Chemistry 1

GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Science Pocket Lesson 1 Pure Substances and Mixtures 1

Science Pocket Lesson 2 Chemical Formula 5
Science Pocket Lesson 3 Consumer Products 9
Science Pocket Lesson 4 Separation Techniques 13
Science Pocket Lesson 5 Isotopes and Their Uses 17
Science Pocket Lesson 6 Writing and Naming Chemical Formula of Compounds 21
Science Pocket Lesson 7 Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula 26
Science Pocket Lesson 8 Balancing Chemical Equations 30
Worksheet 1 Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula 34

Worksheet 2 Balancing Chemical Equations 35
Science Pocket Lesson 9 Determining the Amount of Reactant and Product in a 36
Chemical Reaction
Science Pocket Lesson 10 Percentage Yield and Theoretical Yield of the Reaction 41
Science Pocket Lesson 11 Limiting Reagent 45
Science Pocket Lesson 12 Pressure of a Gas: Units of Pressure 49
Science Pocket Lesson 13 Boyle’s Law (Pressure – Volume Relationship) 53
Science Pocket Lesson 14 Charles’ Law (Volume – Temperature Relationship) 57
Science Pocket Lesson 15 Ideal Gas Law 61
Science Pocket Lesson 16 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure 65
Worksheet 3 Ideal Gas Law 69
Worksheet 4 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure 70
Science Pocket Lesson 17 Gas Stoichiometry 71
Worksheet 5 Part 1: Gas Stoichiometry 75
Worksheet 6 Part 2: Gas Stoichiometry 76
Science Pocket Lesson 18 Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion 77
Worksheet 7 Part 1: Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion 81
Worksheet 8 Part 2: Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion 82
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
CHEMISTRY 1
Pure Substances and Mixtures
INSTANT TASK
NOTE: There are

10 terms you need
to find.
Encircle the term that are related to the pure substances and
mixtures
H E T E R O G E N E O U S H R
O N T P O M B H R O Q C C U S
M F X E M Q O M U C Y E K E D
O N F Y E H H H T O M V N C E
G P F U R E T T A M T F I N C
E U P E S Y V J R P N F J A R
N Y I T A I D S E O G E N T E
E T O F G H O L P U H G I S A
O D J R B G E N M N X S H B S
U K D G C M G A E D U T D U L
S Y J S E R D P T S F J S S I
R N F N W I C S F U U C N E Q
C W T B L R Z I Q B V C Q R U
N S X O D B D S Z C Z X B U I
I S S I Y F E R U T X I M P D
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020 1
DIRECT TALK
Matter, whether it is solid, liquid, or gas is classified

as a pure substance or a mixture.
*Pure substances have uniform and definite composition and further broken
down into elements and compounds. If a pure substance can be broken down
into simpler forms using chemical means, you are dealing with a compound. If
it cannot be simplified, then it is an element. Examples of pure substances
include iron, aluminum, silver and gold.
Element contains only one type of atom, just like that of sulfur and carbon,
and they definitely cannot be broken down into simpler forms of matter. As of
present time, there are 118 known elements. Most of the elements are
naturally occurring while some are synthesized or made in the laboratory.
Compounds contain two or more atoms that are chemically combined, that is,
the elements have undergone a chemical reaction.
One example of a pure substance is

table salt. Table salt is made up
sodium, a soft silvery metal, and chlorine,
a gas with a distinctive odor. Once
sodium and chlorine are combined, they
cannot be separated by any physical
means, which means that, the combining
process is irreversible. The law that
governs the combination of atoms to
form compounds is the….
Law of Constant Composition or Definite Proportion A compound is made up elements

It states that when two or more elements combine to form that are chemically bonded in fixed
a compound, they follow a definite composition and ratios, whereas components of a
proportion. mixture are physically bonded.
2 SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
*Mixtures are physically combined
structures that can be separated into their
original components. A chemical substance is
composed of one type of atom or molecule.
This means that the materials in a mixture retain their
characteristics, or they have no uniform composition. They can be
homogeneous such as solutions or heterogeneous such as
suspensions and colloids.
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

- is a mixture that has uniform - has at least two different of
composition
composition all
all throughout.
throughout matter or visible components.
of homogeneous mixtures of heterogeneous mixtures

is dextrose solution or glucose wherein the particles are not
solution. Different kinds of evenly distributed and can be
dextrose are administered in easily seen by the unaided eye are
hospitals with varying the halo-halo, salad, and even
compositions. Because the mixture liquid medicines or vitamins that
has no definite composition, you shake first before you take.
various amounts of glucose can be
mixed with water to make
dextrose.
Two examples of solution with varying Sand suspension in tap water

compositions but are called by one
name-dextrose
FLASH CHECK
Classify the following as pure substances or mixtures. Separate the pure
substances into elements, compounds and divide the mixtures into
homogeneous and heterogeneous:
QUICK REFERENCES
CONNECT • Exploring the Realms of Science
CHEMISRTY pp. 63-67
Majority of the products that we • General Chemistry 1 pp. 44-51
use every day are mixtures. • https://slideplayer.com/slide/3379782/
• https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Dextros
Examples of these are the compact e_monohydrate_injection_(50%25)
fluorescent lamp (CFL) and the • https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/fda/f
battery. These products, though daDrugXsl.cfm?setid=66713d9c-f404-4ec8-
useful, may contain harmful e053-2a91aa0a620a&type=display
• https://stock.adobe.com/ph/images/milk-
substances. CFLs contain mercury, cartoon-vector-and-illustration-hand-drawn-
a heavy metal that is toxic to living style-isolated-on-white-background/177732079
things, and batteries contain • https://thangalsgold.com/simple-gold-
cadmium (Cd), which is also a toxic necklace-wallpaper-1/
• https://www.quora.com/Is-there-any-
chemical. As a student, how can you chemical-symbol-for-table-salt
help decrease the potential harmful • http://clipart-library.com/diamond-
effects of CFLs? cliparts.html
• http://www.foodtestingindia.com/10295-2/
• http://clipart-library.com/thinking-student-
cliparts.html
CHEMISTRY 1
Chemical Formula
INSTANT TASK
Analyze the picture below then answer the

corresponding guide questions.
Guide Questions
1. What is the picture all about? Why?
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
2. Which substance is being represented by
that structure? (Clue: It is the universal
solvent)
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
3. What is the formula of that universal
solvent? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
DIRECT TALK
What is a Chemical Formula?
If we are to study the meaning of chemical formula, two words are
involved namely chemical and formula.
Chemical refers to a compound or substance while formula refers to the
symbolic expression.
Chemical formula is a symbolic expression of a compound or substance.
It is also described as shorthand of expressing the types and the number
of atoms in a substance.
What is the Meaning of a Given Chemical Formula?

Once again, chemical formula is the shorthand of expressing the
types and the number of atoms in a substance. Example, CO2 is the
chemical formula of a substance known as carbon dioxide. In this
substance based from its formula of CO2, the said substance is made up of
two types of atoms, these are carbon and oxygen. This is because the
formula has two different letters that are written in capital form; C and O.
The capital letter is known as chemical symbol that represents a
certain substance known as element. Let us use the periodic table below to
determine the chemical symbol of the elements.
The chemical formula also tells the number of

each type of atom and the central atom of the Oxygen
Carbon
molecule specifically if it is not a diatomic molecule. atom
The first chemical symbol written at the right side of atom
the formula tells us that it is the central atom, or the Oxygen
atom located at the center of the molecule. So, for atom
CO2, since C is the first letter of the chemical formula,
the C which is the carbon atom is the central atom.
If the letter is the chemical symbol that
subscript
represents an element, the subscript represents the
number of atom in the chemical formula. In CO2, the
subscript of oxygen is 2 while carbon is 1. Even
though there is no number 1 indicated after letter C
in CO2, it is presumed that there is one. So the
number after the letter refers to its number of atoms. Chemical formula
In the chemical formula HCl, there are two elements which

are combined together. These are hydrogen represented by the chemical
symbol of H and chlorine which is represented by the chemical symbol of
Cl.
The l in Cl is not expressed in capital letter. This means that the letter
l is part of Cl and not separate chemical symbol. After determining that HCl
has two combined chemical symbols.
The next step is to identify the number of atoms of each element that
make up the chemical formula. So in HCl, since there is no number written
after H, we presumed that there is only 1 H. The same thing with Cl, there
is only 1 atom of Cl in the formula. In short, there is only 1 Hydrogen atom
and 1 Chlorine atom.
HYDROGEN
CHLORINE
Chemical formula
Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

Table salt Sodium chloride NaCl
Sugar Sucrose C12H22O11
Vinegar Acetic acid CH3COOH
Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3
Ethyl alcohol Ethanol C2H6O
FLASH CHECK
Complete the table
Determine below by filling
thein types
the common names, of
Matching Type. common
Match thename,
descriptions underand number
Column A with
numberand
atoms, of atoms,
the and the type
molecular of atoms
structure of given
the the chemical
given chemical
the correction concepts or words in Column B. Write the letter
name and in
chemical formula. Choose the common names that can
offormula each
the correct item.
answer.
be seen below the table.
Common Column A
Chemical Number Type Column B
of Chemical
_____1.
NameThe amount Name that has of
toatoms
be atom Formula
A. Consumer Products
paid to buy something
Methane CH4
_____2. Refers to ingredient or B. Technology
Paper bag Hydrochloric
constituent Plastic bag Clay pot Steel pot
C. Cost HCl (aq)
acid
_____3. These are goods that are
Sodium D. CompositionNaOCl
bought for consumption
hypochlorite by the
average consumer
Carbon dioxide E. Field
CO2 (S)
_____4. Refers (solid)
to an area or a
sphere Ammonia NH3
Perfume Cologne
Cologne
_____5. Application of Science Silver medal Gold medal
Window cleaner Dry ice Natural gas Muriatic acid Bleach
QUICK REFERENCES
CONNECT
• https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/7890447
97183777570/
Molecular compounds • https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.
▪ When atoms of two or more
org/article/scientists-say-periodic-table
different non-metals combine, a • https://www.tinkercad.com/things/8u
pure substance known as a Npu2zgO9i-simple-co2-molecule-
molecular compound is formed carbon-dioxide
▪ Atoms in molecular compounds are • https://www.sciencephoto.com/media
joined together by covalent /449577/view/hydrochloric-acid-
bonds molecule
▪ In each bond, the atoms share a • https://herdogblog.com/2010/10/28/p
single pair of electrons.
aul-mitchell-pet/
CHEMISTRY 1
Consumer Products
INSTANT TASK

Guide Questions
1. What problem is being addressed by the

invention of the toothpaste?
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
2. What substances are needed to make
toothpaste?
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
DIRECT TALK
What is a Consumer Product?
Consumer product is the final good that is bought by

individuals or households for personal use. In other words,
consumer products are goods that are bought for consumption by
the average consumer.
What are Consumer Products?

Consumer products were made possible because of the interactions
of Science, Technology and Society. The Knowledge (Science) is being
used to come up with the different consumer products (Technology) that
address problems of the community (Society). For example, Bath soap
(Technology) is a consumer product which we usually use to solve a
problem of the Society that is skin infection and poor hygiene.
The Science, Technology and Society are interrelated to one

another because any change in one aspect could trigger also a change to
other aspects. Meaning if Knowledge (Science) will improve due to new
or latest discoveries made by scientists or even an ordinary person
(Society), there will be also a corresponding effect or improvement to
the consumer products (Technology) we use every day.
There are many consumer products available in the market
because of their usefulness. However, the same consumer products
may post danger to anyone. Now, when is a consumer product may
cause danger if it is very useful to us? A consumer product may cause
harm to us for two reasons. First is when we abuse for misuse such
product. A good example of this would be the solvent like rugby that
was invented to use as an adhesive material. But for some instances,
the same solvent is being used by drug dependent. And secondly is if
a consumer product was made intended to cause harm such as gun
powder and poisons.
Let
Let us
us analyze
analyze thethe table
table below
below that
that shows
shows information
information of
of bath
bath
soap in
soap in terms
terms of
of its
its some
some chemical
chemical components,
components, use,use, safeness,
safeness, and
and
cost.
cost.
Some
Chemical
Consumer Level of
Components Use Cost
Product Safeness
(Chemical
Formula)
Bath soap -Glycerine -Cure skin - Generally -Generally
(C3H8O3) Infection safe (External very
use only) affordable
-Sodium hydroxide - Improve price (non
(NaOH) personal branded)
hygiene but
-Titanium dioxide some are
(TiO2) costly if its
branded.
- Triclosan
(C12H7Cl13O2)
Based from the table, some of the chemical components used to

make bath soap are glycerine, sodium hydroxide and titanium
dioxide.
Glycerine is added to soap as emollient and texture enhancer while
sodium hydroxide is added to bath soap as main ingredient.
Titanium dioxide is added to make the bath soap opaque while
Triclosan is added as the active anti-bacterial ingredient.
11
FLASH CHECK
Identify the active or the main ingredient of each item (i.e.,

read the product labels to know the active ingredient). Then,
compare the materials in each set in terms of cost and safety.
Paper bag Plastic bag Clay pot

