathe, the food we eat, the soil we walk on

and the water we drink and even within our bodies (Agalga et al, 2013). Monitoring these

radioactive materials is therefore of primary importance for human and environmental protection

but rapid and accurate method for the assessment of radioactivity is essential (Al-jundi et al

2008). There are over  60 radionuclides (radioactive elements) that can be found in nature and

are generally classified into three; the Primordial- those formed before the creation of the earth,

the cosmogenic – formed as a result of cosmic rays interaction and the artificial radionuclide-

these formed due to human action or activities (Ababneh et al., 2009)

Radionuclides are chemical elements with unstable atomic structures called radioactive

isotopes. The unstable structures break down to release or emit radiation energy from the nucleus

16
or other parts of the atom. Three types of radiation can be released: alpha particles, beta particles

and gamma rays (photons). Most naturally occurring Radionuclides are alpha particle emitters

(uranium-234 and radium-226), but some beta particle emitters also occur naturally (radium-228

and potassium-40). Manmade Radionuclides are mainly beta and photon (gamma) emitters (Yu

and Mao, 1999). Tritium is a beta particle emitter that may be formed naturally in the atmosphere

or by human activities (UNSCEAR 2000). Radiation being energy emitted when a radionuclide

decays, it can affect living tissue only when the energy is absorbed in that tissue.

Radionuclides can be hazardous to living tissue when they are inside an organism where

radiation released can be immediately absorbed. They may also be hazardous when they are

outside of the organism but close enough for some radiation to be absorbed by the tissue.

Radionuclides move through the environment and into the body through many different

pathways: air, water (both groundwater and surface water) and the food chain. Knowing these

pathways make it possible to take necessary control measure to reduce their intake by aquatic

animals, terrestrial animals and human beings to minimal levels.

However, Radionuclides with suitable properties are used in nuclear medicine for both

diagnosis and treatment. The biological effects of radiation on marine animals will be essentially

the same as they are humans. Both would have the same long-term risks, which have slight

increase in the risk of cancer, all humans have a risk of dying from cancer. About 19% to 23% of

humans will die from cancer, even if we are never exposed to radiation levels above natural

background levels. According to the American Cancer Society’s website there would be no giant

or super sea creatures produced by the dilute amounts of natural, man-made radioactive material

17
found in sea water. Also, there is essentially no increase in mutations in the generations that

follow the exposure of the parent animals. Because the radioactive material in the ocean is so

dilute and the water itself absorbs radiation and is a very good shielding material, very little if

any exposure will be from the water outside the animal. Essentially all exposure will be from

radioactive materials ingested by the animal.

Among the types of food that are commonly consumed worldwide is rice. Hence, studies on

the radioactivity of rice have been performed in various regions across the globe (Saeed et al.,

2011). Results that we are going to find in this work will help in establishing baselines of

radiation exposure to people from consumption of rice in Kano state.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The Aim of this Project is to quantify the effect of gamma radioactive from rice consumed

in Kano State, Nigeria.

OBJECTIVES

 To measure radioactive contaminants in rice consume in Kano state.

 To determine of naturally occurring radionuclide in rice samples obtained from the study

area.

 To analyze the result to ascertain the radiological implication on the people consuming

rice in Kano state.

 To examine the nature of distribution of radionuclide’s rice in Kano state.

18
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT

A preliminary assessment of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) found in

Rice within Kano State would be the main purpose of the research work using the Gamma

spectrometer (sodium Iodide detector) for analysis of the Twelve (12) selected Rice to determine

the background ionization radiation level of the study area and the Rice samples. The study

would ascertain the level of ionizing radiation level as it affects the consumption of these Rice

samples though within the acceptable limit for the general public and within the safe limit for

radiological workers.  Other analytical methods of ascertaining the exposure rate such as Hyper

Pure Germanium (HPGe) detector to know the specific radionuclide responsible for the

contamination and pollution of these foodstuffs. The study hopes to establish the relevance of

knowing the effect of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (Norm) on commonly consumed

rice and its effect on human after consumption of this rice.

1.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This research is born out of the concern for the increasing case of rice related sicknesses which

are mostly attributed to the content of rice consumed in Kano state. The radionuclide content of

this rice is becoming a growing concern also due to the indiscriminate application of fertilizers

that are radionuclide laden. This research therefore intends to examine 12 Samples of rice

obtained from the study area. But for time and financial constraint, this work is restricted to only

twelve major rice samples in the study area.

19
1.5 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Radionuclides that find their ways into the environment may cause harmful effects as

radioactive contamination; Potential health damage from exposure to Radionuclides depends on

number of factors, and can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. A thorough literature

search reveals no any small number of studies on the radionuclide content of food consumed in

Kano, Such scarcity is the main motive to conduct the current study, in order to meet the

important national requirement of establishing a baseline of radioactivity exposure to the general

public from food consumption. For a systematic approach, this Project will focus on one type of

foodstuff that is widely consumed by various age groups in Kano, namely Rice.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY.

The study samples are restricted to the some of rice consumed in Kano state. Kano State is

a Commercial and Agricultural Producing state of Nigeria, situated in the region known as the

North-west geo-political zone with a population of over 11 million. The capital city is Kano with

an estimated area of 20,131 square kilometres (7773sq mi).The state covers approximately

between the longitude 11030N 8030E. It is bounded in the northwest by Katsina state, the

Northeast by Jigawa States, South East by Bauchi state and on the south west by Kaduna State.

Kano State Consists of Forty Four Local Government Areas.

20
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVITY IN NATURE

The world is naturally radioactive since its creation due to naturally occurring radioactive

materials (NORMs) in its environment, thus life on earth has settled under the ubiquitous

presence of environmental radiation to which all living beings are continuously exposed (Yusof

et al 2011). Natural radioactivity is widely distributed in the environment and can be found in

various environmental media, for instance, soil, rock, plants and foods, air, water and building

materials in different quantities (Santos et al 2004). Several types of biochemical mechanisms

and actions of some entities transfer these radionuclides from their distinct geologic medium into

the biosphere in which they get bio-accumulated in the chain of food, and serve as a major

exposure route to human beings.

For the purpose of the research, Kano State is the State of concentration one of the three

goals of the United Nations for sustainable food security to ensure that all people have access to

sufficient, nutritionally adequate and safe food (Jibiri, et al., 2007). Natural radioactive elements

are transferred and cycled through natural processes and between the various environmental

compartments by entering into ecosystems and food chains. Rice may be subjected to direct and

indirect contamination of uranium series radionuclide, use of fertilizers leads to elevation of

21
uranium series nuclides in Rice. There are significant contributions of ingestion dose and are

present in the biotic systems of plants, animals, soil, water and air.

Distribution of that radionuclide in different parts of the plant depends on the chemical

characteristics and several parameters of the plant and soil (Shanthi, et al, 2009).

Olomo (2000) study’s on natural radioactivity in some Nigeria foodstuffs examined, varies and

concluded that the major factor that may be responsible include application of fertilizer, soil type

and irrigation pattern.

Human beings are continually exposed to the environmental radioactivity that can be

categorized into two main sources: namely, natural and anthropogenic (man-made) sources.

Natural sources of radioactivity mostly arise from the terrestrial radionuclides having long half-

lives relative to earths and are extensively distributed in the earth’s crust and extra-terrestrial

sources arise from the bombardment of cosmic rays. Along with the natural sources, human

activities concerned with the utilization of radiation and radioactive materials (e.g industrial

purposes and medical applications) from which radionuclides may release into the environment

and enhance the radioactivity in nature (UNSCEAR, 2000).

2.1 DECAY CHAINS (SERIES) RADIONUCLIDES.

Natural decay series radionuclides (238U, 232

Th and U) and their succeeding radioactive decay
235

progenies and non-series radionuclides 40K are the greatest encountered radionuclides in virtually

all environmental media including soil, rocks and foodstuffs, exposure dose resulting

22
predominantly from these radionuclides in drinking water and foodstuff that internally irradiate

the various organs with alpha and beta particles (Yu and Mao, 1999).The three decay series

radionuclides (238U, Th and

232
U) which have half-lives compared to the age of the earth can
235

still be present on earth environment that form the main portion of our natural radiation

(Hosseini et al., 2006). These chains radionuclides decay through a sequence of radioactive

progeny nuclides and finally attain a stable state of lead.