Clay pot Steel pot
Perfume Cologne
Cologne Silver medal Gold medal
QUICK
REFERENCES
CONNECT • https://www.lazada.com.ph/products/kraft-bags-brown-
paper-bags-size-5-100-pcs-per-pack-i959686521.html
zgshshCountry with the highest online • https://mismulticare.com/plastic-bag/
shoppers in the world • https://www.123rf.com/photo_76085408_brown-clay-
Molecular compounds
CHINA consistently scored pot-and-clay-stove-isolated-on-white-background-it-
made-for-cooking-boiler-and-stove-.html
▪number
When atoms one of intwothree
or more key • https://www.amazon.com/CHEF-Stainless-Heat-Proof-
metrics:
different largest
non-metals market
combine, bya Double-Handles/dp/B07J6T5GJM
• https://www.clipartkey.com/view/JoJRhx_chanel-bottles-
pure substance
revenue ($636.09known as ain
billion eau-de-cartoon-perfume-clip-art/
molecular compound is formed
2018), highest number of • http://clipart-library.com/cologne-cliparts.html
▪ Atoms in molecular compounds are • https://favpng.com/png_view/medal-silver-medal-
online shoppersby (1covalent
joined together billion), bronze-medal-gold-medal-clip-art-png/KP1z0zah
and
bondsthe highest number of • https://www.kissclipart.com/gold-medal-lq6doi/
• https://www.clipartmax.com/middle/m2i8H7K9b1G6N4A
▪cross-border
In each bond, the atoms share online
a
0_soap-cartoon-clip-art-soap-cartoon/
single pair of electrons.
shoppers (149.42 million). • https://www.kindpng.com/imgv/ihwobmJ_toothpaste-
png-free-image-download-transparent-png/
• https://www.clipart.email/clipart/wearing-mask-clipart-
312992.html
• https://www.worldretailscongress.com
CHEMISTRY 1
Separation Techniques
INSTANT TASK
You are taking up Chemistry as your field of expertise, you are about to encounter different
separation techniques. But for now, we will be focusing on simple separation techniques. It is also
interesting to know that performing different separation techniques cannot be done only at your school's
Chemistry laboratory, but, at your home as well. Below is a list of materials that you encounter every
day. Can you suggest ways of separating the mixtures?
Starch and Rice
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__
Sand and Sugar
________________________________________
________________________________________
___________________________
Oil in water
___________________________________
_________________________________
DIRECT TALK
As you have known earlier, components of mixtures are not chemically

bound: thus the components can be separated by physical means using
different separation techniques, depending on the type of the mixture.
*Decantation is a process to separate mixtures by

removing a liquid layer that is free of a precipitate, or the solids
deposited from a solution. The process may be to obtain a
decant (liquid free from particles) or to recover the precipitate.
*Filtration is the process of separating suspended

solid matter from a liquid, by causing the latter to pass
through the pores some substance, called a filter. The
liquid which has passed through the filter is called filtrate.
*Distillation is used in collecting a pure liquid

from a mixture of liquids (or soluble solid and
liquid) through the processes of evaporation and
condensation.
*Chromatography is a separatory technique

where each component or solute is isolated based on
its different affinities (i.e., polarities) to the mobile
phase (i.e., liquid solvent or gas).
*Centrifugation is a gradient-by-density
technique employed to collect a precipitate from a
heterogeneous mixture using the principle of angular
rotation and gravity.
*Sieving is defined as a method in which two or more

components of different sizes are separated from a
mixture on the basis of the difference in their sizes.
Thus, it cannot separate two substances in a mixture
which have the same size.
*Evaporation is a process in which a liquid

changes into gaseous form on heating. Allowing the
liquid to evaporate, leaving the soluble solid behind.
*Condensation is the process by which
water vapor in the air is changed into liquid
water.
*Magnetism is the process of separating

components of mixtures by using magnets to
attract magnetic materials. The process that is used
for magnetic material with those who are magnetic.
*Crystallization is also a chemical solid-

liquid separation technique, in which mass
transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to
a pure solid crystalline phase occurs.
*Extraction in chemistry is a separation

process consisting in the separation of a
substance from a matrix.
PROCEDURE:
1. Pour rubbing alcohol into a plastic cup to a

depth of 1 cm. cover the cup with plastic
ACTIVITY: 1 wrap.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 2. Draw a horizontal line with the marking

pen 2 cm from one end of a strip of paper.
PURPOSE:
3. Tape the filter paper strip by the unmarked
Separate a mixture by paper chromatography end to the center of a pencil so that the strip
hangs down when the pencil is held
MATERIALS:
horizontal.
Filter paper, marking pens, clear plastic
4. Remove the plastic wrap from the cup.
drinking cups, clear plastic wrap, clear plastic
Rest the pencil on the rim of the cup so that
tape, rubbing alcohol, water, pencil, ruler
the lower end of the filter paper strips is just
in contact with the rubbing alcohol. Carefully,
ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS:
cover the top of the cup with plastic wrap.
1. How do you know that the ink was a Observe for 15 minutes.
mixture?
5. If time permits, use different brands and
2. Approximately how far did the rubbing different colors of pens and use water in
alcohol travel up the paper in 15 minutes? place of rubbing alcohol.
Separation techniques aim to collect pure substances from

various mixtures. Components of mixtures are separated so we
can use the substances for other purposes.
15
F LFLASH
ASH C CHECK
HECK
Filtering removes insoluble particles from water (particles that do not
dissolve). Salt is soluble in water, but sand is insoluble (it is not
soluble). The water in a salt solution will evaporate if it is uncovered.
Rock salt is a mixture of salt and sand.
1. Separating sand and water could be done through

Using the information above and the equipment shown below,
_______________.
explain how you would separate the salt in rock from its insoluble parts.
You2.may
_______________involves
add other equipment that theis used centrifuge
not shown here. to
Youspeed up the
may want to
settling
draw a flowofchart
the precipitate
to show theusing centrifugal
steps or rotating motion.
in your procedure.
3. The separation technique that takes advantage of different boiling
points in called________________
4. The best way to decompose water into oxygen and hydrogen is
by_______________
5. The sugar in sugar solution can be removed by_______________.
Beaker,
funnel Filter paper stirring rod Sand
QUICK
REFERENCES
CONNECT • Exploring the Realms of Science CHEMISRTY pp. 72-74
• General Chemistry 1 pp. 51-56
• https://www.shutterstock.com/search/siev
• https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-
7/separating-mixtures/07-separating-mixtures?id=toc-id-4
• https://www.slideshare.net/flamerock/ways-of-separating-
mixtures-26534628
• https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/706
46/mod_page/content/1/CHE_Pack_4.pdf
• https://byjus.com/chemistry/decantation/
Singapore currently uses reverse osmosis • https://keystagewiki.com/index.php/Filtrate
• https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-7/separating-
for its desalination, which uses about 3.5 mixtures/07-separating-mixtures?id=toc-id-4
• https://www.slideshare.net/flamerock/ways-of-separating-
kWh/m3 of energy to make seawater mixtures-26534628
drinkable. This process produces pure • https://www.123rf.com/photo_127964531_stock-vector-chemical-
extraction-of-organic-compound-from-water-solution-to-organic-
drinking water by pushing seawater solvent-diagram-educational-c.html
• https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade7/separating
through membranes to remove dissolved
-mixtures/07-separating-mixtures
salts and minerals. • https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/231724343299060846/?fbclid=I
wAR2x7A9clIgvW7mbEeHmLcOHvkMprkly_OTSysDM6Ffqymn_
mZeiH6iYoiA
•
•
16
CHEMISTRY 1
Isotopes and Their Uses
INSTANT TASK
For of
For each each
the of the following
following isotopes,isotopes, write the
write the number of protons,
number of protons,
neutronsneutrons and electrons.
and electrons.
▪ CHROMIUM 58 ▪ CHROMIUM 63
▪ CHROMIUM 58 ▪ CHROMIUM 63
# Protons
# Protons ##Protons
Protons
_____24_____
_____24_____ ____________
____________
# Neutrons
# Neutrons ##Neutrons
Neutrons
_____34_____
_____32_____ ____________
____________
# Electrons
# Electrons ##Electrons
Electrons
_____24_____
_____24_____ ____________
____________
__ ___ __
▪ SODIUM 12 ▪ SODIUM 20
▪ SODIUM 23 12
▪ SODIUM ▪ ▪SODIUM
SODIUM24 20
# #Protons
Protons ##Protons
Protons
# Protons ____________ # Protons
_____________ ____________
_____________
# ____________
Neutrons ____________
# Neutrons
# Neutrons ##Neutrons
Neutrons
____________
_____________ # Neutrons
____________
____________ _____________
# #Electrons
Electrons # ____________
Electrons
# Electrons # Electrons
____________
_____________ # Electrons
____________
____________ _____________
_ ____________
DIRECT TALK
What are Isotopes?

The word isotope was derived from Greek words "isos" and "topos" which
means "the same place". Isotopes variants of an element are still found in
the same location in the periodic table of elements. This term was introduced
by British Chemist Frederick Soddy.
What is the Nature of Isotopes?

Isotopes are atoms of the same elements that have the same number of
protons but different in the number of neutrons. For example, the most
common oxygen isotope has 8 neutrons inside the nucleus, but other isotopes
have 9 or 10 neutrons.
16 No. of Proton - 8
No. of Neutron - 8 No. of Neutron - 9 No. of Neutron - 10
Mass number - 16 Mass number - 17 Mass number - 18
8 8 8
Isotopes of Oxygen
To identify a specific isotope of an element, write the name of the element
followed by a hyphen and the mass number of the isotope. Isotopes of
oxygen are presented below.
➢ Oxygen - 16 isotope with the mass number of 16

RECALL: The mass number is

the sum of the number of
protons and number of
neutrons. Isotopes have the same
atomic number so it follows that the
number of protons will not change.
Therefore, the difference in the
mass number is due to the
difference in the number of
neutrons.
can be classified as stable or unstable. Stable isotopes are
isotopes that do not undergo radioactivity and do not disintegrate. Thus,
they are abundant in nature. On the other hand, unstable isotopes are
those that exhibit radioactivity. They can be natural or artificial.
Some application of different isotopes are shown below. The

isotopes specified in the table can be considered unstable,
because they disintegrate over a span of time.
Isotope Symbol Isotope name Application

3 Radio labeling of organic compounds
H Tritium
and in archaeological dating
11
C Carbon - 11 Positron emission tomography
14 Radio labeling of organic compounds
C Carbon - 14
and in archaeological dating
24 Obstruction testing in circulatory
Na Sodium - 24
system
32
P Phosphorus - 32 Blood volume determination
51 Measuring of information and lifetime
Cr Chromium - 51
of erythrocytes
60
Co Cobalt - 60 Radiotherapy for cancer treatment
131 Measuring of thyroid activity and
I Iodine -131
treatment of thyroid disorders
153
Gd Gadolinium -153 Measuring the density of bones
226
Ra Radium -226 Radiotherapy for cancer treatment
235 Production of nuclear reactors and
U Uranium - 235
weaponry
238
U Uranium - 238 Archaeological dating
192
Ir Iridium - 192 Industrial tracer
241
Am Americium - 241 Smoke detectors
BIG IDEAS
Isotopes commonly undergo radioactive decay due to
nuclear stability.
19
F LFLASH
ASH C HECK
CHECK
Magnesium has three isotopes with mass numbers 24,

25, and 26.
(a) Write the complete chemical symbol (superscript and

subscript) for each
(b) How many neutrons are in an atom of each isotope?
QUICK REFERENCES
CHEMISRTY pp. 94-96
• https://www.shutterstock.com/search/cartoo
Banana is rich in potassium!
n+banana+tree
What maybe not everyone knows
• https://www.qsstudy.com/chemistry/what-
is that potassium in nature is is-isotopes
present with three isotopes: 39K • https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-
(93.3%), 40K (0.0117%) and 41K vector/periodic-table-element-chromium-
(6.7%). 40K potassium is unstable icon-vector-20570427
and decades in bet mode. This • https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-
vector/periodic-table-element-sodium-icon-
means that potassium present in
vector-20565905
nature even that contained in • https://slideplayer.com/slide/2409895/
bananas (or in our body) is slightly • https://www.verywellhealth.com/chest-x-
radioactive! rays-for-lung-cancer-diagnosis-4107046
CHEMISTRY 1
Writing and Naming the Chemical
Formula of Compounds
INSTANT TASK
Analyze the figures below then answer the

BF3
Figure A Figure B
Guide Questions
1. What are the two figures all about?
_____________________________________________________
2. What chemical symbols do you see in both figures?
_____________________________________________________
3. How is figure A different from figure B?
_____________________________________________________
21
DIRECT TALK
Chemical Formula, Chemical Name and
Structural Formula
*Chemical formula - is defined as shorthand of expressing the
types and the number of atoms in a substance.
*Chemical name - is the scientific name given to a compound in
accordance with the nomenclature system developed by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
*Structural formula - is a graphical representation of the molecular
structure showing how the atoms are possibly arranged in the real three-
dimensional space.
How to write the Chemical Formula, Chemical Name and
Structural Formula of Compounds?
Compound
This is a substance which is made up of two or more atoms joined
together by a chemical bond. Compounds may be classified into two based
from the nature of the atoms that make up them, and the type of
intramolecular bond that exist between atoms. The two classification of
compounds are ionic compound and covalent compound.
The ionic compound is formed between a metal atom and a

nonmetal atom, and the type of intramolecular bond exist between atoms is
ionic bond due to the presence of ionic charges. Example of this is sodium
chloride which is made up of metal sodium and nonmetal chlorine.
Na+1 + Cl-1 Na1Cl1 or NaCl

Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride
The covalent compound is formed between two or more nonmetal
atoms, and the type of intramolecular bond that exist between atoms is
covalent bond. Example of this is Carbon tetrachloride.
+
Carbon Chlorine Carbon tetrachloride
So, in writing the chemical formula, structural formula as well as the
chemical name of a given compound, you must determine first the
intramolecular bond that exists between atoms of compounds.
Chemical Formula and Chemical Name
Chemical formula is the shorthand of expressing the types and the
number of atoms in a substance. The way of writing the chemical formula
and chemical name of ionic compound is different from the covalent
compound.
a. Ionic Compound
In writing the chemical formula of an ionic compound, do the

following steps below. We will use sodium chloride as an example of a
chemical name that need to be converted into chemical formula.
Step 1 (Atoms involved) - Sodium and Chlorine

Step 2 (Chemical symbol) - Na + Cl
Step 3 (Formed Ion) - Na+1 + Cl-1
The Na has a charged of +1 because it tends to give 1 valence
electron to chlorine atom to become stable. Most metal atoms whose
valence electrons are ranging from 1-3, they tend to give valence electron
to become stable thus becomes positive ion known as Cation.
Since Na has 1 valence electron, it will give its valence electron to
chlorine forming sodium ion. While Cl has a charged of -1 because it
tends to accept 1 valence electron from sodium atom to become stable.
Most nonmetal atoms whose valence electrons are ranging from 5-7, they
tend to accept valence electron to become stable thus becomes negative
ion known as Anion.
Since Cl has 7 valence electrons, it needs 1 valence electron from
Na, it will accept 1 valence electron from sodium forming chlorine ion.
Step 4 (Criss-cross multiply the charges) - Na+1 + Cl-1

1 1
Step 5 (Remove the plus sign to determine - Na1Cl1 or NaCl
the chemical formula) (note the charges become subscript)
If you want to reverse the process, let us say naming an ionic

compound, do the following steps below. We will use NaCl as an example
of a chemical formula that need to convert to chemical name.
Step 1 (Chemical name involved) - Sodium and Chlorine

Step 2 (Change the last 4, 3 or 2 letters of the name of nonmetal
element into -ide) - Sodium and Chloride
Step 3 (Remove the word and then
combined the two words) - Sodium chloride
23
b. Covalent Compound
In writing the chemical formula of a covalent compound, do the

following steps below. We will use Carbon tetrachloride as an example
of a chemical name that need to be converted into chemical formula.
Step 1 (Atoms involved) - Carbon and Chlorine

Step 2 (Chemical symbol) - C + Cl
Step 3 (Number of atoms) - 1 + 4
Note that the carbon has 1 atom while chlorine has 4 atoms. We can
determine the number of atom based from the Greek prefixes used
before each type of atom. In Carbon tetrachloride, there is no Greek prefix
written before the word carbon. This means that the number of carbon is
1. In Greek prefix, 1 is mono but there is no prefix mono before the word
carbon. This is because the prefix mono is not allowed to be written at the
beginning of the chemical name. From supposedly Mono carbon
tetrachloride, it is name as carbon tetrachloride.
Greek Prefixes
1 - Mono 2 - Di 3 - Tri 4 - Tetra 5 - Penta

6 - Hexa 7 - Hepta 8 - Octa 9 - Nona 10 - Deca
Step 4 (Combined the chemical symbol

and number of atoms) - C1 + Cl4
Step 5 (Remove the plus sign to determine
the chemical formula) - C1Cl4 or CCl4
If you want to reverse the process, let us say naming a covalent
compound, do the following steps below. We will use CCl4 as an example
of a chemical formula that need to convert to chemical name.
Step 1 (Chemical name involved) - Carbon and Chlorine

Step 2 (Determine the Greek prefix) - none and tetra
Step 3 (Remove the word and then combined Greek prefix and
change the last 4, 3 or 2 letters of the name of last
nonmetal element into -ide) - Carbon tetrachloride
FLASH CHECK
Write the chemical formula of the given ionic and covalent
compound by following the steps provided below.
steps below.
IONIC COMPOUND – Calcium iodide
Step 1 (Atoms involved) -
Step 2 (Chemical symbol) -
Step 3 (Formed Ion) -
Step 4 (Criss-cross multiply the charges) -
Step 5 (Remove the plus sign to
determine the chemical formula) -
COVALENT COMPOUND – dinitrogen monoxide

Step 1 (Atoms involved) -
Step 2 (Chemical symbol) -
Step 3 (Number of atoms) -
Step 4 (Combined the chemical symbol -
and number of atoms)
Step 5 (Remove the plus sign to
determine the chemical formula) -
QUICK
CONNECT REFERENCES
• Exploring the Realms of Science
CHEMISRTY pp. 177-193
Chemical formula, chemical
names and structural • https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
formula are used in describing Carbon_tetrachloride_(flat).svg
• https://favpng.com/png_view/dot-
chemical reactions or synthesis.
formula-lewis-structure-chlorine-chloride-
However, chemists nearly electron-diagram-png/rFWR9ayA
always used structural formula • https://www.subpng.com/png-d4ytyd/
rather than chemical names, • https://creazilla.com/nodes/37359-man-
is-looking-clipart
because the structural formulas • https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural
allow the chemist to visualize _formula?fbclid=IwAR2nFzHe56bhRfokoT
the molecules and structural mO-
jFt1LUng2r_cnYxlt07idhbQGnMEQXvGVjp
changes that occur in them
x2E
during chemical reactions.
25
CHEMISTRY 1
Empirical Formula and
Molecular Formula
INSTANT TASK
Mark wants to arrange the steps on how to compute empirical formula

which are placed at the right corner. Can you help him put the steps in
order by writing those in the diagram at the left corner?
Moles of each
element
Mass % elements
Empirical formula
Grams of each
element
DIRECT TALK
CHEMICAL FORMULA
A chemical formula is a chemical formula symbol (i.e.,
usually a combination of symbols of elements and numerical
subscripts) of a substance used to illustrate the composition of a
compound. It can be categorized further into molecular formula,
empirical formula, or formula unit.
The molecular formula (MF) is the actual chemical formula of a compound
that reflects the composition of a molecule. The symbols of elements with
numerical subscripts constitute a molecular formula.
On the other hand, an empirical formula (EF) is the chemical formula that
shows the simple whole number ratios among the atoms of elements in the
compound.
Molecular and empirical formulas of some compounds
Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula

Water H2 O H2 O
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 HO
glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Comparison between molecular and empirical formula
NOTE: other compounds have the same empirical and molecular formula such as
H2O, NaCl, CO, etc.
One of the chemicals used in the manufacture of soaps and perfumery is

cinnamic alcohol. Analysis showed that cinnamic alcohol contains C, H, and O
with the following percentage composition by mass: 80.56% C, 7.51% H, and
11.93% O. Determine the empirical of cinnamic acid.
% composition by mass of C = 80.56%

Empirical Formula
% composition by mass of H = 7.51%
% composition by mass of O = 11.93%
1. Transform the % by mass to grams.
Assuming the total mass of the sample is 100 g, to determine mass in

grams of each element use the formula below:
mass (g)of element
% composition by mass = x 100
mass (g)sample
27
Thus, the masses in grams of the elements are 80.56 g C, 7.51 g H,
and 11.93 g O.
2. Convert the mass (g) of the elements to moles by using the molar masses.
1 mole C 1 mole H
80.56 g C x = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟎𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐂 7.51 g H x = 𝟕. 𝟒𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐇
12.01 g C 1.008 g H
1 mole O
11.93 g O x = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟔 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝟎
16.0 g O
3. Divide all with the lowest number of moles.

6.708 moles 7.45 moles
C = = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗𝟕 𝐨𝐫 𝟗 H = = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟗 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟎
0.7456 mole 0.7456 mole
0.7456 moles
O = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝟏
0.7456 mole
4. The integers become the subscript of each element in cinnamic alcohol

thus, the empirical formula is C9H10O.
Hydrogen peroxide at low concentrations is used as antiseptic and

disinfectant. However, at very high concentrations it may become unstable
and poisonous. An analysis shows that a sample contains 5.88% H and
94.12% O. Determine its molecular formula if the molecular mass of the
compound is 34.0 g/mol.
% composition by mass of O = 94.12%

% composition by mass of H = 5.88% Molecular Formula
Molecular Mass = 43.0 g/mol
% composition by mass =
mass (g)of element
x 100 To determine the MF, you
mass (g)sample need to compute for the
empirical formula mass.
1 mole O
94.12 g C x = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐎 H: 1.01 x 1 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 𝐠
16.00 g O
1 mole H 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝐠
5.88 g H x = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐇 O: 16.00 x 1 =
1.01 g H 𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟏 𝐠
Divide the molecular mass

Divide all with the lowest number of moles. In
with the empirical mass:
this case, since the number of moles is the same,
The empirical formula is the simplest formula, and the molecular formula
then the ratio of H and O is 1:1. Therefore the 𝟑𝟒. 𝟎 𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥
is the true formula. These tell you that some things may 𝟏𝟕.take several= 𝟐
empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO. 𝟎𝟏 𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥
forms but still have commonalities. We may have different physical
appearances and ideologies from other people, but we do have common
Multiply
values that weallcan
theuse
subscript of the empirical formula by 2. This
for reconciliation.
would result in the molecular formula which is H2O2.
28
FLASH CHECK
Solve the following problems on molecular/empirical formula
determinations:
Eugenol, a chemical substance with the flavor of cloves,

consists of 73.19% C, 19.49% O, and 7.37% H. What is its EF?
An alcohol contains 64.81% C, 13.60% H, and 21.59% O. The

molecular mass of this compound is 74 g/mole. Determine its
EF and MF.
The hormone norepinephrine, which is released by the body

when it is stressed, is made up of 56.8% C, 6.56% H, 28.4%
O, and 8.28% N. Determine its EF.
QUICK REFERENCES
• https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/39772421
In order to determine its 0838712342/
• https://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-
molecular formula, it is chemistry/physical-chemistry/some-
necessary to know the molar basic-concept-of-chemistry/chemical-
formulas.html
mass of the compound.
• http://btierneychemblog.blogspot.com/
Chemists uses an instrument 2015/11/empirical-formulas-vs-
called a mass spectrometer molecular-formulas.html
• https://microbenotes.com/mass-
to determine the molar mass of spectrometry-ms-principle-working-
compounds. instrumentation-steps-applications/
29
CHEMISTRY 1
Balancing Chemical Equations
INSTANT TASK
Answer the following questions to make the two equations balance. Use the pictures that are
placed at the left corner as guide in answering the questions.
How many materials do you

need to make a standard
bicycle?
Frame + Wheels + Hand + Pedals
__ F + __ W + __ H + __ P
FW2HP2
How many players, given the positions

below, are needed in one basketball
team?
Center + Forward + Guard
__ C + __ F + __ G
CF2G2
DIRECT TALK
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
(1743-1794) was one of the early chemists who

performed quantitative analysis on different
reactions. His works led him to deduce the law of
conservation of mass.
Law of Conservation of Mass states that in every chemical transformation,

the amount of the reacting substances must be equal to the amount of the
new substance(s) produced.
In this section, we are going to deal only with one type of balancing
chemical equation or the balancing by inspection. Balance by Inspection is
the balancing of a chemical equation done by simply listing the number of
atoms present on the reactant side and product side. Balancing is done by
writing appropriate coefficients before the formula of the compound.
Used to separate two

1. Check the formula of the reactants and reactants or two products
products. Make sure that all formulas are
written correctly. "Yields," separates
2. Never alter the formula of the reactants and reactants from products
products particularly, do not change the
subscript. Instead write coefficients before the
Indicates that heat is
formula to balance the number of atoms on
supplied to the reaction
both side of the reaction.
3. Start balancing more complicated molecules
and leave single atoms and diatomic molecules Designates a reactant or
for last. product in the solid state
4. Use fractions whenever necessary. The use
of fractions is useful when the number of Designates a reactant or
atoms being balanced is odd and even product in the liquid state
numbered.
5. When fractions are used, be sure to
Designates a reactant or
transform them to whole numbers by
product in the gaseous state
multiplying the whole equation by the
denominator.
6. Finally, check again by inspection if the Designates an aqueous
equation is balanced. solution
31
Nitrous oxide, commonly known as "laughing gas", can be prepared by
heating ammonium nitrate as shown by the equation. To balance the reaction
follow the steps below.
Write
Write thethe unbalanced
unbalanced
chemical
chemical equation.
equation. Make
Make sure
sure NH4NO3 (s) N2O (g) + H2O (l)
that you have checked the
that you have checked the correct
correct
chemicalchemical formulas
formulas and and
symbols.
symbols.
Number of Atom(s)
By inspection, Element
Reactant Product
tabulate the number of N 2 2
atoms of each kind in the H 4 2
reactant and product sides. O 3 2
2 NH4NO3 (s) 2 N2O (g) + 4 H2O (l)

Adjust the coefficient of
each substance to get the equal
You should NEVER change
number of each kind of atom in
subscripts in chemical formulas.
the reactants and in the product.
Number of Atom(s)
Element
Check if the coefficients Reactant Product
for N, H and O will balance the N 4 4
number of each atom in the H 8 8
reactant and in the product O 6 6
sides.
Note: Coefficient must be written in whole number.