2.1.1 NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY IN FOOD STUFFS

Naturally occurring radionuclides particularly 238U and 232Th decay series and the primordial
40
K are the most common radionuclides in all environmental media including foodstuffs which

are the main sources of natural radiation dose to human beings (Hosseini et al., 2006). These

decay series radionuclides represent the most significant source of ionizing radiation on Earth

contributing about 83% of the annual effective dose experienced by the global inhabitants, while

about 16% of this dose is contributed to by the primordial radioisotope K and the remaining
40

only 1% comes from the artificial sources of radionuclides. Natural radionuclides are present in

aquatic and terrestrial food chains that can subsequently be transferred to the human body

following their consumption. It has been assessed that about one-eighth of the average annual

effective doses from the natural sources have been credited via the consumption of food stuffs.

Consequently, radiation exposure in humans owing to the intake of radionuclides from the food

consumption is of global concern (Ababneh et al 2009 & IAEA, 2015).

23
 The naturally occurring radionuclides are also introduced into the environment through

the burning of fossil fuels and the uncontrolled mining processes (Banzi, et al., 2000). Naturally-

occurring radioactive isotopes can be transferred from the soil to plants (Adam Sam and Åke

Eriksson, 1995; Köhler. et al., 2000). As would be expected, these radionuclides

accumulated in arable soil are incorporated metabolically into plants and ultimately find their

ways into the bodies of animals including humans when contaminated foods are consumed. In

addition to root uptake, direct deposition may occur on foliar surfaces, and when this happens,

the contaminants may be absorbed metabolically by the plants or may be transferred directly to

animals that consume the contaminated foliage. It is known that when radionuclides ingested or

inhaled are distributed among body organs (according to the metabolism of the element involved

and the organs) normally exhibit varying radio sensitivities (Mlwilo, et al, 2007).

In addition to natural radioactivity, manmade radionuclide may present a potential risk

(especially in case of nuclear accidents).For instance, 137

Cs is very important because it follows

the course of potassium in ecosystems and it persists in the environment for many years due to

its relatively long half-life, 30 years. Furthermore, it is characterized as a potential genetic hazard

because it accumulates in many types of human tissues and its penetrating gamma-rays reach all

body cells (Mlwilo., et al, 2007). 226Ra is one of the major sources of radioactivity found in food

and water (Banzi, et al., 2000). Among the 238

U daughter products, 226
Ra is one of the most

radiotoxic radionuclide with very long half-life (1600 years). Due to its long half-life and

radiological effects, it is one of the most important isotopes to be determined among the naturally

occurring nuclides in environmental samples (Lawrie,et al, 2000).

24
 There are various techniques for radioactivity analysis in foodstuffs with the ability to

determine qualitatively and quantitatively alpha and beta emitting radio nuclides. However,

Gamma Ray Spectrometry (GRS) provides a fast, multi elemental and non-destructive method of

radioactivity measurement. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples can be easily

achieved by gamma-ray spectrometry systems.

In the recent years, several studies have been performed in different geological locations across

the globe to evaluate the radioactivity concentration in various foodstuffs and associated

radiation dose received by the population due to consumption of foods.

Saeed et al. (2011) estimated the activity concentrations in six varieties of marketed rice in

Malaysia by gamma-ray spectrometry coupled with HPGe detector and documented the higher

levels of radioactivity for radiologically important nuclides 238U and 232Th (25.10±1.35 Bq/kg and

64.97±0.36 Bq/kg, respectively) in white glutinous rice than the other plane brand of rice. But

this study did not mention the source of origin of the studied rice.

In 2012, the same research groups performed the similar study (using HPGe detector)

together with evaluation of soil to rice transfer factor (TF) of these (238U, 232
Th and 40
K)

radionuclides in some rural and urban granary areas of Kedah, Malaysia. The finding of this

study showed that both the activity concentrations of rice and soil, and soil to rice TFs of

radionuclides were comparatively higher in rural areas than urban one.

In the Penang island of Malaysia, (Alsaffar et al. 2015) assessed the radioactivity (226Ra,
232
Th and 40K) concentrations in soil and their distribution transfer Factor (TF) to different parts

25
of rice plant including grain using HPGe spectroscopy. This study showed that the radionuclides

are more concentrated in roots than grains.

Natural radioactivity of 238U, 232Th and 40K and fallout 137Cs in marketed rice of Kuwait has

been performed by (Alrefae and Nageswaran 2013) employing HPGe spectrometry technique

with a view to evaluate the population dose. This study informed that the rice imported from

India contains comparatively higher activity than rice imported from other countries.

Arogunjo, et al., (2004) studied the level of natural radionuclide in some Nigerian cereals

and tubers using HPGe detector and reported average concentration of K,

40
U and
238 232
Th as

130±8.12Bqkg-1, 11.5±3.86Bqkg-1, and 6.78±2.13Bqkg-1 respectively, while Cs was not

137

detected in any of the food stuffs analysed.

Eyebiokin et al., (2005) also studied the activity concentrations and absorbed dose

equivalent of commonly consumed vegetables in Ondo state using Nal detector and reported that

mean effective dose equivalent for Akure, Idanre and Agbabu were 0.59mSvy -1 0.73mSvy-1 and

0.64mSvy-1 respectively. They concluded that the values obtained are lower than the UNSCEAR

(2000) recommended value for normal food crop of 1.0mSvy-1.

Ojo and Ojo, (2007) on the radiological study of brackish and fresh water food samples in

Lagos and Ondo States, they reported that the average concentration of 50.92±7.04Bqkg-1238U

and 24.60±6.47Bqkg-1232Th were found to be higher in brackish water while 40

K

(738.94±84.81Bqkg-1) was found to be higher in food samples got from fresh water.

26
 Mlwilo et al (2007) study on radioactivity levels of staple foodstuffs and dose estimates for

most of the Tanzanian population revealed that the average activity concentration of 40K, 232
Th

and 238
U in maize were 48.79±0.11, 4.08±0.01 and 13.23±0.10BqKg -1 respectively and in rice

3.82±0.02, 5.02±0.02 and 24.67±0.03. Bqkg-1 respectively. He concluded that the relatively high

average concentrations of the radionuclide in maize compared to rice may be attributed to the

extensive use of phosphate fertilizers in maize production in Tanzania and that the total annual

committed effective doses due to total 232

Th and 238U intakes as a result of consumption of staple

food stuff for infants, children and adults were 0.16, 0.29 and 0.36msvyr -1 respectively, which

are lower than the annual dose guideline for the general public.

Activity concentrations of 226

Ra, Th, 40K in different food crops from a high background
228

radiation area in Bitsichi, Jos Plateau, Nigeria were studied by Jibiri et al (2007). The activity

concentration in the food crops ranged below detection limit (BDL) to 684.5BqKg -1 for 40K from

BDL to 83.5Bqkg-1 for 225Ra, and from BDL to 89.8BqKg-1 for 228Th. It was further revealed that

activity concentrations of this radionuclide were found to be lower in cereals than in tubers and

vegetables. The average external gamma dose rates were found to vary across the farms from

0.50±0.01, to 1.47±0.04 μSvh-1. Because of the past mining activities in the area, it was found

that the soil radioactivity has been modified and the concentration level of the investigated

natural radionuclide in the food crops has been enhanced but however, the values obtained

suggested that the dose from intake of these radionuclide by the food crops is low and that

harmful health effects are not expected.

27
 Shanthi et al (2009) carried out a study to evaluate the radioactivity concentration in the

food crops grown in high-level natural radioactive area in South–West, India. The calculated

daily intakes of these radionuclide isotope (226Ra, Ra,

228
Th and 40K) using concentrations in
228

south Indian foods and daily consumption of these foods were fund to be 226Ra, 0.001-1.87, 228Ra,

0.0023-1.26, 228
Th,0.01-14.09, 40K, 0.46-49.39 Bq/day. It was concluded that the daily internal

dose resulting from ingestion of radionuclide in food was 4.92uSv/day and the annual dose was

1.79mSvyr-1.In view of the potentially dangerous effects of radioactive substances, no effort

should be spared in their quantitative determination in all the identifiable pathways.