A balanced equation follows the law
of conservation of mass.
32
Balance the following
chemical equations:
FLASH CHECK
Balance the following chemical equations:
1. The reaction between iron and oxygen in the air produces

1. The reaction between iron and oxygen in the air produces rust.
rust.
FeFe(s)(s)++O
O22 (g)
(g) --------- Fe
Fe2O
2O3 (l)
3 (l)
2. Car engine
2. Car engine burns
burns fuel.
fuel. Combustion
Combustion oror burning
burning takes
takes place
place when
when methane
methane
combines with oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor.
combines with oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor.
CH4CH
(g)4+
(g)O
+2O2 (g) --------
(g) COCO
2 (g) ++HH22O
2 (g) O (l)
(l)
3. Hyperacidity is observed when the stomach becomes too acidic. Antacids

such as calcium hydroxide are used to neutralize the hydrochloric acid inside
the stomach.
Ca (OH)2 (aq) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
QUICK REFERENCES
CONNECT • Exploring the Realms of Science CHEMISRTY
pp. 231-235
Dangerous Chemical Reactions • General Chemistry 1 pp. 102-105

• https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-
One of the most dangerous profile/antoine-laurent-lavoisier
• https://www.pngguru.com/free-transparent-
chemical reactions is a mixture
background-png-clipartbbdpz
of cesium with water, because • https://www.hiclipart.com/search?clipart=cou
when these two substances come ple+Motorcycle
• https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-
into contact, there is an
vectors/bicycle-pedal-sprocket-vectors
immediate explosion. This • https://www.123rf.com/photo_74538052_stoc
reaction is so dangerous that k-vector-small-group-of-professional-male-
basketball-team.html
even if a very little amount of this
• https://melscience.com/US-en/articles/top-10-
metal is added to a glass of mostdangerous-chemical-reactions/
water, the glass will explode in
fragments. •
•
33
WORKSHEET 1 – Empirical and Molecular Formula
Direction. Solve the following problems on molecular/empirical formula

determinations.
1. Methyl salicylate is the active ingredient in Ben Gay, a cream used to

relieve muscle pain. Analysis showed that methyl salicylate contains 63.15
% C, 5.30 % H, and 31.55 % O. Determine the empirical formula of
methyl salicylate.
2. Butyric acid is an organic that is responsible for the smell of spoiled

butter. Its IUPAC name is butanoic acid and can be prepared in large
quantities by fermentation of starch and sugar. Analysis of a sample of
butyric acid showed that it contains 54.4 % C, 9.2 % H, and 36.4 % O.
Determine the empirical formula of butyric acid.
3. The manufacture of nylon make use of adipic acid. The composition of

the acid was determined and the following was obtained: 49.3 % C, 6.9
% H, and 43.8 % O. Determine the empirical formula of adipic acid if
the molecular mass is 146g/mol.
4. Ascorbic acid, commonly known as Vitamin C, is an antioxidant that is

needed by the body for the maintenance of bones, blood vessels, and
skin. Analysis of ascorbic acid showed the following % composition by
mass: C = 40.92 %, H = 4.58 %, and O = 54.45 %. Determine the
molecular formula of ascorbic acid if the molar mass is 176 g/mol.
5. The compound methyl butanoate smells like apples. Its percent

composition is 58.8 % C, 9.8 % H, and 31.4 % O. If its gram
molecular mass is 102 g/mol, what is its molecular formula?
Reference:
• Exploring the Realms of Science - CHEMISTRY pp. 212 - 219
34
WORKSHEET 2 – Balancing Chemical Equations
Directions: Balance the following equations by adding coefficients before

the elements or compounds. Write your answers on the blanks.
Note: Ignore the physical states of products and reactants unless they are specifically required.
1. _____H2SO4 + _____NaOH _____Na2SO4 + ______H2O
2. _____K + _____H2O _____H2 + _____KOH
3. _____Mg + _____HCl _____MgCl2 + _____H2
4. _____Pb (NO3)2 _____PbO4 + _____NO2 + _____O2
5. _____PCl5 + _____H2O _____H3PO4 + _____HCl
6. _____Mg (HCO3)2 _____MgCO3 + _____CO2 + _____H2O
7. _____C2H6 + _____O2 ____CO2 + ______H2O
8. _____AgNO3 + _____Al _____Al (NO3)3 + _____Ag
9. _____BaCO3 _____BaO + ______CO2
10. _____Fe + ______O2 ______Fe3O4
Reference:
• Exploring the Realms of Science - CHEMISTRY pp. 231 - 236
35
CHEMISTRY 1
Determining the Amount of Reactant
and Product in a Chemical Reaction
INSTANT TASK
Directions: Use the given example to understand the concept of

determining the amount of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction by answering the questions below. Susan is selling fish balls
in a stick for 10 pesos per stick. Each stick has 5 fish balls.
1. Write the equation of fish balls, bamboo stick and fish balls in a stick.
_______________ + ___________________ → ___________________
2. If Susan has 100 fish balls, how many bamboo sticks will she need to
consume all the fish balls?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. If Susan wants to make 50 fish balls in a stick, how many fish balls
will she need?
___________________________________________________________
DIRECT TALK
One of the requirements of a balanced chemical equation

is that it follows the Law of Conservation of Mass, which
states that matter is neither created nor destroyed.
The identity and quantity of the elements in the reactants side,
though they can change in pairing or arrangement, must be equal to the
identity and quantity of elements in the products side. To do this, all
elements in the left side of the equation must be reflected, and of the same
number in the right side of the equation.
Stoichiometric coefficient is then added before each element, ion or
molecule to make the number of each element in the left side equal to the
number of the same element in the right side of the equation. This
stoichiometric coefficient denoted by a number, can be interpreted as the
number of moles of each substance.
The mole method approach makes stoichiometry (the quantitative
relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction) more
understandable. Let’s take for example the formation of table salt or NaCl:
2 Na (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → 2 NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)

The stoichiometric coefficients in the equation denotes that 2 elemental
sodium (Na) react with 2 molecules of hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form 2
molecules of sodium chloride (NaCl) and 2 molecules of hydrogen (H2) gas.
Following the mole method approach, the equation can be interpreted and
read as 2 moles of Na react with 2 moles of HCl to form 2 moles of NaCl and
1 mole of H2. Since the equation is balanced, the stoichiometric coefficient
for the reactants and products can be used in a ratio or mole-mole factor:
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑎 ≅ 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
The symbol ≅ means “equivalent to”. Hence, we can make the following
mole-mole factor:
2 moles of Na 2 moles HCl 2 moles Na 2 moles HCl 2 moles NaCl 1 mole H2

or or or or or
2 moles NaCl 2 moles NaCl 1 mole H2 1 mole H2 2 moles Na 2 moles HCl
Example: Ammonia, NH3, is a leading industrial chemical used in

the production of agricultural fertilizers and synthetic fibers. It is
produced by the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases.
3 𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝑁2 (𝑔) → 2 𝑁𝐻3
37
As shown in the balanced equation, 3 moles of H2 are stoichiometrically
equivalent to 1 mole N2 and to 2 moles NH3. The ratio of moles H2 to moles
NH3 in 3:2; the ratio of moles N2 to moles NH3 is 1:2. Using this ratio, we
will be able to calculate the quantities of the product or reactant like the
example below:
a. How many moles of H2 are needed to produce 26.5 moles of NH3?
Solution:
3 moles H2
26.5 moles NH3 X = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐇𝟐
2 moles NH3
b. How many moles of NH3 will be produced if 33.7 moles of N2 reacts

completely with H2?
Solution:
2 moles NH3
33.7 moles N2 X = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟒 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐍𝐇𝟑
1 mole N2
Note: In using the mole-mole factor or ratio, the arrangement of the

numerator and denominator is done in a way that there is a cancellation of
similar units found in the numerator and denominator. In first example
above, moles of NH3 were cancelled while in the second example, moles of
N2 were cancelled.
The stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and products can be

used readily to determine the mole-mole ratio of the substances involved.
However, in laboratory setups, the mass (in grams) of the substance are
given or needed instead of moles for easy measurement. In this type of
problem, there is a need to convert the mass into number of moles using
the molar mass of the substance. Below are the steps used to convert
grams to moles or vice-versa.
1. Convert the mass of the substance (A) to number of moles using its
molar mass.
1 mole of A
mass of A (g) X = 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐀
molar mass of A (g)
2. Using the number of moles of substance A and the mole-mole ratio of
substance A and B from the balanced equation, compute for the number of
moles of B.
moles B
moles of A X = 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐁
moles A
3. Convert the number of moles of substance B to mass using its molar

mass.
molar mass of B (g)
moles of B X = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐁 (𝐠)
1 mole of B
The molar mass of the substance is used as a conversion factor to calculate
the number of moles of the substance given its mass and vice versa. The
three steps can be combined into a single step as follows:
1 mole of A moles of B molar mass of B (g)

mass of B (g) = mass of A (g) X 1 mole of A X moles of B X molar mass of B (g)
mass of B (g) = mass of A (g) X molar mass of A (g) X moles of A X 1 mole of B
molar mass of A (g) moles of A 1 mole of B
In every conversion, like the steps shown above, similar units found in the
numerator and denominator are cancelled out. Let’s have another example:
Solid lithium hydroxide is used to remove carbon dioxide and is called a CO2
scrubber. The reaction is:
2 𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 (𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝐿𝑖2𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 𝐻2
How many grams of CO2 can be absorbed by 236.1 g LiOH?

Solution:
1 mole LiOH 1 mole CO2 44.01g CO2
mass of CO2 = 236.2 g LiOH X X X
23.949g LiOH 2 moles LiOH 1 mole CO2
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐎𝟐 (𝐠) = 𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟎 𝐠
Note: Since the given value (236.1g) has 4 significant figures, the answer
will also have 4 significant figures.
39
F LFLASH
A S H CHECK
CHECK
Stoich in Direction:
Direction:Use
Useaaseparate
separatesheet
sheetofof
paper
papertotoshow
showyour
yourcomputation.
computation.
Action! following problems:
Rust, Fe
Rust, Fe22OO33,, form
form from
from the
the reaction
reaction of
of iron and oxygen in the following
equation:
equation:
(𝑠) + 𝑂22 (𝑔)
𝐹𝑒 (𝑠) (𝑔) → 𝐹𝑒22𝑂33 (𝑠)
(𝑠)
a. Write
a. Write the
the balanced
balanced equation
equation of
of the
the reaction.
reaction.
b. What
b. What isis the
the mole-mole
mole-mole ratio
ratio of
of Fe
Fe to
to Fe
Fe22OO33??
c. How
c. How many
many moles
moles of
of Fe
Fe22OO33 isis produced
produced from
from 39.4
39.4 moles
moles of
of Fe?
Fe?
d. What
d. What isis the
the molar
molar mass
mass of
of Fe
Fe22OO33??
e. How
e. How many
many grams
grams of
of O2
O2 are
are needed
needed to
to produce
produce 29.8
29.8 gg of
of Fe
Fe22OO33??
QUICK REFERENCES
• https://www.treehugger.com/wh
at-are-heaviest-objects-universe-
4863854#:~:text=Black%20hole
The universe is a big place — really
s%20are%20one%20of%20the
big — and it’s filled with some
%20heaviest%20things%20in%2
wondrously weighty objects. The
0the%20universe.&text=Most%2
heaviest of them all are black
0common%20are%20stellar%2D
holes and neutron stars. In fact,
mass,more%20massive%20than
they weigh so much that it’s nearly
%20our%20sun.
impossible to wrap your head
around numbers that far off the
scale.
40
CHEMISTRY 1
Percentage Yield and Theoretical
Yield of the Reaction
INSTANT TASK
John what is your score in I got 65 out of 75 and

our midterm examination an average grade of
in Chemistry? 87 percent
What score does Rica need

to get an average grade of 91
percent which is higher than John?
41
DIRECT TALK
When a chemist synthesizes compounds in the laboratory

or produces products in macro scale production, it is important
that the amount of the products formed is at maximum. A large
amount of product would mean greater profit for the company and
greater efficiency for a chemist. One can theoretically compute for
the amount of products formed in a given reaction.
The computed value based on the balanced chemical reaction is

called the theoretical yield. This would mean that the reaction goes
to completion, no side reactions occurred, and all reactants were
consumed. The percentage yield may be obtained by getting the
ratio of the actual yield (amount of product actually recovered) and
the theoretical yield as shown below.
𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝
𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝
Aluminum, Al, reacts with iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3, to produce

iron, Fe, and Aluminum oxide, Al2O3. Determine the
percentage yield if 3.00 g of Fe was produced when 3.50 g
Al was allowed to react with 5.00 g Fe2O3.
Mass of Al = 3.50 g
Mass of Fe2O3 = 5.00 g
Actual yield of Fe = 3.00 g
Percent yield
To be able to solve this problem, you
need to write first the complete
balanced equation:
2 Al + Fe2O3 -- 2 Fe + Al2O3
Since the amounts of both reactants are given, it is

necessary that you determine the limiting reagent. Consider the
amount of Al needed to react with 5.00 g Fe2O3. Based on the
balanced equation,
2 mol Al = 1 mol Fe2O3
Solving for the mass in grams of Al, you have:
1 mol Fe2 O3 2 mol Al 26.98 g Al
5.00 g Fe2 O3 x x x = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 𝐠 𝐀𝐥
159.7 g Fe2 O3 1 mol Fe2 O3 1 mol Al
The amount of Al needed to react with 5.00 g Fe2O3 is 1.69

g. The mass of Al available is 3.50 g which is more than what is
required therefore, Al is in excess and Fe2O3 is the limiting
reagent. Now, use the mass of the limiting reagent to compute
for the mass of Fe produced. Again, based on the balanced
equation:
1 mol Fe2O3 = 2 mol Fe
Calculating the mass of Fe
1 mol Fe2 O3 2 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe

5.00 g Fe2 O3 x x x = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟎 𝐠 𝐅𝐞
159.7 g Fe2 O3 1 mol Fe2 O3 1 mol Fe
The mass of Fe obtained in the computation above is the

theoretical yield. Using the actual yield and the theoretical yield,
you can determine the % yield of the reaction as shown below:
𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝐅𝐞
𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟕 %
𝟑. 𝟓𝟎 𝐠 𝐅𝐞
43
F LFLASH
A S H CHECK
CHECK
Solve
Solvethe
thefollowing problems
following on aon
problems separate sheet of paper.
the separate
sheet of paper. Show your complete solution.
Chloroform, CHCl3, is a colorless, sweet- In theory, all 100
smelling liquid that was once used as anesthetic in kernels should
Chloroform, CHCl3, is a colorless, sweet-
surgery. CHCl3 may react with chlorine gas, Cl2, to have popped
smelling liquid that was once used as
produce carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, and hydrochloric
anesthetic in surgery. CHCl3 may react with
acid, HCl. Compute for the percent yield of the
chlorine gas, Cl2, to produce carbon
reaction if 36.8 g of CCl4 was recovered when 30.0g of
tetrachloride, CCl4, and hydrochloric acid, HCl.
CHCl3 is allowed to react with excess Cl2.
Compute for the percent yield of the reaction if
36.8 g of CCl4 was recovered when 30.0g of
CHCl3 isThe following
allowed to reactbalanced
with excesschemical
Cl2. equation Did you do
represents the combination reaction of magnesium something
andAluminum, Al, reacts
bromine, forming with ironbromide:
magnesium (III) oxide, wrong? NO
Fe2O3, to produce iron, Fe, and Aluminum
oxide, Al2O3.Mg (s) + Br2the
Determine MgBr2 (aq)
(l) percentage yield if In real life (and in
3.00g of Fe was produced when 3.50g Al was the lab) things are
If 24 g of Mg is mixed with 140 g of Br2 to produce often not perfect.
allowed to react with 5.00g Fe2O3.
155 g MgBr2, what is the limiting reagent, theoretical yield,
and percent yield of MgBr2?
QUICK REFERENCES
zgshsh CHEMISRTY pp. 253-254
Percent yield is a useful way
saying how much of a reactant has
• https://slideplayer.com/slide/9173
been successfully converted to
product in a chemical reaction. If all 209/
the reactants become products, the • https://www.shutterstock.com/se
percentage yield is 100 %. If half arch/teens+studying+cartoon
the reactants become products and • https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-
the rest become by-products or don't level_Chemistry/OCR_(Salters)/Yie
react at all, the percentage yield is ld#:~:text=Percentage%20yield
50%. If none of the reactants end %20is%20a%20useful,product%2
up as products, the percentage 0in%20a%20chemical%20reactio
yield is 0%.
n.&text=If%20half%20the%20re
actants%20become,the%20perce
ntage%20yield%20is%2050%25.
CHEMISTRY 1
Limiting Reagent
INSTANT TASK
A limiting reactant is the reagent that is completely consumed at the end of the
reaction. The reactant that is not totally consumed is called the excess. This can be
illustrated with a simple analogy.
1. How many packed meals can you

make?
If you have 10
sandwiches, 18 cookies, 2. Which ingredient is not complete
and 12 oranges….. consumed?
1._____________________________________
_______________________________________
2._____________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
___
45
DIRECT TALK
In a balanced chemical equation, you may assume that the reaction will proceed to
completion because all the reactants are present in their correct stoichiometric ration.
However, in reality, this is not always the case. Chemical reactions may stop without the
complete formation of the desired product because the reactants are not completely mixed
(i.e.., this lessens the probability that each particle of a reactant will react with another
reactant to form the product) or the given amount of a specific reactant is stoichiometric ally
not enough for the reaction.
The completion of a reaction is one direct measure of the efficiency of a
manufacturing process. As mentioned, chemical reactions do not always go to completion.
Thus, you should know what can limit the formation of the products in a chemical reaction by
identifying the limiting reactant.
The reactant that totally consumed in a chemical reaction is called the limiting
reagent. Take note that the terms "reactant" and "reagent" are interchangeable. When
the limiting reactant is all consumed, the reaction stops. This will then limit how much the
product can be produced.
A reaction between methane CH4 and O2

was carried out in a closed vessel. In the
closed vessel, 0.50 mol O2 was used to burn 3
mol CH4. Find the limiting reagent and
calculate the theoretical yield for CO2 in g.
Write and balance the

chemical equation (if it is not CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
chemically balanced).
Analyze the problem. Determine the limiting reagent first by comparing

the stoichiometric ratio of reactants in the balanced chemical reaction and the
ratio of the amount given in the problem. Then you can determine the
theoretical yield of CO2 that is equal to the amount of CO2 produced by the
given limiting reagent.
Determine the limiting reagent. Use the In the balanced chemical
stoichiometric ratio to determine the limiting reaction:
reagent. Compare the given mole of each 1 mol CH4: 2 mol O2
reactant in the balanced chemical equation in 3 mol CH4: 6 mol O2
the problem. Convert the given to mole if it is
In the problem:
expressed in mass. 3 mol CH4: 0.5 mol O2
Based on the ratio between CH4 and O2 is 1:2. Thus, 3 mol CH4 will require 6
mol O2. However, only 0.5 mol O2 is available. Therefore, CH4 is the excess reactant
and O2 is the limiting reagent.
Another way to determine the limiting reagent is to solve for

the mol CO2 produced using 0.50 mol O2 and 3 mol CH4. The
reactant that produces the least amount of the product (i.e.., CO 2)
is the limiting reagent. Then you can determine the theoretical yield
of CO2 that is equal to the amount of CO2 produced by the given
limiting reagent
𝑛
Compute the theoretical of yield for m=𝑛 𝑀
𝑛
CO2 using the given amount (in n) of the Where n/n is the
limiting reagent, O2. stoichiometric ratio of CO2 and
O 2.
1 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2
m CO2 = (0.5 mol O2 ) ( )( ) = 𝟏𝟏 𝐠 𝐂𝐎𝟐
2 mol O2 1 mol CO2
Only 11 g of CO2 is produced using 0.5 mol of O2.
1 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2

m CO2 = (3 mol CH4 ) ( )( ) = 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝐠 𝐂𝐎𝟐
2 mol CH4 1 mol CO2
There are 132 g CO2 produced using 3 mol CH4; therefore since 0.5 mol
O2 produced the lesser amount of the product, CO2, then O2 is the limiting
reagent.
The quantity of the product formed in a chemical reaction

is determined by the limiting reagent. Likewise, in real life,
everyone has limits. Thus, you should use every opportunity to
have positive relationships with the people around you.
47
FLASH CHECK
Solve the problem on a separate sheet of paper.
One of the pollutants produced in cigarette smoke is a

colorless gas called nitrogen monoxide, NO. In 1992, this simple
compound was proclaimed "Molecule of the Year." Can you tell
why? The preparation of NO is given according to the equation:
4 NH3 + 5 O2 4 NO + 6 H2O
In one reaction 1.0 mole of ammonia, NH3, is allowed to

react to 1.0 mole of O2 gas.
(a) Determine the limiting reagent,
(b) The mass (g) of nitrogen monoxide formed,
(c) The mass (g) of the excess reagent.
QUICK REFERENCES
Many chemical reactions
do not go to completion • General Chemistry 1 pp. 109-110
because of limiting • https://slideplayer.com/slide/624654
reagents. 2/
Example: • https://www.clipart.email/clipart/t
Reversible reactions never hinking-understanding-clipart-
go to completion because they 209705.html
attain equilibrium after a • http://img2.tapuz.co.il/CommunaFi
certain time. So, the
les/25286955.pdf
concentration of reactants and
products is stable, it neither • https://www.toppr.com/ask/questi
increases nor decreases. on/which-reactions-never-go-to-
completion/
48
CHEMISTRY 1
Pressure of a Gas: Units of Pressure
INSTANT TASK
NOTE: There are 9 terms

you need to find.
Look for and encircle the term that is being related to the
properties of gases.
P R E S S U R E E V L S D H R
E N T P O M B H R O Q C C U S
O F X E M Q O M U L Y E K A D
G N F Y E H H H T U M V N Y E
A P F U M W V I A M T F I L C
S U P E S Y V J R E N F J G R
P Y I T A I D S E K G E N O E
E T O F C H O W P O H G I W A
S D J R B G D N M A X S H T S
A K D G C S G A E Z U T D R E
E Y J S E R K P T F F J S Q L
R N F S W I C S F U U C N E L
C W A B H R Z I Q B V C Q D T
N G X U D B D S Z C Z X B M I
I S S I Y F P O L B I D Z Z C
49
DIRECT TALK
How can pressure be measure?
In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli

(1608-1647), a renowned Italian
mathematician and physicist,
developed a measuring device
called the barometer to measure
atmospheric pressure.
Torricelli made the barometer by filling a glass tube that was sealed at
one end with liquid mercury. Then he turned the tube upside down and placed
it in a bowl, which was also filled with liquid mercury. The mercury column
should go down due to gravity. However, he noticed that most of the liquid
mercury stayed in the glass tube. From this observation, he concluded that the
surrounding air exerted pressure on the surface of the mercury in the bowl,
which consequently supported the mercury inside the glass tube.
Another device used in

measuring pressure is the
manometer
Used in measuring pressures below

atmospheric pressure
Used in measuring pressure slightly

above or below atmospheric
pressure
Pressure is defined as the force applied to a unit surface area.
Pressure (P) may be measured in the following units: (1) standard
atmosphere (atm); (2) pascal (Pa), which is the SI unit for pressure
that is equivalent to 1 N/m2; (3) millimeters of mercury (mmHg); (4)
torr; (5) pound per square inch (psi); and (6) bar. Table shows the
conversion values among the mentioned units of pressure.
Unit Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level on 00C

pascal (Pa); kilopascal (kPa) 1.01325 x 105 Pa; 101.325 kPa
atmosphere (atm) 1 atm
millimeters of mercury (mmHg) 760 mmHg
torr 760 torr
pound per square inch (lb/in2 or psi) 14.7 psi
bar 1.01325 bar
Note: All the units are equivalent to one another.
The barometer in Manila gives a reading of

0.95 atm. What is the equivalent pressure in
(a) torr and in (b) psi?
Determine the conversion factor to be used.

1 atm = 760 torr; 1 atm = 14.7 psi
Use dimensional analysis to cancel the atm unit and give

the required unit.
760 torr
𝐏 = 0.95 atm x = 𝟕𝟐𝟐 𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐫
1 atm
14.7 psi
𝐏 = 0.95 atm x = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝟕 𝐩𝐬𝐢 or 𝟏𝟒 𝐩𝐬𝐢
1 atm
A bag of potato chips is sealed in a factory

near sea level. The atmospheric pressure at the
factory 761.3 mmHg. The pressure inside the bag is
the same. What is the pressure inside the bag of
potato chips in Pa?
51
FLASH CHECK
Convert thethe
Convert following
followingmeasurements into
measurements into thethe
desired units.
desired Show
units. Showyour completesolutions.
your complete solutions.
500 torr _______ atm
1000 mmHg _______ torr
0.89 bar _______ psi
5.5 x 104 mmHg _______ Pa
When you blow a balloon, gas particles push the walls of the balloon. The act
of pushing against the wall creates the pressure in the balloon and result in the
balloon being inflated.
QUICK REFERENCES
A pressure washer is less • General Chemistry 1 pp. 121-124
sophisticated than it sounds. It's • https://dlpng.com/?pageNo=945
really just a water pump powered • https://www.netclipart.com/isee/hhom
To_barometer-png-image-barometer-
by an electric motor. by-evangelista-torricelli/
• https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-
The washer takes in ordinary illustration-manometer-measuring-
water from a faucet (that's a tap device-comic-book-cartoon-pop-art-
to you folks in the UK), the pump illustration-vintage-retro-style-
accelerates the water to high image71933376
• https://www.liberaldictionary.com/ma
pressure, and then squirts it from nometer/
a hose at speed through a trigger • https://www.explainthatstuff.com/pres
gun. surewashers.html#:~:text=A%20pres
sure%20washer%20is%20less,speed
%20through%20a%20trigger%20gun.
52
CHEMISTRY 1
Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relationship)
INSTANT TASK
Arrange the jumbled letters to form the term that is being described in each
number. Write the correct term on the blank.
As the value of one quantity increases, the value

of the other also increases. (Two words)
YCDRITELROPRPONOITLA
As the value of one quantity increases, the value

of the other quantity decreases. (Two words)
LISVENREYALIOPPORROTN
53
DIRECT TALK
In 1662, Robert Boyle (1627-1691)

studied the relationship between
pressure and volume in gases.
Through the use of vacuum pumps, he was
able to measure the pressure exerted by his
sample toward its container when it was being
compressed. He used different types of gases to
verify his observation. He eventually came up with
the law you know today as Boyle’s law.
Boyle’s Law states that under constant temperature and amount of

gas, the volume of any given amount of gas is inversely proportional to
the pressure exerted on it.
Given three of the

following four quantities:
Rearrange the equation
P1V1 = P2V2
P1V1 = P2V2
Algebraically to solve for the

unknown quantity
An equation that can be used to calculate
the unknown quantity will be one of the
following four
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐
𝐕𝟐 = , 𝐏𝟐 = , 𝐕𝟏 = , 𝐏𝟏 =
𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏
Substitute each of the known

quantities and calculate.
The unknown is either
P or V PRESSURE OR VOLUME
54
If I have 5.6 liters of gas A sample of gas
in a piston at a pressure of 1.5 occupies 12.0 L under a
atm and compress the gas pressure of 1.2 atm. What
until its volume is 4.8 liters, would its volume be if the
what will the new pressure pressure were increased to
inside the piston be? 3.6 atm?
P1 = 1.5 atm P1 = 1.2 atm

V1 = 5.6 L P2 = 3.6 atm
V2 = 4.8 L V1 = 12.0 L
P2 =? V2 =?
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏
𝐏𝟐 = 𝐕𝟐 =
𝐕𝟐 𝐏𝟐
(𝟏. 𝟓 𝐚𝐭𝐦)(𝟓. 𝟔 𝐋) (𝟏. 𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐦)(𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝐋)