2.2 RADIONUCLIDE.

According to Cabianca, T et al. (2000), Radionuclide (radioactive nuclide, radioisotope or

radioactive isotope) is an atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable. This excess

energy can be used in one of the three ways emitted from nucleus as gamma radiation,

transferred to one of its electrons to release it as a conversion electron or used to create and emit

new particles (alpha and beta particles) from the nucleus. Or Radionuclide is an atom with an

unstable nucleus, to become more stable, emits energy in the form of rays or high speed

particles. This is called ionizing radiation because it can create "ions"' by displacing electrons in

the body e.g. in the DNA, disrupting its function. The three major types of ionizing radiation are:

alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays (USEPA, 2011).

We now know that radioactivity actually results from the decay (disintegration) of an unstable

nucleus, this process fundamentally changes the nucleus of the element itself, the radiation that

28
we measure is evidence of events happening inside the nucleus. In many cases this will actually

result in the element changing to a different element, a process called transmutation. The reason

these decays happen is because they result in stable nuclei (study physics, 2015).

Ernest Rutherford and others started studying the radiation that was emitted by these elements.

Me found three distinct forms of radiation, originally divided up based on their ability to pass

through certain materials and their deflection in magnetic fields.

Alpha (α): could barely pass through a single sheet of paper and deflected as a positive particle in

a magnetic field.

Beta (β): can pass through about 3mm; of aluminium and deflected as a negative particle in a

magnetic field.

Gamma (γ): can pass through several centimetres of LEAD and not deflected in a magnetic field.

2.3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY PROCESS

2.4 ALPHA DECAY

The reason that alpha radiation has such a hard time even passing through a piece of paper is

because it is not a form of electromagnetic radiation like we might expect, It is actually the
4
2 He
nuclei of a helium atom during an alpha decay, a nucleus is able to reach a more stable state

by allowing 2 protons and 2 neutrons to leave the nucleus, which will result in a smaller nucleus,

29
and is often more stable arrangement because 2 protons and 2 neutrons are really just helium-4,

the particle that is emitted is really helium. Because this helium is not just regular helium

floating around in the air but is "born" from a nuclear decay, we usually, don’t call it a helium

atom. Instead we call it an alpha particle (study physics. 2015).

Alpha particles come out of the nucleus as just nucleons without any electrons. So, each alpha

panicle has a charge of +2e the atom that originally went through the alpha decay has just lost

some of its nucleons, This must change the element somehow and it's actually pretty easy to

figure out what will happen as long as we apply the conservation of nucleons. The Conservation

of Nucleons is the total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) must remain the same before

and after a nuclear decay reaction (Cabianca, T. et al 2000).

e.g.: The iridium- 168 isotope is known to go through alpha decays asca

168 4
77 Ιr→ 2 α + X
(2.1)

Notice how on the left the total of 168 nucleons of which 77 are protons, So far on the right side

there are only 4 nucleons and 2 protons, there is a bunch missing and they must be making up the

unknown daughter nucleus, X. We can figure out the numbers for the daughter nucleus by just

subtracting what we have (on the alpha particle) from what we had on the parent nucleus the

iridium.

Nucleons = A value = 168 - 4 = 164 Protons = Z value - 77 - 2 = 75

30
There's only one element on the periodic table that has 75 protons: rhenium. That means the

finished alpha decay reaction of iridium-168 will be

168 4 164
77 Ιr→ 2 α+ 75 Re

(2.2)

In this process of alpha decay the total mass of the daughter nucleus plus the alpha particle is less

than the mass of the original parent nucleus.

m parent ¿malpha +mdaughter ¿

(2.3)

The mass defect isn't really missing. It's been turned into energy following Einstein's formula

E=mc2
(2.4)

This works out for our new understanding of conservation of mass and conservation of energy

being interchangeable, the energy is found (mostly) in the kinetic energy of the alpha particle and

daughter nucleus moving away from each other and the alpha particle usually moves faster, since

the alpha particle is almost always much lighter than the daughter nucleus. Also keep in mind

that if the parent nucleus was at rest, the alpha particle and daughter nucleus will travel off in

opposite directions so that the conservation of momentum is obeyed (Cabianca, T et al 2000).

31
2.5 BETA DECAY

Beta decays happen in two ways, called beta negative and beta positive.

2.5.1 Beta Negative Decay

Beta negative decay (β); this happens when a neutron falls apart and becomes a proton and

an electron. Remember earlier when it was pointed out that neutrons have just a tiny bit more

mass than protons, now you know why? In the simplest terms, the neutron is made up of a proton

and an electron stuck together, so In the beta negative decay, the neutron becomes a proton

(which stays in the nucleus) and an electron that goes flying out (the beta particle). To make sure

that you understand that the beta particle is not just a regular electron, but rather one that came
0
−1 β
from inside the nucleus, we will use the symbol . Notice it's A value is zero since it is not a

nucleon, and its Z value -1 because it is the opposite charge of a proton (study physics, 2015).

E.g. Beta negative decay reaction for calcium-46. The basic decay reaction will be

46 0
20 Ca→ −1 β+ X
(2.5)

Just like before, the values of A and Z values were figured out for the unknown daughter

nucleus by subtracting what the beta particle has from the parent nucleus.

A = 46 - 0 = 46, Z = 20 – (-1) = 21 (2.5)

32
So our daughter nucleus must be scandium, the only element with 21 protons.

46 0 46
20 Ca→ −1 β+ 21 Sc
(2.6)

There is only one other thing that should be put in our reactions for beta negative decay, is

when physicists first examined beta negative decays, they figured that since the electrons that are

the beta particles are so light, they should just go out of the nucleus at tremendous speeds

(conservation of momentum & energy). In reality, a lot of them moved really slow in order to

still have conservation laws obeyed, it was realized that a very small, neutral particle must also

be emitted from the nucleus and called an antineutrino and give it the symbol v So, we should

really write the answer from above as

46 0 46
20 Ca→−1 β+ 21 Sc+v
(2.7)

If we wanted to just look at how the neutron changes into a proton, an electron, and an

antineutrino, we could write it out as (study physics, 2015):

0 + 0
n → p + −1 β +v
(2.8)

33
2.5.2 Beta Positive Decay

Beta Positive Decays (β+); Beta positive is different from beta negative because the particles

emitted are the exact opposite. For example, the beta positive decay emits a positive positron.

And positron is sometimes called an ant electron, since it is the antimatter version of an electron

and have the same mass as an electron, but their charge is +1e. We use the symbol 3 + to represent
0
1 β
positrons, and in decay equations we write it as following the trend of "everything is

opposite," beta positive decays involve a proton decaying into a neutron and a positron, while

also releasing a neutrino for conservation of momentum to be followed.

p+ →n0 + ( 01 β ) +v

(2.9)

We can still use the rules for conservation of nucleons to figure out the products of a beta

positive decay. e.g.: Potassium-40 is known to go through beta positive decays so, we need to

gather information on potassium-40 and then write out the decay as

40
19 K 10  K (2.10)

Just like before, we figure out the A and Z values for our unknown daughter nucleus by

subtracting what the beta particle has from the parent nucleus;

A = 40 - 0 = 40, Z = 19 - 1 = 18

34
So our daughter nucleus must be argon, the only element with 18 protons is (Studyphysics,

2015):

40
19 K 10 18
40
Ar  v (2.11)

2.5.3 Inverse Beta Decays (aka Electron Capture)

Although not really one of the main forms of decay, we are looking at these inverse beta

decays simply because of their similarity to beta negative decays. In this process a proton rich

nucleus absorbs an electron from one of the inner energy levels

p   e  n0  v (2.12)

E.g. Rubidium-83 is known to go through electron captures, and the decay equation is (study

physic. 2015)

83
37 Rb 10e36
83
Kr  v (2.13)

2.6 GAMMA DECAY

Gamma radiation can only be stopped by stuff like a few inches of lead. This is because

unlike the other two forms of decay, gamma decays emit a form of EMR, not a particle. And

gamma radiation is quite high up in the frequencies of the EM spectrum, which allows it to pass

through anything but the densest of matter (Yu and Mao, 1999).Gamma decays happen most

often after an alpha or beta decay. This happens because the nucleus is in an excited state and has

35
too much energy to be stable. Because only energy is emitted during gamma decay the number

of proton remain the same that is A and Z values stay the same (Yu and Mao, 1999). E.g. the

argon-40 that was produced in above is in an excited state, so it releases a burst of gamma

radiation and the equation should be (study physics, 2015):

40 40
18 Ar   18 Ar (2.14)

2.7 RADIATION

Radiation is the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic

particles, especially high-energy particles that cause ionization. It is an energy that comes from a

source and travels through some material or through space, light, heat, sound are types of

radiation. Thus, radiation is the term used to describe energy in motion, radiating or moving

away from its source. It is expressed in waves calculated along the electromagnetic spectrum.