𝐏𝟐 = 𝐕𝟐 =
𝟒. 𝟖 𝐋 𝟑. 𝟔 𝐚𝐭𝐦
P2 = 1.8 atm V2 =
Item P1 V1 P2 V2
Get a timer and set it A 3.0 atm 35 ml 6.0 atm
to 5 minutes. Complete B 99.97 kPa 550 ml 275 ml
the table below. C 0.89 atm 3.56 atm 20.0 L
READY? Time start's D 800 ml 500 kPa 160 ml
now! E 0.040 atm 250 atm 1.0 x 10-2 L
At constant temperature, as the volume decreases,

pressure exerted increases, and vice versa. Similarly in life,
there will always be positive and negative situations. What you
can do is to appreciate the positive things and turn negative
things into positive ones.
55
FLASH CHECK
SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS:
A sample of CO2 was A sample of He gas was

confined to a container at confined to a container at
constant temperature. When constant temperature. The
the pressure applied to the gas volume of the gas is measured
is 2.50 atm the volume at 5.00 ml when the pressure
occupied by the gas is 4.50 L. applied is 6.50 atm. Determine
How pressure must be exerted the volume of the He gas if the
to decrease the volume of the pressure is reduced to 2.oo
gas to 3.00 L? atm.
Below the balloon, there is a burner. When you increase or decrease its flame,
the hot air balloon either goes up or down.
QUICK REFERENCES
Syringes and turkey • General Chemistry 1 pp. 128-131
basters are operated by • https://www.christianity.com/church/c
Boyle's Law: pulling back hurch-history/timeline/1601-
on the plunger increases the 1700/robert-boyle-father-of-modern-
chemistry-11630103.html
volume inside the syringe, • https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-
which decreases the illustration-funny-two-kids-cartoon-
pressure, which then flying-hot-air-balloon-illustration-
corrects when liquid is image79183695
drawn into the syringe, • http://clipart-library.com/clip-
art/puzzle-transparent-19.htm
thereby shrinking the
• https://slideplayer.com/slide/12897996
volume again. /
56
CHEMISTRY 1
Charles' Law (Volume-Temperature Relationship)
INSTANT TASK
Observe the two pictures below. What will happen to

the balloon when placed inside the room and outside
the room?
__________________________________ ___________________________________
__________________________________ ___________________________________
__________________________________ ___________________________________
__________________________________ ___________________________________
__________________________________ ___________________________________
57
DIRECT TALK
In 1787, a French scientist whose

name was Jacques Alexandre Cesar
Charles (1746-1823) performed
experiments to determine the relationship
that exists between temperature and volume
of gases at constant pressure. He found out
th gases expand when heated and contract when cooled. Thus, became the
that
basis of Charles's Law.
Charles's Law, states that the volume of a gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temperature under constant
pressure and amount of gases.
Let's us try now solving problems using Charles's Law. However, before you
have the problem, take a look at the general plan in solving V and T.
Given three of the following four
quantities:
T1, V1, T2, V2
𝐕𝟏 𝐓𝟏 Rearrange the equation algebraically

=
𝐕𝟐 𝐓𝟐 to solve the unknown quantity.
An equation that can be used to calculate the

unknown quantity will be one of the following four
𝐓𝟐 𝐕𝟏 𝐓𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐓𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐓𝟐 𝐕𝟏
𝐕𝟐 = , 𝐓𝟐 = , 𝐕𝟏 = , 𝐓𝟏 =
𝐓𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐓𝟐 𝐕𝟐
Substitute each of the known

quantities, and compute.
Convert Celsius
temperatures to The unknown is either Unknown
Kelvin
temperatures if
T or V T in K
necessary.
If a gas occupies a volume of 733
A 300 mL sample of gas at 125
0C is heated to 155 0C. What is mL at 10.00C, at what
temperature in kelvin, will it
its final volume when the
occupy a volume of 1225 mL if
pressure is held constant? the pressure remains constant?
T1 =1250C ---- 398.15 K T1 =100C ---- ___ K

T2 =1550C ---- 428.15 K V1 =733 mL
V1 =300 mL V2 =1225 mL
V2 =? T2 =?
𝐓𝟐 𝐕𝟏 𝐓𝟏 𝐕𝟐
𝐕𝟐 = 𝐓𝟐 =
𝐓𝟏 𝐕𝟏
(𝟒𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝟓 𝐊)(𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐋) (_____)(_____)

𝐕𝟐 = 𝐓𝟐 =
𝟑𝟗𝟖. 𝟏𝟓 𝐊 ______
323 mL
Note: Keep in mind that the temperature should be expressed in Kelvin.

Thus, all temperature should be converted to kelvin (0C + 273.15).
Get a timer and set it to 5 minutes. Complete the

table below. READY? Time start's now!
Item V1 T1 V2 T2
A 40.0 mL 280 K 350 K
B 0.606 L 300 K 0.404 L
C 292 K 250 mL 365 K
D 100 mL 125 mL 305 K
E 0.0024 L 220C -140C
At constant pressure, as the temperature

increases, the volume of a gas also increases
and vice versa. In your life, the harder you
work, the more success you will have.
59
FLASH CHECK
The temperature inside my fridge is about 40C. If I place a

balloon in my fridge that initially has a temperature of 220C and a
volume of 0.50 liters, what will be the volume of the balloon
when it is fully cooled?
When your mouth is wide open, the air that comes from it is warm. But when your mouth is slightly open, the air
that comes from it is cold. A wide-opened mouth has a large volume of gas, while a slightly opened mouth has a small
volume of gas.
QUICK REFERENCES
How does Charles law affect
the human body? • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-
Charles_Dupont_de_l%27Eure
Due to Charles's law, as air is • https://www.dreamstime.com/student-
warmed in the conducting thinking-doubting-young-boy-looking-
division of the respiratory up-hand-chin-question-mark-side-
system, it will increase in volume. image117826370
Intra-alveolar pressure is the • https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-
pressure of the air within the free-vector/cartoon-alarm-clock-vector-
alveoli, which changes during the 482029
• http://dimdima.com/Science/science_c
different phases of breathing.
ommon/show_science.asp?q_aid=288&
q_search=Fun+With+Science
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cun
y-kbcc-ap2/chapter/the-process-of-
breathing-no-content/
60
CHEMISTRY 1
Ideal Gas Law
INSTANT TASK
Here
Here is
is aa simple
simple challenge
challenge for
for you.
you. Try
Try to
to illustrate
illustrate at
at least
least two
two of
of the
the
postulates discussedininthe
postulate discussed theprevious
previouslesson.
lesson.UseUsethe
theboxboxbelow.
provided
Be
below.creative!
Be creative!
61
DIRECT TALK
All four properties of gases may be used in one equation called

the Ideal Gas Law or equation of state. This law is only obeyed
by ideal gases. An ideal gas conforms to the pattern of gas behavior
as defined by the kinetic molecular theory. A summary of the
postulates of kinetic molecular theory as follows:
1. Gases are composed of molecules that are in constant motion.
2. These molecules move in a straight line. A change in its path will occur when
the particles collide with one another or with the walls of the container.
3. The distance between the molecules of gases is so large such that the volume
of the gas molecules is mostly empty space.
4. Force of attraction and repulsion between gas molecules and between the
molecules and walls of container do not exist.
5. When the molecules collide with one another or with the walls of the container,
no energy is lost from the molecules. Therefore, the collision of molecules in a gas
is perfectly elastic.
6. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the

absolute temperature.
The Ideal Gas Law states that the gases manifest ideal behavior when
they are subjected to standard conditions (e.g., standard temperature of
273 K, standard pressure of 1 atm, standard volume of 22.4 L, standard
number of particles of 1 mol).
Real gases can only obey this law at

The value of the gas constant
very high temperature and very low
R, is derived as follows:
pressure. The Ideal Gas Law equation
At STP, the pressure of
is given as: PV = nRT
the gas is 1 atm, the
Where: P = pressure in atm temperature is 273 K, and the
volume of 1 mole of the gas is
V = volume in L
22.4 L. Using these values in
T = temperature in K the equation for an ideal gas
would result to:
n = amount of gas in moles
PV = nRT
R = the gas constant, 0.0821 L-atm / mol K Solving for R, we have:
R = PV / nT
Substituting the values of P, V, T, and n at STP
R = (1 atm)(22.4 L) / (1 mol)(273 K)
R = 0.0821 L-atm/mol K
How many moles of CO2 are in a 5.6 L sample of CO2

at STP?
V = 5.6 L
T = 273.15 K
P = 1.0 atm n=?
R = 0.0821 L.atm/mol.K
To solve for n, derive an equation for it using the

equation PV = nRT
𝐏𝐕 𝐧𝐑𝐓 𝐏𝐕
Divide both sides by RT. = =𝒏
𝐑𝐓 𝐑𝐓 𝐑𝐓
(𝟏. 𝟎 𝐚𝐭𝐦)(𝟓. 𝟔 𝐋)
𝐧= 𝐋.𝐚𝐭𝐦
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏 )(𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝐊)
𝐦𝐨𝐥.𝐊
𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐎𝟐
A sample with 0.55 mol of gas is at 105.7 kPa and

270C. What volume does it occupy?
n = 0.55 mol
T = 270C =____ K V=?
P = 105.7 kPa = 1.04 atm
R = 0.0821 L.atm/mol. K
To solve for n, derive an equation for it using

the equation PV = nRT
𝐏𝐕 𝐧𝐑𝐓 𝐧𝐑𝐓
Divide both sides by P. = 𝐕=
𝐏 𝐏 𝐏
𝐋.𝐚𝐭𝐦
(𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏 )(____𝐊)
𝐦𝐨𝐥.𝐊
𝐕=
(𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝐚𝐭𝐦)
𝐕=
63
FLASH CHECK
A 4.90 g of unknown gas
A 6.50 mole carbon dioxide, CO2, occupied a volume of 2.50
occupies a volume of 13.5 L at L at 25.0 0C and 1.50 atm.
28.0 0C. Determine the pressure of Determine the molar mass
of the gas. Determine the
CO2 at these conditions.
molar mass of the gas.
Air Pressure in Airplanes

the ideal gas law relates to this because you have to know much oxygen is needed to put
in the cabin, using the proper pressure, temperature, and volume that fits the plane.
QUICK REFERENCES
In Real Life • General Chemistry 1 pp. 136-
138
If an engineer has to
• https://physicscentral.com/buzz
store 600g of oxygen in a
/blog/index.cfm?postid=104839
container and that oxygen 275455929786
needs to be kept at a pressure • https://prezi.com/cl3t7ces1vgz/i
of 1 atm and a temperature of deal-gases-in-the-real-
125 degrees Fahrenheit, world/#:~:text=In%20Real%2
the Ideal Gas Law is used to 0Life,-
figure out what volume of a One%20important%20real&text
container needs to be built. =For%20example%2C%20if%2
0an%20engineer,container%20
needs%20to%20be%20built.
CHEMISTRY 1
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
INSTANT TASK
Using the ideal gas law, can you setup the equation for the total pressure
of a mixture of gases consisting of gas A and gas B? Keep in mind the
ideal gas equation for each gas molecule, which is:
PAV = nART and PBV = nBRT or PABV = nA + nB (RT)
65
DIRECT TALK
Dalton's Partial Pressure
So far, gases have been dealt with individuality. This
means that changes in conditions relates to one type of gas only.
Mixtures of gases is more common and it is important that you
also know how to deal with such cases. The behavior of mixtures
of gases was described by John Dalton.
He said that in an enclosed container, the total
pressure exerted by the gases will be equal to
the summation of individual pressure exerted
by the gas as if it were alone in the container.
For a mixture of gases, A, B, C, and so on, the
total pressure is given by:
P tot = PA + PB + PC + ……….. + PN
Where PA to PN = partial pressure of individual gas components
An application of Dalton's partial pressure is in determining the mole
fraction, X, of a gas in a mixture of gases. Consider a container with gas A
and gas B. The total pressure, PT, exerted by the two gases is given by
PT = nTRT/V and the partial pressures for gas A and gas B is given by PA
=nART/V and PB = nBRT/V. Expressing the PT in terms of PA and PB will
result in:
PTotal = PA + PB
nT RT nA RT nB RT
= +
V V V
Combining similar terms, you have:
nT RT RT
= (nA + nB ) +
V V
Rearranging would result in:
V nT RT RT V
= (nA + nB ) +
nT RT V V nT RT
(nA + nB ) It is called the mole fraction and is given the symbol

1= X. The sum of the mole fraction contributed by each
nT
gas in the mixture is always equal to 1.
About 2.50 moles of H2 gas was mixed with 5.00 moles of C02 gas.
Determine the mole fraction, X, of H2 gas in the mixture.
number of moles of H2 = 2.50 moles

number of moles of CO2 = 5.00 moles
Mole Fraction
The total number of moles is: The mole fraction of H2 gas is:
nT = moles of H2 + moles of CO2 # of moles H2

𝐗 H2 =
nT = 2.50 moles + 5.00 moles total number of moles
nT = 7.50 moles
2.50 moles
𝐗 H2 =
2.50 moles + 5.00 moles
𝐗 𝐇𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
A mixture of H2 and He was placed in a 5.0 L sealed container and

maintained at 38.0 0C. Calculate the total pressure if 2.50 moles each of
H2 and He were mixed.
number of moles of H2 = 2.50 moles

number of moles of He = 2.50 moles
V = 5.0 L Total pressure
T = 38.00C + 273.15 K
The ideal gas equation for each Combining similar terms:

component of the mixture is given as: RT
Ptot = (nH2 + nHe)
V
nH2 RT
P H2 = and
V Substituting the given values:
nHeRT
P He =
V Ptot = (2.50 moles + 2.50 moles)
L.atm
(0.0821 )(311.15 K)
The total pressure, P tot, is given by: mol.K
(5.0 L)
P tot = P H2 + P He
𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐭 = 𝟐𝟔 𝐚𝐭𝐦
Substituting the partial pressures of
each gas would result in:
nH2 RT nHeRT
Ptot = +
V V
67
F LFLASH
A S H CHECK
CHECK
Solve theSolve
following problems.
the following problems.Provide
Provide systematic solutions for
systematic solutions
each.
for each.
AA total
total of
of 4.50
4.50 moles
moles of H22 gas was
mixed with
mixed with 10.00
10.00 moles
moles of Cl2 gas.
Determine the
Determine the mole
mole fraction,
fraction, X, of
Cl22 gas
Cl gas in
in the
the mixture.
mixture.
A mixture of 3.50 moles CO2 and

1.50 moles H2O (g) was placed in
65.0 L container at 65.0 0C.
Determine the total pressure
exerted by the mixture of gases.
Heliox, is a helium-oxygen mixture that may be used in scuba tanks medically as a

breathing treatment.
QUICK REFERENCES
As we breathe, the inspired gas partial • General Chemistry 1 pp. 139-142
pressures (O2, N2, CO2 and H2O • https://www.dansa.org/blog/2015/
vapor) within the alveolar sacs of the
11/10/the-oxygen-window
lung are in a dynamic balance with the
dissolved gas tensions in the blood
• https://www.alamy.com/stock-
flowing through the lung. Basically, as
photo-john-dalton-english-chemist-
per Dalton's Law: In a gas mixture, 135096524.html
the sum of the partial pressures of the
constituent gases equals the ambient
pressure. The same is ultimately true
for dissolved gas tensions (gases in
solution) at equilibrium or the point of
saturation, but gas tensions always lag
behind partial pressures changes by
varying degrees.
WORKSHEET 3 – Ideal Gas Law
Problem Solving
Directions: Solve the following problems. Provide a systematic solutions.
1. You fill a rigid steel cylinder with a volume of 20.0 L with nitrogen gas
to a final pressure of 20 000 kPa at 270C. How many moles of N2 gas does
the cylinder contain?
2. A 1.25 mole bromine gas, Br2, occupies a volume of 20.6 L at 35.00C.