Some radioisotopes are only found on the earth as a result of human activity, they are Strontium-

90 (90Sr) Cesium-137 (137Cs), Iodine-131(131I) and Technetium-99 (99Tc), and some isotope like

Potssium-40(40K) is only present due to natural processes, a few isotopes are present as a result

of both natural processes and human activities.

There are basically two types of radiation; ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.

36
2.7.1 IONIZING RADIATION.

Ionizing radiation is radiation that carries enough energy to free electrons from atoms or

molecules, thereby ionizing them. Ionizing radiation is made up of energetic subatomic particles,

ions or atoms moving at high speeds (usually greater than 1 % of the speed of light), and

electromagnetic waves on the high-energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2.7.2 NON-IONIZING RADIATION.

Non-ionizing radiation refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry

enough energy per quantum (photon energy) to ionize atoms or molecules-that is, to completely

remove an electron from a radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation. This non-ionizing

radiation is also known as radiofrequency waves (RF). Examples are emission from devices such

as mobile phones, microwaves ovens, (G.S.M) base station, radar installations, and

telecommunication and broadcast facilities.

2.8 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

Radiation interactions that produce biological changes are classified as either direct or

indirect. The change takes place by direct action if a biological macromolecule such as DNA,

RNA, or protein becomes ionized or excited by an ionizing particle or photon passing through or

near them (Bushberg et al, 2001).

Indirect effects are the result of radiation interactions within the medium which create reactive

chemical compound that in turn interact with the target molecule, because the majority of living

37
systems is composed of water, the vast majority of radiation-induced damage from medical

irradiation is mediated through indirect action on water molecules. The absorption of radiation

by a water molecule results in the formation of reactive radicals. The free radicals may inactivate

cellular mechanisms directly or via damage to genetic material, specifically DNA and RNA,

when they are the primary cause of biological damage from low linear energy transfer (LET)

radiation (Bush berg et al, 2001).

Most of the time damage to the DNA caused by radiation is repaired by specialized molecular

mechanisms, especially if the damage is single strand damage or the cell may survive with a

mutation in its genetic code, if the damage is double strand damage. This mutated cell could

possibly cause unregulated cell division, which could lead to a cancerous tumour. In case of the

living cells irradiated with high amount of radiation doses, the damage to these cells will be high.

When a sufficient number of cells are killed, tissue reactions such as erythema (reddening of the

skin), epilating (hair loss), cataracts and infertility may occur (Bush berg et al, 2001).

38
Figure 2.1: Physical and Biological response to ionizing radiation (Bush berg et al, 2001)

Organs and tissues are distributed differently and are more susceptible to radiation during

childhood, Propagation of cellular and sub cellular Levels during growth periods is likely to be

associated with increased susceptibility, Because of long life expectancy for children the

possibility for tumour to develop is manifest while they are alive. On the other hand, adult

patients may have died from other causes before the manifestation of induced cancers (Arogunjo

et al 2004).

39
2.9 SOURCE OF RADIATION.

All living creatures have been, and are still being, exposed to radiation (USNRC, 2003). In this

write up, there are two types of sources of radiation, which are: Natural Background Radiation

and Man-Made Sources of Radiation

2.9.1 Natural Background Radiation

Natural background radiation comes, from three sources:

 Cosmic Radiation

 Terrestrial Radiation

 Internal Radiation

2.9.1.1 COSMIC RADIATION

The earth and all living things on it are constantly bombarded by radiation from space,

similar to a steady drizzle of rain. Charged particles from the sun and stars interact with the

earth's atmosphere and magnetic field to produce a shower of radiation, typically beta and

gamma radiation. The dose from cosmic radiation varies in different parts of the world due to

differences in elevation and to the effects of the earth's magnetic field (UNSCEAR, 2000).

2.9.1.2 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

The earth itself is a source of terrestrial radiation. Radioactive materials including uranium,

thorium, and radium] exist naturally in the soil and rock. Essentially all air contains radon,

40
which is responsible for most of the dose that Americans receive each year from natural

background sources. In addition, water contains small amounts of dissolved uranium and

thorium, and all organic (both plant and animal) contains radioactive carbon and potassium.

The dose from terrestrial sources varies in different parts of the world, but locations with

higher soil concentrations of uranium and thorium generally have higher doses. (USNRC,

2003).

The major isotopes of concern for terrestrial radiation are uranium and the decay products of

uranium, such as .thorium, radium, and radon (USNRC, 2003).

2.9.1.3 INTERNAL RADIATION

In addition to the cosmic and terrestrial sources, all people also have radioactive potassium-40,

carbon- 14, lead-210, and other isotopes inside their bodies from birth. The variation in dose

from one person to another is not as great as the variation in dose from cosmic and terrestrial

sources, the average annual dose to a person from internal radioactive material is about 40

milligrams’/year (Arogunjo, el al., 2004).

2.9.2 MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION

Although all people are exposed to natural sources of radiation, there are two distinct

groups exposed to man-made radiation sources. These two groups are: Members of the public

exposure and occupationally exposed individuals

41
2.9.2.1 MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC EXPOSURE

A member of the public exposure is defined as any individual except when that individual is

receiving an occupational dose (USNRC, 2003). By far, the most significant source of man-made

radiation exposure to the public is from medical procedures, such as diagnostic X-rays, nuclear

medicine, and radiation therapy. Some of the major isotopes would be.1-131, Co-60, Ir-192, Cs-

137, and others (USNRC. 2003).

2.9.2.2 OCCUPATIONALLY EXPOSED INDIVIDUALS

Occupational dose is the dose .received by an individual in the course of employment in

which the individual's assigned duties .involve exposure to radiation or to radioactive material.

This does not include the dose received from background radiation, from any medical

administration the individual has received, from exposure to individuals administered radioactive

materials from voluntary participation in medical research programs, or as a member of the

public (USNRC, 2003).

2.10 RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION

The radioactive pollution of the environment is majorly from the activities of the solar

system (cosmic) and the primordial radionuclide interaction in the earth’s crust (terrestrial)

(USNRC, 2003). The sources of environmental radiation are both natural and manmade. Many

radioactive elements such as radium 224, uranium 235, thorium 232, radon 222, potassium 40

and carbon 14 occur in rocks, soil and water. Air is radioactively polluted by man’s activities

42
during the atmospheric testing of nuclear bomb, malfunctioning of nuclear plants and the mining

of uranium ore (Arogunjo et al 2004).

2.11 RADIOACTIVE LAND POLLUTION.

The steady rise in the use of Isotopes and nuclear technology in various purposed in human

life both agro-industrial military, medical and may increase the chances of radioactive

contamination (normal uses or after accidents). That increases the exposure of ionizing

radiation (external or internal) which raise awareness in increasing the need to know how to

assess that exposure control of imported foodstuffs to ensure that they are not contaminated

with radioactive materials is very important.

Studies on radiation level and radionuclide distribution in the environment provide vital

radiological baseline information such information is essential in understanding human exposure

from natural and man-made resources of radiation and necessary in establishing rules and

regulations relating to radiation protection. Measurements of radioactivity in environment and

Rice are extremely important for controlling radiation levels to which mankind is direct and

indirectly exposed. Another important fact is that importing contaminated rice from any region

that suffers a nuclear accident can be indirectly affect people health around can be indirectly

affect people health around the world (Melquiades et al., 2004).

43
2.12 RADIATION AND HEALTH

In general, the amount and duration of radiation exposure affects the severity or type of health

effect. There are two broad categories of health effects: stochastic and non-stochastic (USEPA,

2011).

2.12.1 STOCHASTIC HEALTH EFFECTS

Stochastic effects are associated with long-term, low-level (chronic) exposure to radiation.

("Stochastic" refers to the likelihood that something will happen.) Increased levels of exposure

make these health effects more likely to occur, but do not influence the type or severity of the

effect. (Arogunjo, et al., 2004).

Cancer is considered by most people the primary health effect from radiation exposure.