Determine the pressure of Br2 at these conditions.
3. If I have 0.275 moles of gas at a temperature of -1980C and a pressure

of 1.75 atmospheres, what is the volume of the gas?
4. If I have 1.9 moles of gas held at a pressure of 5 atm and in a

container with a volume of 50 liters, what is the temperature of the gas?
5. If I have 72 liters of gas held at a pressure of 3.4 atm and a

temperature of 225 K, how many moles of gas do I have?
References:
• Exploring the Realms of Science - CHEMISTRY p. 275
• Expanded Fourth Edition - Chemistry p. 304
• https://www.npsd.k12.nj.us/cms/lib04/NJ01001216/Centricity/Domain/472/Idea
l%20Gas%20Law%20Worksheet%202%20Answer%20.pdf
69
WORKSHEET 4 – Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
Problem Solving
Directions: In a separate sheet of paper, show your solution and encircle
your final answer.
1. Air contains oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of

other gases. What is the partial pressure of oxygen (O2) at 101.30 kPa of
pressure if N2 = 79.10 kPa, CO2 = 0.040 kPa, and Pothers = 0.94 kPa?
2. Determine the total pressure of a gas mixture that contains oxygen,

nitrogen, and helium if the pressures of the gases are O2 = 20.0 kPa, N2 =
46.7 kPa, and He = 26.7 kPa.
3. A balloon contains mostly helium and a little methane. The partial

pressure of helium is 101.2 kPa. If the pressure inside the balloon is
101.30 kPa, what is the partial pressure of methane?
4. A sample of oxygen gas, which is saturated with water vapor, is kept in

a 10- L vessel at 30°C and has a pressure of 758 torr. If the pressure of
the water vapor at this temperature is 31.8 torr, what would be the
pressure of the dry oxygen?
5. In a gas mixture composed of N2, Ne, and He, the partial pressure of N2
is 0.50 atm, that of Ne is 1.1 atm, and the total pressure is 2.4 atm. What
is the partial pressure of He?
References:
• General Chemistry 1 p.18
• Expanded Fourth Edition - Chemistry p. 308
70
CHEMISTRY 1
Gas Stoichiometry
INSTANT TASK
Analyze the illustration below, then, answer

the question being asked.
Chocolate chip cookie recipe
If I want only 1 cookie, then how much of each ingredient is needed?
71
DIRECT TALK
Gas stoichiometry
Gases are complex entities occupying the most spaces and
having the least possible interactions with one another. There are
various applications involving the use of gaseous products such as
fire extinguishers, airbags in cars, and combustion of natural
gases.
In these reactions, you need to remember that the law of conservation
of mass must be considered. Thus, reactions should be expressed in a
balanced chemical equation. Because gases involve reactions that can be
expressed in terms of either their masses or amounts in terms of moles,
these quantities can be used with respect to other state variables such as P,
V, and T.
This part of the module will deal with the intertwined relationship
between gas laws and stoichiometry.
Airbags are incorporated to ensure safety of car passengers. One of the

substances used in the mechanism of airbag inflation is sodium azide
(NaN3), which is triggered by the impact of the collision of cars. The
decomposition of sodium azide is shown in the reaction as follows:
2 NaN3 ----- 2 Na + 3 N2
The one responsible for the inflation of airbags upon decomposition of

sodium azide is the formation of nitrogen gas. What is the volume of the
nitrogen gas produced at 850C and 875 mmHg by the decomposition of 78
g of sodium azide?
Establish the conversion factor based on the coefficients of
the balanced chemical equation.
𝟑 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 =
𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐚𝐍𝟑
Identify the route of conversion.
grams NaN3 --- moles of NaN3 --- moles of N2
Compute the number of moles of nitrogen gas
1 mol NaN3 3 mol N2
moles N2 = 78 g NaN3 x x
65.02 g NaN3 2 mol NaN3
= 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝟐
Because T, P, and n are already given, use the

equation for the ideal gas law to solve for V.
Variable Variable Value Value

P P875 mmHg
875 = 1.51 atm
mmHg = 1.51 atm
V V ? ?
n N 1.79 mol
1.79 mol
R R 0.0821 0.0821
L.atm/K.mol
L.atm/K.mol
T T 95 + 27395=+368
273K= 368 K
nT
V=R
P Cancel out all the similar units.
L.atm (1.79 mol)(368 K)
V = 0.0821 x
K.mol 1.51 atm
= 35.81 L of N2 gas
Carbon monoxide, CO, reacts with hydrogen gas, H2, to produce

propane, C3H8, and water according to the equation:
3 CO (g) + 7 H2 (g) ---- C3H8 (g) + 3 H2O (l)
What volume in L of C3H8 at 32.00C and 1.50 atm is produced by the

reaction of 4.50 g CO gas?
Mass of CO = 4.50 g
P = 1.50 atm
Volume of C3H8
T = 32.00C + 273.15 = 305.15 K
3 moles CO = 1 mole C3H8 nT

V=R
1 mole CO 1 mole C3 H8 P
4.50 g CO = x x
28.01 g CO 3 moles CO L. atm (0.0536 mol)(305.15 K)
V = 0.0821 x
K. mol 1.50 atm
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟔 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐂𝟑 𝐇𝟖
V = __________
73
FLASH CHECK
Solve the following problems. Provide a systematic solutions.
Determine the volume of carbon dioxide produced at 350C and

1.13 atm when 8.34 g of glucose was burned after a strenuous
exercise. Refer to the following balanced chemical equation:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ---- 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, decomposes to produce nitrogen gas,

N2, liquid water H2O, and oxygen gas, O2. The balance equation
for this reaction is:
2 NH4NO3 (s) ---- 2 N2 (g) + 4 H2O (l) + O2 (g)
Determine the volume in ml of O2 produced at 88.00C and 1.0 atm

when 7.50 g NH4NO3 is decomposed.
Many ingredients go into toothpaste and they make sure the right
stoichiometric quantities are put in each time, to meet our versatile needs.
QUICK REFERENCES
Stoichiometry is the • http://woodlandhighag.weebly.com/st
relationship of substances oichiometry.html
in an equation in terms of
quantity.
YOU MUST USE YOUR
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
SKILL TO BE SUCCESSFUL
WITH GAS STOICHIOMETRY!
74
WORKSHEET 5 – Gas Stoichiometry
A. Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

(For #1-3) Mr. Wangxian installed a pneumatic piston near his door that is
triggered to lock the door in case of an attack and placed 13.0 grams of
NaN3 in the empty piston. It is powered by the reaction below:
2 NaN3 (s) → 2 Na (s) + 3 N2 (g)
1. How many moles of NaN3 was available for the reaction? (Molar mass
of NaN3 is 65 g/mol)
A. 0.2 mol C. 0.1 mol
B. 0.3 mol D. 0.4 mol
2. Assuming that all of the NaN3 reacted, how many moles of nitrogen gas
was formed?
A. 0.2 mol C. 0.1 mol
B. 0.3 mol D. 0.4 mol
3. Assuming that all of the NaN3 reacted and the volume occupied by the
solid sodium is negligible, what is the final volume of the piston?
A. 6.27 L C. 6.72 L
B. 7.26 L D. 2.76 L
4. 22.4 L of compound A was measured at STP after a gaseous reaction,
how many moles of A was in the sample?
A. 0.1 mol C. 10 mol
B. 0.01 mol D. 1.0 mol
(For #5-7) Acetylene (C2H2) is formed by the reaction of water with
calcium carbide, according to the following equation:
CaC2 (s) + 2 H2O (l) → Ca (OH)2 (aq) + C2H2 (g)
Ms. Xiyao was told to prepare 10 L (at STP) of acetylene in the
laboratory.
5. How many moles of acetylene should Ms. Xiyao produce?
A. 0.644 mol C. 0.464 mol
B. 0.446 mol D. 4.064 mol
6. How many moles of CaC2 is needed to produce 10 L of acetylene?
A. 0.644 mol C. 0.464 mol
B. 0.446 mol D. 4.064 mol
75
WORKSHEET 6 – Gas Stoichiometry
7. How many grams of CaC2 must Ms. Xiyao prepare? (Molar mass of CaC2
is 64 g/mol)
A. 68.2 g C. 28.6 g
B. 62.8 g D. 26.8 g
(For #8-10) Mr. Sang Cheng burned 50 L of acetylene (C2H2) at STP in a
constant pressure piston. The piston expanded until the reaction was over.
The reaction proceeds:
2 C2H2 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 4 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
8. How many moles of acetylene is available for reaction?

A. 2.23 mol C. 3.23 mol
B. 3.22 mol D. 3.32 mol
9. Assuming that all of the acetylene reacted, how many moles of CO2 was
formed?
A. 6.64 mol C. 6.44 mol
B. 6.46 mol D. 4.46 mol
10. What volume is occupied by the CO2 at STP?
A. 0.10 L C. 10.0 L
B. 1.00 L D. 100 L
B. Directions: Look up some cases where gas stoichiometry can be used
in our modern day. In your own words, write about what you discovered
and how it is related to the topic.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
References:
• General Chemistry 1 pp. 3 - 5
76
CHEMISTRY 1
Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion
INSTANT TASK
Fill in the missing letters to form the term that is being

described in each number.
The inverse relationship between molar mass and rate of diffusion or

effusion is known as __________________.
__ R __ __ __ __ '__ __ A __
It is the process of a substance spreading out to evenly fill its container

or environment.
__ __ __ __ U __ __ O __
Refers to the movement of gas particles through a small hole.
__ F __ __ S __ __ __
77
DIRECT TALK
Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion
KMT established that gas molecules undergo continuous

random motion except at absolute zero temperature. There are
two phenomena related with the motion of gases-diffusion and
effusion.
Diffusion is the movement of a fluid from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration. It is a result of the kinetic
properties of particles of matter. The particles will mix until they are evenly
distributed. It may also be thought of as the movement of particles down a
concentration gradient.
Effusion, on the other hand, is the process by which gases under

pressure escapes or passes through small openings. Effusion favors lighter
gases. It is also used to separate 235UF6 and 238UF6. Because effusion favors
the former, the one that has a lighter molar mass, 235UF6 can be easily
isolated. 238UF6. was used in the production of atomic bombs during
WWII.
Graham's Law of Effusion (also called

Graham's Law of Diffusion) was formulated
by Scottish physical chemist Thomas Graham
in 1848. Graham found experimentally that the
rate of effusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of the mass of
its particles.
Thomas Graham
The law shows a relationship between the molar mass of the gas and
the rate of diffusion. The equation to show such relationship is:
𝟏
𝒓𝜶
√𝒅
Comparing the rate of two gases, A and B, we have:
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑩
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑨
= √𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑨
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑩
78
Determine the molar mass of an unknown gas if the ratio
is equal to 0.683.
ratio = 0.683 MM Unknown 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐇𝐂𝐥

𝐌𝐌𝐔𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧
=√ 𝐌𝐌𝐇𝐂𝐥
𝐌𝐌𝐇𝐂𝐥 = 36.46 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐔𝐧𝐤
2
𝐌𝐌𝐔𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧
𝐌𝐌 𝐔𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧
MM Unk 𝐌𝐌𝐔𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 = √𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟔 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝟎.𝟎.𝟔𝟖𝟑 = √
𝟔𝟖𝟑 = √𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟔 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟔 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝐌𝐌𝐔𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 = 17.01
g/mol
Calculate the molar mass of a gas that effuses at a rate

0.462 time N2.
ratio = 0.462 MM Unknown

Molar Mass gas B = 28.0 g/mol
Substitute the given values in the equation.
28.0 g/mol
Molar Mass gas B (0.462)2 =
rate gas A MMUnknown
= √Molar Mass gas A
rate gas B
28.0 g/mol 28.0 g/mol
MMUnknown = (0.462)2 = (0.213)
MM Unknown = 131 g/mol
79
F LFLASH
A S H CHECK
CHECK
Determine the
Determine the molar
molar
Calculate the ratio of the mass ofof an
an unknown
unknown
mass
effusion rates of helium gas gas if the
if the ratioratio is
is equal
and methane (CH4). equal to 0.16.
to 0.16.
This phenomenon is manifested when one sprays perfume in a very large room. If someone uses a
perfume at the other side of the room, it will take quite some time before your sense of smell perceives it.
QUICK REFERENCES
• https://www.dreamstime.com/illustrati
The detection of on/cartoon-propane-tank.html
• https://www.wikihow.com/Make-a-
methane gas in industries Rose-and-Lavender-Perfume
is done by using an • https://www.aisin.com/technology/pro
duce/
apparatus called the
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_
ainsin apparatus which Graham_(chemist)
has its origin from
graham's law.
80
WORKSHEET 7 – Graham's Law of Diffusion and Effusion
A. Multiple Choice
Directions: Read and analyze each questions. Choose the letter of the
correct answer.
1. Two bottles at the same temperature containing hydrogen sulphide

(H2S) and ammonia (NH3) are placed at equal lengths from you and are
opened at the same time. Which gas would you smell first?
A. Both C. None
B. Hydrogen sulphide D. Ammonia
2. Which of the following gases diffuses the fastest? Oxygen (O2),