Simply cancer is defined as the uncontrolled growth of cells. Ordinarily, natural processes

control the rate at which cells grow and replace themselves. They also control the body's

processes for repairing or replacing damaged tissue, Damage occurring at the cellular or

molecular level, can disrupt the control' processes, permitting the uncontrolled growth of cells

cancer This is why ionizing radiation's ability to break chemical bonds in atoms and molecules

makes it such a potent carcinogen (USEPA, 2011).

Other stochastic effects of Radiation can cause changes in DNA, the "blueprints" that ensure

cell repair and replacement produces a perfect cop of the original cell, Changes in DNA are

called mutations. Sometimes the body fails to repair these mutations or even create mutations

during repair; the mutations can be teratogenic or genetic. Teratogenic mutations are caused by

44
exposure of the foetus in the uterus and affect only the individual who was exposed. Genetic

mutations are passed on to offspring (Arogunjo, et al., 2004).

2.12.2 NON-STOCHASTIC HEALTH EFFECTS

Non-stochastic effects appear in cases of exposure to high levels of radiation, and become more

severe as the exposure increases, Short-term, high-level exposure is referred to as 'acute'

exposure (USEPA, 2012).

Many non-cancerous health effects of radiation are non-stochastic. Unlike cancer, health effects

from 'acute' exposure to radiation usually appear quickly. Acute health effects include burns and

radiation sickness. Radiation sickness is also called 'radiation poisoning.' It can cause premature

aging or even death. If the dose is fatal, death usually occurs within two months. The symptoms

of radiation sickness include: nausea, weakness, hair loss, skin burns or diminished organ

function (USEPA, 2012).

2.13 RADIATION PROTECTION AGAINST EXPOSURE

Man benefit greatly from the use of X-rays, radioisotopes and fissionable materials in

medicine, industry, research 'and power generation. However the realization of these gains

entails the exposure of person to radiation in the procurement and normal use of sources as well

as from accidents that occur (Shanthi, et al, 2009).

Since any radiation exposure involves some risks to the individuals involved, the levels of

exposure should be worth the result that is achieved. Hence, the objective of radiation protection

is to balance the risks and benefits from activities that involve use ionized radiation. Radiation

45
protection rules have the purpose to protect individuals and the population as a whole from the

harmful effects of radiation. But this is applicable only to man-made radiation sources excluding

the natural component of radiation (Background radiation) (Shanthi, et al, 2009).

Specific radiation protection standards recommended by internationally recognized bodies

such as International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) and National Council on

Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRM) have been applied to the peaceful uses of

atomic energy. The theory is that these activities justify the exposure limits being specified

(Bichi, 2016).

2.14 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LEVELS (ALARA) PRINCIPLE

ALARA simply means as low as reasonably achieved, the ALARA concept gives primary

importance to the principle that exposures should always be kept as low as practicable (IAEA,

2000).

2.15 CONTROLLING THE EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARD

External radiation hazard can be controlled or minimized, through the use of three methods

namely;

 Control of Exposure Time

 Control of Distance

 Shielding Control

46
2.15.1 Control of Exposure Time

Dose accumulated by a person working in an area having particular dose rate is directly

proportional to the amount of time he spends in the area. So he can limit the dose by limiting the

time spent in the area (Bichi, 2016):

Dose = dose rate x time (2.15)

2.15.2 Control of Distance

Distance between radiation source and the worker is another factor that can be controlled in

order to limit exposure or dose to the worker. There is an inverse relation between the distance r

from source to detector and the dose D such that

1 k
D D
r r (2.16)

Where k is a constant for a particular source

The inverse square law that relate D and r as per is

D1r12  D2 r22 (2.17)

2.15.3 Shielding Control

Shielding is another method used to limit or minimize radiation dose. The type of shielding

required depends on the type of radiation source, the activity of the source and the dose rate

47
which is acceptable outside the shielding materials (Bichi, 2016).

Alpha particles are least penetrating such that they can be stopped by skin layer. So alpha does

not require any shielding. Beta radiation is more penetrating than alpha. Thus in the 1 –l0MeV

energy range, 'beta radiation requires shielding of up to 10mm of paper for complete absorption.

Gamma and X-radiation are attenuated exponentially when they pass through any materials. The

dose rate due to such radiation emerging from a shield can be written as

Dt  D0e  t (2.18)

Where D0 is the dose rate without shielding, Dt is the dose rate with shielding of thickness t, and

μ is the linear absorption coefficient of the material for the shield. The linear absorption

coefficient μ is a function of the type of material used for the shield and also for the energy of the

incident photons. It is usually expressed in m-1or mm-1 (Bichi, 2016).

2.16 RADIATION EFFECT ON HUMANS.

Every inhabitant of planet earth is constantly exposed to naturally occurring ionizing

radiation called background radiation. Sources of background radiation include cosmic rays from

the sun and stars, naturally occurring radioactive materials in rocks and soil, radionuclide

normally incorporated into our body’s tissue and randon and its product we inhale, we are also

exposed to ionizing radiation from man-made sources, mostly through medical procedures like

X-ray diagnostics.

48
Radiation therapy is usually targeted only to the affected tissues, only about 12% of all the

cancers that have developed among those among those survivors are estimated to be related to

the affected tissues. Ionizing radiation can cause important changes in our cell by breaking the

electron bond that holds molecule together. For example radiation can damage our genetic

materials (DNA). But the cells also have several mechanisms to repair the damage done to the

DNA by the radiation. Potential biological effects depend on how much and how fast a

radiation dose is received.

An acute radiation dose (a large dose delivered during a short period of time) may result in

effects which are observable within a period of hours to weeks. A chronic dose is a relatively

small amount of radiation received over a long period of time. The body is better equipped to

tolerate a chronic dose than an acute dose as the cells need time to repair themselves. Radiation

effects are also classified in two ways namely Somatic and Genetic effects.

2.16.1 Somatic Effects.

Somatic effect appears in the exposed person, the delayed somatic effects have a potential

for the development of cancer and cataracts. Somatic effects of radiation include skin burns,

vomiting, and hair loss. Temporary sterility in men and blood changes, chronic somatic effect

include the development of eye cataract and cancers.

2.16.2 Genetic Effect

The second class effects, namely genetic or heritable effects appears in the future

generations of the exposed person as a result of radiation damage to the reproductive cells, but

49
risks from genetic effects in humans are seen to be considerably smaller than the risk for

somatic effects. Radium causes bone weakening, cranial and nasal tumours. Other diseases

caused by radioactivity exposure include lung cancer, pancreas, hepatic, bone, skin, kidney

cancers, cataracts, sterility, atrophy of the kidney and leukaemia (Bichi, 2016).

2.17 GENERAL EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVITY ON THE HUMAN BODY

Every inhabitant on this planet is constantly exposed to naturally occurring ionizing radiation

called background radiation. Sources of background radiation include cosmic rays from the

Sun and stars, naturally occurring radioactive materials in rocks and soil, radionuclides

normally incorporated into our body’s tissues, and radon and its products, which we inhale.

We are also exposed to ionizing radiation from man-made sources, mostly through medical

procedures like X-ray diagnostics.

Radiation therapy is usually targeted only to the affected tissues. Only about 12% of all

the cancers that have developed among those survivors are estimated to be related to radiation.

Ionizing radiation can cause important changes in our cells by breaking the electron bonds that

hold molecules together. For example, radiation can damage our genetic material (DNA).

Although radioactive waste has known negative effects on humans and other animals, no

substantial scientific proof of bad effects on the ocean and marine life has been found. Nuclear

wastes which are Radioactive, is a potential harbinger of radioactive exposure to humans through

many channels.

50
 Exposure to radioactive waste may cause serious harm or death. In humans, a dose of 1

Sievert carries a 5.5% risk of developing cancer, and this risk is assumed to be linearly

proportional to dose even for low doses. Ionizing radiation causes deletions in chromosomes. If a

developing organism such as an unborn child is irradiated, it is possible a birth defect may be

induced, but it is unlikely this defect will be in a gamete or a gamete-forming cell.

The incidence of radiation-induced mutations in humans is small, as in most mammals,

because of natural cellular-repair mechanisms, many just now coming to light. These

mechanisms range from DNA, mRNA and protein repair, to internal lysosomic digestion of

defective proteins, and even induced cell suicide apoptosis. The routes are direct exposure to

materials that are radioactive, inhalation and ingestion of such materials through the air that one

breathes or food that one consumes. The quantum of exposure (dose × duration of exposure)

decides the deleterious effects that may result. Exposure may occur to particular organs locally

or to the whole body, sufficiently high exposure can lead to cancer. The radio-toxicity of a

particular radionuclide is quantified in terms of what is referred to as ‘potential hazard index’

that is defined in terms of the nuclide availability, its activity, maximum permissible intake

annually and its half-life. This depends on a variety of factors like physical half-life, biological

half-life, sensitivity of the organ or tissue where the nuclide is likely to concentrate, ionizing

power of the radiation from the nuclide that depends on the energy of the radiation emitted from

the radionuclide, etc.(Effect of radiation on the human body, Wikipedia, 2009).

51
Figure 2.2: The diagram shows different level of radioactive dosage and how they
can affect the human body

2.18 RADIATION DETECTION INSTRUMENTS

There are many different types of instruments available for measuring ionizing radiation in

samples. Some of the instruments include: gas filled detectors (ionization chamber counters,

proportional counters, and Geiger-Muller counters): scintillation counters; and solid state

52
detectors (semi-conductor detectors). The basic requirement of the instruments is that, the

radiation interacts with the detector in such a manner that the magnitude of the instrument's

response is proportional to the radiation effect or the radiation property being measured (IAEA,

2000). For the detector to respond, the radiation must have undergone one of the following

interactions: Photoelectric effect Compton scattering Pair production.

The result of the interaction in a detector is the appearance of a given amount of electric charge

within the detector's active volume. Ionizing radiation (gamma rays) interacts with atoms in the

sensitive volume of the detector to produce electrons by ionization, the collection of the electrons

leads to an output pulse (signal). The energy required to produce ionization event in semi-

conductor detectors is 3.5 eV contrast to the gas filled detectors which requires a mean high

energy of 30 – 35 eV (USEPA 2012).

2.19 GAMMA RAY SPECTROSCOPY

Gamma ray spectrometry (GRS) provides a fast, multi elemental and non- destructive

method of radioactivity measurement. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples can be

performed by gamma-ray spectrometry systems in which a qualitative measurement identifies

the radionuclide of interest from the energies and intensities of the peaks present in the spectrum

under investigation. In a quantitative measurement, the activities of radionuclide of interests are

determined. Therefore, the accurate determination of the detector efficiency is arguably the most

important parameter when gamma-ray spectrometry is used for radionuclide measurement.

53
 Gamma ray spectroscopy is an extremely important method in environmental radioactivity

(IAEA, 2003). A gamma-ray photon or an x-ray is uncharged and does not create direct

ionization or excitation of material through which it passes. The detection of gamma-rays is

therefore critically dependent on causing the gamma-ray photon to undergo an interaction

with detector material transferring all or part of the energy to an electron in the absorbing

material. Therefore, in order for a detector to serve as a gamma-ray spectrometer, it must

carry out two distinct functions. First, it must act as a conversion medium in which incident

gamma rays have a reasonable probability of interacting to yield one or more secondary

electrons. Secondly, it must function as a conventional detector for these secondary electrons

(Mlwilo, et al, 2007).

2.20 GAMMA RAY EMISSION

Gamma ray is emitted by excited nuclei while they de-excite to lower-lying nuclear levels.

They are produced as a result of beta decay of a parent radionuclide causing a daughter

radionuclide in an excited state leading to further decays and the emission of gamma rays. The

gamma ray emission caused by de-excitation takes place with energy equal to the change in

energy state of the nuclear state. Therefore, gamma ray appears with the half-life of the parent

beta decay and with energy that reflects the daughter nucleus energy level structure. Gamma ray

sources due to beta decay are generally limited to energies below 2.8 MeV (IAEA 2000).Gamma

rays are the only member of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that is caused from the

emission of unstable nuclei (IAEA 2000). It is possible for gamma ray to produce ionization and

54
penetrate through matter. Theoretically, there is no enough shielding that could be provided to

entirely stop any gamma ray (IAEA 2000).

2.21 PRINCIPLES OF GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY WITH GERMANIUM

DETECTORS.

Germanium (Ge) detectors like other semiconductor detectors contain certain levels of

impurities. However, the impurity levels in high purity Ge have been largely reduced by

techniques such as zone refining in such a way that an impurity level of only about 1010

atoms /cm3 still exists. (If the net concentration favours acceptor atoms (like Al) then the

material is mildly p-type called π-type). The coaxial configuration is commonly used in HPGe

detector construction (Bichi, 2016).

The crystal is cut as a cylinder and a part of the central core is removed. The rectifying

contact is fabricated at the outer cylindrical surface by creating a heavily doped layer of the

opposite type (n type, called n+). This is formed by evaporation and diffusion of Lithium (Li)

or by direct implantation of donor atoms using an accelerator. The n-p junction is reverse-

biased and forms the detector active depletion region. It also serves as a blocking contact,

since it is difficult to inject electrons from the p side because holes are the majority carrier and

electrons are scarce. Without blocking the contacts the steady-state leakage current through

the detector bulk material would be so large that discerning the small electric charges created

by the radiation would be impossible.

55
 The opposite electrode is fabricated in contact with the inner cylindrical surface, which is the

blocking contact for majority carriers. Therefore it consists of heavily doped p type layer,

produced by ion implantation of acceptor atoms such as boron. HPGe material may be both

high-purity p or n type over the whole volume of the crystal until reaches the other electrode

and the electric field profile is nearly uniform. When gamma-ray photon interacts with the

detector material, electron-hole pairs are produced and their number is proportional to the

energy imparted to the detector material. Since the electrostatic field exists in the detector

volume, electrons and holes are separated and swept to their respective electrodes.

The motion of the charges induces a current to flow in the external circuit. The integration of

the current pulse gives the produced charge. In Ge crystal, the hole and electron mobility-

lifetime products have similar enough values to ensure that both carriers will reach the

electrodes at the majority of events (Mlwilo, et al, 2007).

2.22 GAMMA RAY INTERACTIONS IN THE DETECTOR

The process of detection of radiation is initiated when an incident gamma ray enters the

crystal. The energy is totally absorbed under ideal conditions. This is accomplished by three

main interactions between gamma ray and the crystal. These interactions are photoelectric

effect Compton scattering, and pair production.

56
2.23 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Photoelectric effect is an interaction between a low energy incident photon and an inner shell

orbital electron. The energy of the incident photon is totally absorbed and used to eject the

orbital electron from its orbital shell. This electron is known as photoelectron. This happens if

the incident photon exceeds the binding energy of the electron. The ejected electron leaves a

vacancy in the inner orbital shell causing the emission of characteristic x-rays or auger

electron when an outer shell electron full fills this vacancy (Bichi, 2016).

2.24 COMPTON SCATTERING

The interaction process of Compton scattering takes place between the incident gamma ray

photon and an electron in the detector material. The incoming gamma ray photon is deflected

through an angle Ө with respect to its original direction and hence the photon transfers part of its

energy and momentum to a free electron, creating a recoil electron. Since all angles of scattering

are possible, the energy transferred 9 to the electron can vary from zero to a large fraction of the

gamma ray energy (Bichi, 2016).

2.25 PAIR PRODUCTION

This interaction mechanism occurs in the intense electric field near the protons of the nuclei

in the absorbing medium (detector) and corresponds to the creation of an electron-positron

pair at the point of complete annihilation of the incident gamma-ray photon. For this process

to take place, the gamma ray energy should exceed twice the rest mass energy of the electron

57
(1.022MeV). Both positron and electron disappear and are replaced by two annihilation

photons of energy m0c2 (0.511MeV) each emitted back to back (Shanthi, et al, 2009).

2.26 SYSTEM CALIBRATION

The calibration of an analytical system is one of the most important tasks required of any

analyst. If the calibration is incorrect then all the result produced will be inaccurate. The

essential requirements of a calibration are to establish an energy / efficiency / resolution

relationship. For gamma ray measurement with germanium detector.

58
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 STUDY AREA.

The studied was carry out in Kano state after collection of all the samples of Rice from necessary

location such as Kura, Sumaila, Thailand brand ,Warawa, Tudun Wada, Riruwai-Doguwa,

Funtua- Katsina, Hadejia- Jigawa , Gusau- Zamfara, Zaria-Kaduna, Birnin Kebbi-Kebbi and

India brand Samples.

3.2 MATERIALS.

The Materials that will be used for the research include

i. Rice Samples

ii. Mechanical Blender with Stainless Steel blades

iii. Container

iv. HPGe P-Type Detector

3.3 SAMPLE COLLECTION.

Twelve samples of rice are collected from the locations as mentioned above; the collection

of samples is done Between November 2019 to March 2020. To ensure a comprehensive and a

wide-spread Representation, 10 different brands that originated from 10 different Sources in

59
Nigeria are selected. Since rice is produced locally in Kano, at least 5 samples were collected

from our local sources in Kano, such as Warawa, Sumaila, Tudun Wada, Kura, Riruwai-

Doguwa, 7 samples are from different locations. 5 samples are collected from our Neighbouring

state that produced rice locally from the state are Jigawa, Katsina, Zamfara, Kaduna and Kebbi

State While the remaining 2 samples were collected from our Foreign rice Product such as India

and Thailand.

3.4 SAMPLE PREPARATION.

Sampling and sample preparation were conducted according to guidelines. Samples are

taken to centre for energy research and training; Ahmadu Bello University Zaria (CERT) may

not be in the paper physical form for analysis therefore it required some process before taking to

the Lab. Each Sample was processed by grinding it into powder state using Mechanical Blender

with Stainless Steel blades and place in a Marinilli beaker. Samples are put in air tight container;

the sample-filled containers were kept for a period of at least 4 weeks to reach secular

equilibrium between parent radionuclides and their daughters before radiometric analysis. The

samples filled containers were marked individually with identification parameters. For activity

concentration measurement, 800 grams of each sample are transported to the laboratory. Below

are pictures of sample used for the purpose of the research.

3.5 INSTRUMENTATION

In the course of this Project different materials and equipment will be used to achieve the

desired objectives of the research. These will include Blender for grinding the samples before

60
analysis, and gamma-spectrometer (sodium iodide detector) will be used to carry out the

analysis.

3.5.1 Blender

This instrument would be used for grinding samples into powder form, so they can be

prepared and taken to the lab.

3.5.2 The Gamma Ray Spectrometer (Sodium Iodide Detector)

The main purpose of employing sodium iodide detector is to evaluate both specific activity

contributions of the various radionuclides present in the samples. There are many gamma

radiation detectors design to measure radiation energy deposited in any medium, these include

scintillation detector for example, sodium iodide activated with thallium Nal (TI), gas filled

detectors (ionization chambers, proportional counters, Gieger-muller (GM) counter and

semiconductors detectors (pure silicon (SI), lithium drifted silicon Si (Li), high purity

germanium (HPGe) and lithium-drifted germanium Ge (Li) as well as others, such as cloud

chamber, nuclear-track detector, spark chambers, neutron detector and Cerenkov counter. The

scintillation Na (TI) detectors are widely used because of their relatively low cost and high

efficiency but their energy resolution is poor. The sample analysis was carried out by gamma ray

spectrometer using a sodium iodide Na (TI) detector.

The samples were each placed on the detector connected to match gamma energies to the

library of possible isotopes. The analysis was carried out using a 76x76mm NaI (Tl) detector

crystal optically coupled to a photomultiplier tube (PMT). The assembly has a preamplifier

61
incorporated into it and a 1 kilovolt external source. The detector is enclosed in a 6cm lead shield

with cadmium and copper sheets. This arrangement is aimed at minimizing the effects of

background and scattered radiation.

The data acquisition software is Maestro by Canberra Nuclear Products. The samples were

measured for a period of 29000 seconds, for each sample. The peak area of each energy in the

spectrum was used to compute the activity concentrations in each sample by the use following

equation:

Cn
C ( Bq/kg )=
Cfk

Where,

C = activity concentration of the radionuclides in the sample given in BqKg-1

Net count
Cn = count rate (counts per second)Count per second=
Live Time

Cfk= Calibration factor of the detecting system.

62
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSUIONS

4.1 RESULTS PRESENTATION.

The results of the radioactivity analysis of different Rice Samples consumed in Kano State are

presented in Tables below.

Table 4.1 Result of the radioactivity analysis Weight of Container + Sample

Weight of
Weight of
Sample Container Weight of
S/N Sample ID Empty Date Sealed
Code + Sample
Container
Sample
1. Kura A1 36.00g 192.22g 156.22g 11-04-2020
2. Sumaila A2 28.14g 197.89g 169.75g 11-04-2020
3. Thailand A3 32.78g 189.43g 156.65g 11-04-2020
4. Warawa A4 33.28g 162.36g 129.08g 11-04-2020
5. Tudun Wada A5 33.75g 203.12g 169.84g 11-04-2020
Riruwai-
6. A6 38.02g 211.32g 173.30g 11-04-2020
Doguwa
Funtua-
7. A7 31.08g 196.62g 165.54g 11-04-2020
Katsina
Hadejia-
8. A8 29.29g 208.28g 178.99g 11-04-2020
Jigawa
Gusau-
9. A9 32.58g 212.68g 180.10g 11-04-2020
Zamfara
10. Zaria-Kaduna A10 33.11g 198.21g 165.10g 11-04-2020
Birnin
11. A 11 30.48g 200.62g 174.14g 11-04-2020
Kebbi-Kebbi
12. India A 12 29.52g 204.42g 174.90g 11-04-2020

63
Table 4.2 Activity concentrations of Radionuclides in rice samples investigated in this study.

S/N Sample ID Sample K-40 Error ± Ra-226 Error ± Th-232 Error ±

Code (Bq/Kg) (Bq/Kg) (Bq/Kg) (Bq/Kg) (Bq/Kg) (Bq/Kg)

1. Kura A1 40.5962 2.0200 41.2040 5.5523 33.6207 6.8966

2. Sumaila A2 144.7342 6.4719 34.4828 2.1917 49.4253 5.8908

3. Thailand A3 166.6993 9.6098 51.4319 4.0912 62.5000 3.5919

4. Warawa A4 104.5098 7.2549 24.4009 2.7762 41.3793 4.4540

5. Tudun Wada A5 143.3333 7.4509 56.0637 3.2145 99.4253 6.5086

6. Riruwai-Doguwa A6 135.0980 5.6863 67.6943 5.5669 121.2643 6.6667

7. Funtua-Katsina A7 109.6078 6.2745 85.4763 7.5979 109.4827 8.4914

8. Hadejia-Jigawa A8 137.6471 7.4706 50.8475 3.0684 118.1034 5.7471

9. Gusau-Zamfara A9 127.2549 7.1765 72.7645 6.0491 99.7126 6.6236

10. Zaria-Kaduna A10 105.6863 4.3137 43.8340 4.0912 104.8994 8.0459

11. Birnin Kebbi-Kebbi A 11 149.6078 8.8235 99.7954 7.8901 69.3966 4.7414

12. India A 12 158.0588 9.4118 104.3250 8.6207 106.8966 7.2989

Table 4.2 Result of radioactivity analysis of Rice samples

CPS = Count per second Bq/Kg = Becquerel per kilogram

Calibration factors: x 10-4

64
Conversion factor: Cps/Bq-kg-1.

Table 4.3 Activity concentrations of Radionuclides with their Errors, Mean Values and

Standard Deviation Values in rice Samples investigated in this study.

S/N Sample ID Sample Code

K-40 Ra-226 Th-232
(Bq/Kg) (Bq/Kg) (Bq/Kg)
1. Kura A1 40.5962±2.0200 41.2040±5.5523 33.6207±6.8966

2. Sumaila A2 144.7342±6.4719 34.4828±2.1917 49.4253±5.8908

3. Thailand A3 166.6993±9.6098 51.4319±4.0912 62.5000±3.5919

4. Warawa A4 104.5098±7.2549 24.4009±2.7762 41.3793±4.4540

5. Tudun Wada A5 143.3333±7.4509 56.0637±3.2145 99.4253±6.5086

6. Riruwai-Doguwa A6 135.0980±5.6863 67.6943±5.5669 121.2643±6.6667

7. Funtua-Katsina A7 109.6078±6.2745 85.4763±7.5979 109.4827±8.4914

8. Hadejia-Jigawa A8 137.6471±7.4706 50.8475±3.0684 118.1034±5.7471

9. Gusau-Zamfara A9 127.2549±7.1765 72.7645±6.0491 99.7126±6.6236

10. Zaria-Kaduna A10 105.6863±4.3137 43.8340±4.0912 104.8994±8.0459

11. Birnin Kebbi-Kebbi A 11 149.6078±8.8235 99.7954±7.8901 69.3966±4.7414

12. India A 12 158.0588±9.4118 104.3250±8.6207 106.8966±7.2989

Mean Values 126.9028 ± 6.8304 61.0267 ± 5.5231 84.6744 ± 6.2464

65
Standard Deviation Values 32.2764 ± 2.0549 24.3458 ± 2.1199 31.6719 ± 1.3873

4.2 DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS.

40-K ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION

180 166.6993
158.0588
144.7342 143.3333 149.6078
160 135.098 137.6471
127.2549
140
104.5098 109.6078 105.6863
120
100
80
60 40.5962
40
20
0
ra ail
a d a
ad
a a na a ra a bi di
a
Ku m ilan r aw guw tsi gaw fa dun eb In
a a W a i m K
Su Th un
o
a-
K -J a Ka i-
W
d ai-D tu ejia u-Z
r ia- ebb
Tu d a
ru
w n
Ha
s Za K
Ri Fu Gu rn
in
Bi

Figure 4.1: 40-K Activity concentration in the Rice sample

3%
10% 10%
10%
11%
Kura
Sumaila
Thailand
7% Warawa
Tudun Wada
7% Riruwai-Doguwa
Funtua-Katsina
Hadejia-Jigawa
8% Gusau-Zamfara
Zaria-Kaduna
7% 9% Birnin Kebbi-Kebbi
9% 9% India

66
Figure 4.2: Percentage Activity concentration of 40-K in the Rice samples.

226-Ra ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION

120 104.325
99.7954
100 85.4763
72.7645
80 67.6943
56.0637
60 51.4319 50.8475
41.204 43.834
34.4828
40 24.4009
20

0
ra a i
ail
a nd aw
a
ad wa in
a wa ar
a na bb di
a
Ku m ila ar
u ts ga f d u e In
u a W og Ka Ji am a
bi
-K
S Th W
dun ai-D u a- ejia- u-Z ia-K b
nt sa r e
Tu ru
w
Ha
d Za K
Ri Fu Gu r nin
Bi
Figure 4.3: 226-Ra Activity concentration in the Rice sample.

14% 5% 7%
6%
3% Kura
14% Sumaila
Thailand
8% Warawa
Tudun Wada
Riruwai-Doguwa
Funtua-Katsina
Hadejia-Jigawa
6% Gusau-Zamfara
9% Zaria-Kaduna
7% Birnin Kebbi-Kebbi
10% 12%
India

67
Figure 4.4: Percentage Activity concentration of 226-Ra in the Rice samples

232-Th ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION

140 121.2643 118.1034

109.4827 106.8966
120 99.4253 99.7126104.8994
100
80 69.3966
62.5
49.42530000000
60 02
33.62070000000 41.3793
01
40
20
0
i
ra ail
a nd aw
a
ad
a wa in
a wa ar
a na bb di
a
Ku m ila ar
u ts
Jig
a f
ad
u e In
Su a W og Ka am bi
-K
Th W
dun ai-D u a- ejia- u-Z ia-K b
nt sa r e
Tu ru
w
Ha
d Za K
Ri Fu Gu r nin
Bi

Figure 4.5: 232-Th Activity concentration in the Rice sample.

7% 3% 6%
11% 5% 4%
Kura
Sumaila
10% Thailand
10% Warawa
Tudun Wada
Riruwai-Doguwa
Funtua-Katsina
Hadejia-Jigawa
Gusau-Zamfara
10% Zaria-Kaduna
12% Birnin Kebbi-Kebbi
12% 11% India

68
Figure 4.6: Percentage Activity concentration of 232-Th in the Rice samples

The results of the radionuclide analysis carried out on the twelve Rice products are

presented in Tables 4.1 to 4.3, the result of the 40K activity concentration presented in Table 4.3

shows a value range of 40.5962 ± 2.0200 Bq/Kg in Kura Rice Sample to 166.6993 ± 9.6098

Bq/Kg in Thailand Rice Sample with a mean value of 126.9028 ± 6.8304 Bq/Kg and Standard

Deviation Value of 32.2764 ± 2.0549. The activity concentration of Radium-226 ranged from

24.4009 ± 2.7762 Bq/Kg in Warawa Rice Sample to 104.3250 ± 8.6207 Bq/Kg in India Rice

Sample with a mean value of 61.0267 ± 5.5231 Bq/Kg and Standard Deviation Value of 24.3458

± 2.1199. While the activity concentration in Thorium- 232 ranged from 33.6207 ± 6.8966Bq/Kg

in Kura Rice Sample to 121.2643 ± 6.6667 Bq/Kg in Riruwai-Doguwa Rice Sample with a mean

value of 84.6744 ± 6.2464 Bq/Kg and Standard Deviation Value of 31.6719 ± 1.3873.

The highest Potassium K-40 activity concentration (166.6993 ± 9.6098 Bq/Kg) obtained in

Thailand Rice Sample may be attributed to over application of fertilizer with high Potassium

content on the Thailand Rice cultivated. The low level of potassium activity concentration

(40.5962± 2.0200 Bq/K) in Kura rice is an indication of good farm practice by the cultivators or

the rice farmers. Radium-226 is highest in India Rice Sample with 104.3250 ± 8.6207 Bq/Kg,

this may also be attributed to high uranium fertilizer application to the India Rice cultivated soil,

although the Radium-226 activity concentration in Warawa Rice sample is low with 24.4009 ±

2.7762 Bq/Kg, this shows that farmers in the area are not using fertilizer with uranium

content.The activity concentration of thorium is high in Riruwai-Doguwa sample with 121.2643

± 6.6667 Bq/Kg because of the high mining activities in the area so taking too much of the rice

69
may lead to borne cancer, and is low in Kura with 33.6207 ± 6.8966Bq/Kg because is not a

mining area and this leads to the area be good in rice farming.

Figures 4.1 to 4.6 show the bar charts of the activity concentration of the three naturally

occurring radionuclides and the corresponding pie chart showing in percentage, the contribution

of each Rice sampled. The bar charts show at a glance the degree of activity concentration in the

various rice samples examined. Figure 4.2 shows the pie chart of the 40-K percentage activity

contribution. It shows that Thailand rice sample has the highest radionuclide contribution of 11%

due to high Potassium content in the fertilizer that they are using, while Kura rice sample has the

lowest contribution of 3% because most of the farmers are using fertilizers with average

Potassium content. In figure 4.4, Birnin-Kebbi and India rice samples contributed highest with

14% of the gross Radium 226 activity and Warawa Rice sample contributed with 3% making the

locally produced rice at Kura to be better for human consumption. In figure 4.6, it is observed

that Riruwai-Doguwa and Hadejia-Jigawa Rice Sample contributed the highest percentage of

12% to the total Thorium activity concentration because of the water that is coming from

different sources and deposited with heavy metals contents in the area which cause thorium to be

high deposited, Kura Rice sample is 3% because the water is not coming from different sources

it has less thorium content.

The overall results show that natural radioactivity concentration in Rice Samples found and

consume in Kano State are low and are within the ICRP recommended limits. However, farm

practices especially fertilizer application in the cultivation of the Rice samples can influence the

70
radionuclide concentration in the Rice, this is outside other environmental and social factor that

can enhance the activity concentration of the Rice sampled.

71
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

5.1 CONCLUSION.

Radioactivity in the twelve samples of Rice consumed within the area of study was

determined using the gamma ray spectrometry. The research work has revealed that there is a

rise in the level of naturally occurring radioactive in some Rice samples.

This preliminary assessment of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) content

in Rice samples within the area of study has indicated a slight rise in activity levels though

within the acceptable limit for the general public. The Rice Samples in this study are

therefore considered to be safe radiological for human consumption.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION.

The safety of every rice products can be examined through this channel. However,

community based awareness programmes on the issue of environmental contamination, its health

impact and possible prevention is recommended. Rice is one of the major sources of Starch to

people within the study area, therefore it is pertinent to ascertain the radiological hazard that may

be incurred by the consumption of these rice samples periodically.

72
 The equivalent rate was not obtained for the selected samples to know if they exceed the

safe limit recommended by international commission on radiological protection (ICRP) or

not. It is therefore recommended that the equivalent dose rate and other radiological risk

parameters be explored to arrive at sound conclusion. Moreover, other analytical methods

of ascertaining the exposure rate from the consumption of the various food stuff are tested.

73
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