Hydrogen (H2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), or Carbon dioxide (CO2)?
A. Oxygen C. Hydrogen
B. Sulphur dioxide D. Carbon dioxide
3. Which of the following gases diffuses the slowest? Oxygen (O2),

Hydrogen (H2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), or Carbon dioxide (CO2)?
A. Oxygen C. Hydrogen
B. Sulphur dioxide D. Carbon dioxide
4. Which of the following gases diffuses the fastest? Helium (He),

Ammonia (NH3), Hydrogen sulphide (H2S), or Carbon dioxide (CO2)?
A. Helium C. Ammonia
B. Hydrogen sulphide D. Carbon dioxide
5. Which of the following gases diffuses the slowest? Helium (He),

Ammonia (NH3), Hydrogen sulphide (H2S), or Carbon dioxide (CO2)?
A. Helium C. Ammonia
B. Hydrogen sulphide D. Carbon dioxide
81
WORKSHEET 8 – Graham's Law of Diffusion and Effusion
B. Problem Solving
Directions: In a separate sheet of paper, show your solution and encircle
your final answer.
1. If equal amounts of helium and argon are placed in a porous container

and allowed to escape, which gas will escape faster and how much faster?
2. If a molecule of CH4 diffuses a distance of 0.530 m from a point source,

calculate the distance (in meters) that a molecule of N2 would diffuse
under the same conditions for the same period of time.
3. Compare the rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide (CO2) & ozone (O3) at
the same temperature.
4. How much faster does hydrogen escape through a porous container

than sulfur dioxide?
5. What is the molecular weight of a gas which diffuses 1/50 as fast as

hydrogen?
References:
• General Chemistry 1 p.9
• https://www.chemteam.info/GasLaw/Gas-Graham-Prob1-10.html
82
83
START-UP START-UP START-UP
• SAME NO. OF ELECTRON • HETEROGENEOUS
- STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY • SAME NO. OF PROTON • YES
• DIFFERENT NO. OF NEUTRON
INSTANT TASK INSTANT TASK
INSTANT TASK 1. RINSE THE RICE THOROUGHLY IN
1. A. GEOMETRY OF MOLECULE CHROMIUM 63 COLD WATER IN ORDER TO REMOVE
DIRT AS WELL AS A LITTLE STARCH.
B. CHEMICAL SYMBOL P = 24
2. THE SUGAR IF YOU DISSOLVE IN
2. BF3 N = 39 WATER, THE SOLUTION CAN BE
3. A. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE E = 24 WASHED OFF AND THE SAND WILL
B. CHEMICAL FORMULA REMAIN SUSPENDED. THE SAND CAN
SODIUM 23 BE FILTERED AND SEPARATED FROM
FLASH CHECK P = 11 WATER BY FILTRATION PROCESS
N = 12 USING FILTER PAPER.
A. IONIC COMPOUND E = 11 3. TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS, OIL AND
WATER, CAN BE SEPARATED BY USING
1. CALCIUM AND IODINE
SEPARATING FUNNEL.
2. Ca + I SODIUM 24
3. Ca+2 + I-1 P = 11 FLASH CHECK
4. CRISS CROSS METHOD N = 13 • STIR THE ROCKS SALT IN WATER
5. Ca1I2 or CaI2 E = 11 • HEAT THE MIXTURE TO DISSOLVE
ALL SALT
B. COVALENT COMPOUND FLASH CHECK • POUR THE MIXTURE THROUGH A
1. NITROGEN AND OXYGEN 24 N = 12
12Mg FILTER PAPER TO REMOVE THE
2. N + O SAND
3. 2 + 1 25 N = 13 • LEAVE THE SALT SOLUTION TO
12Mg
4. N2 + O1 EVAPORATE
5. N2O 12Mg
26 N = 14 • YOU WILL BE LEFT WITH THE SALT
SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 6 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 5 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 4
Week 2
-STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY
-STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY -STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY
INSTANT TASK
1. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
INSTANT TASK 2. WATER INSTANT TASK
3. H2O (STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY)
1. STUDENT'S ANSWER VARY • HOMOGENEOUS
2. FLUORIDE, GLYCEROL, FLASH CHECK • HETEROGENEOUS
SORBITOL, CALCIUM • COMMON NAME • MIXTURE
CARBONATE, SODIUM LAURYL NATURAL GAS • PURE SUBSTANCE
SULFATE MURIATIC ACID • SOLID
BLEACH
• LIQUID
DRY ICE
FLASH CHECK WINDOW CLEANER • GAS
• NUMBER OF ATOM • ELEMENTS
-STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY C = 1, H = 4 • COMPOUNDS
H = 1, Cl = 1 • MATTER
Na = 1, O = 1, Cl = 1
C = 1, O = 2 FLASH CHECK
N = 1, H = 3
• TYPE OF ATOM
1. MIXTURE (HOMOGENEOUS)
CARBON AND HYDROGEN
HYDROGEN AND CHLORINE 2. PURE SUBSTANCE (COMPOUND)
SODIUM, OXYGEN AND CHLORINE 3. PURE SUBSTANCE (ELEMENT)
CARBON AND OXYGEN 4. MIXTURE (HOMOGENEOUS)
NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN 5. MIXTURE (HETEROGENEOUS)
Week 1
ANSWER KEY
84
- STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY - REFER TO PAGE 44 •2
INSTANT TASK INSTANT TASK INSTANT TASK
1. 9 PACKED MEALS • 68 1. 5 FB + 1 BS = 10 FB IN A STICK
2. 1 SANDWICH 2. 20 BAMBOO STICKS
3 ORANGES FLASH CHECK 3. 50 FISH BALLS
FLASH CHECK 1.
2. FLASH CHECK
A. 0.80 mol NH3
B. 24 g NO A. 4, 3, 2
B. 4:2
C. 3.406 g NH3 or 3.4 g NH3 C. 159.69 or 160 g/mol
D. 2.99 g
Week 4
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR START-UP START-UP
FORMULA
• CHEMICAL EQUATION • FIGURE B
1. EMPIRICAL FORMULA = C8H8O3 • H20, H2, O2 • CHEMICAL FORMULA
2. EMPIRICAL FORMULA = C4H8O2
3. EMPIRICAL FORMULA = C6H10O4 INSTANT TASK INSTANT TASK
4. MOLECULAR FORMULA = C6H8O6
5. MOLECULAR FORMULA = C5H10O2 • BICYCLE • MASS % ELEMENTS
1F, 2W, 1H, 2P • GRAMS OF EACH ELEMENT
BALANCING CHEMICAL • MOLES OF EACH ELEMENTS
EQUATIONS • TEAM • EMPIRICAL FORMULA
1C, 2F, 2G
1. 1, 2, 1, 2 FLASH CHECK
2. BALANCE FLASH CHECK
3. 1, 2, 1, 1 1. EMPIRICAL FORMULA = C10H12O2
4. 2, 2, 4, 1 1. 4, 3, 2 2. EMPIRICAL FORMULA = C2H6O
5. 2, 8, 2, 10 2. 1, 2, 1, 2 MOLECULAR FORMULA = C2H6O
6. BALANCE 3. 1, 2, 1, 2 3. EMPIRICAL FORMULA = C8H11O3N
7. 2, 7, 4, 6
8. 3, 1, 1, 3
9. BALANCE
10. 3, 2, 1
WORK SHEET 1 & 2 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 8 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 7
Week 3
ANSWER KEY
85
IDEAL GAS LAW START-UP START-UP
1. n = 160 mol -REFER TO PAGE 68 -REFER TO PAGE 64
2. P = 1.54 atm
3. V = 0.9676 L INSTANT TASK INSTANT TASK
4. T = 1602.67 K
5. n = 0.07546 mol -STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY -STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY
DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL FLASH CHECK DIRECT TALK
PRESSURE
1. X Cl2 = 0.69 • EXAMPLE 2
1. P O2 = 21.22 kPa 2. P tot = 26 atm GIVEN: T = 300 K
2. P tot = 93.4 kPa ANSWER: V = 13.03 L
3. P CH4 = 0.1 kPa
4. 726.2 torr FLASH CHECK
5. 0.8 atm
1. P = 11.9 atm
2. Molar mass = 32.0 g/mol
WORK SHEET 3 & 4 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 16 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 15
Week 6
-REFER TO PAGE 60 -REFER TO PAGE 52
-REFER TO PAGE 56
INSTANT TASK INSTANT TASK
INSTANT TASK
• BALLOON INSIDE THE ROOM • PRESSURE
1. DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL • INCREASE
-IT WOULD REMAIN ON THE FLOOR
2. INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL • DECREASE
• BALLOON OUTSIDE THE ROOM • TEMPERATURE
DIRECT TALK • EFFUSION
-WOULD EXPAND AND MAY BURST IF
OVER EXPANDED. • DIFFUSION
• EXAMPLE 2. V2 = 4L • GASES
DIRECT TALK • VOLUME
• CHALLENGE
A. 17.5 mL • GAS
• EXAMPLE 2. GIVEN: T = 283 K
ANSWER: 473 K B. 199.94 kPa DIRECT TALK
• CHALLENGE C. 80 mL
A. 50 mL D. 100 kPa TRY THIS! ANSWER: 101 498.32 Pa
B. 200 K E. 62.5 mL FLASH CHECK
C. 200 mL
D. 244 K FLASH CHECK A. 0.657895 atm
E. 2.11 X 10-3 or 0.0021 L B. 1000 torr
1. P2 = 3.75 atm C. 12.91 psi
FLASH CHECK
2. V2 = 16.25 mL D. 7 332.73 Pa
V = 0.47 L
Week 5
ANSWER KEY
86
GRAHAM'S LAW OF START-UP
DIFFUSION AND EFFUSION
-REFER TO PAGE 80
A.
INSTANT TASK
1. D
2. C 1. GRAHAM'S LAW
3. B 2. DIFFUSION
4. A 3. EFFUSION
5. D
FLASH CHECK
B.
1. 2:1
1. x = 3.16 2.
2. x = 0.401 m/s
3. x = 1.044
4. x = 5.637
5. x = 5040 g/mol
WORK SHEET 7 & 8 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 18
Week 8
GAS STOICHIOMETRY START-UP
A. -REFER TO PAGE 74
1. A INSTANT TASK
2. B
3. C 1
/12, 1/3, 1/24, 1/12, 1/24
4. D
5. B DIRECT TALK
6. B
7. C • EXAMPLE 2.
8. A ANSWER: V = 0.895 L
9. D
10. D FLASH CHECK
B. 1. 6.22 L
2. 1.36 L = 1360 mL
-STUDENT'S ANSWERS VARY
WORK SHEET 5 & 6 SCIENCE POCKET LESSON 17
Week 7
ANSWER KEY

Chemistry 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GENERAL

Science Pocket Lesson 1 Pure Substances and Mixtures 1

Worksheet 1 Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula 34

NOTE: There are

Matter, whether it is solid, liquid, or gas is classified

One example of a pure substance is

Law of Constant Composition or Definite Proportion A compound is made up elements

Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

of homogeneous mixtures of heterogeneous mixtures

Two examples of solution with varying Sand suspension in tap water

Analyze the picture below then answer the

What is the Meaning of a Given Chemical Formula?

The chemical formula also tells the number of

In the chemical formula HCl, there are two elements which

Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

Window cleaner Dry ice Natural gas Muriatic acid Bleach

Analyze the picture below then answer the

1. What problem is being addressed by the

What is a Consumer Product?

Consumer product is the final good that is bought by

What are Consumer Products?

The Science, Technology and Society are interrelated to one

Based from the table, some of the chemical components used to

Identify the active or the main ingredient of each item (i.e.,

Paper bag Plastic bag Clay pot

Starch and Rice

Sand and Sugar

As you have known earlier, components of mixtures are not chemically

*Decantation is a process to separate mixtures by

*Filtration is the process of separating suspended

*Distillation is used in collecting a pure liquid

*Chromatography is a separatory technique

*Sieving is defined as a method in which two or more

*Evaporation is a process in which a liquid

*Magnetism is the process of separating

*Crystallization is also a chemical solid-

*Extraction in chemistry is a separation

1. Pour rubbing alcohol into a plastic cup to a

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 2. Draw a horizontal line with the marking

Separation techniques aim to collect pure substances from

1. Separating sand and water could be done through

What are Isotopes?

What is the Nature of Isotopes?

➢ Oxygen - 16 isotope with the mass number of 16

RECALL: The mass number is

Some application of different isotopes are shown below. The

Isotope Symbol Isotope name Application

Magnesium has three isotopes with mass numbers 24,

(a) Write the complete chemical symbol (superscript and

(b) How many neutrons are in an atom of each isotope?

Analyze the figures below then answer the

The ionic compound is formed between a metal atom and a

Na+1 + Cl-1 Na1Cl1 or NaCl

In writing the chemical formula of an ionic compound, do the

Step 1 (Atoms involved) - Sodium and Chlorine

Step 4 (Criss-cross multiply the charges) - Na+1 + Cl-1

If you want to reverse the process, let us say naming an ionic

Step 1 (Chemical name involved) - Sodium and Chlorine

In writing the chemical formula of a covalent compound, do the

Step 1 (Atoms involved) - Carbon and Chlorine

1 - Mono 2 - Di 3 - Tri 4 - Tetra 5 - Penta

Step 4 (Combined the chemical symbol

Step 1 (Chemical name involved) - Carbon and Chlorine

COVALENT COMPOUND – dinitrogen monoxide

1. ___H2SO4 + _NaOH _Na2SO4 + ____H2O

2. ___K + _H2O _H2 + ___KOH

3. ___Mg + _HCl _MgCl2 + ___H2

4. ___Pb (NO3)2 _PbO4 + _NO2 + ___O2

5. ___PCl5 + _H2O _H3PO4 + ___HCl

6. ___Mg (HCO3)2 _MgCO3 + _CO2 + ___H2O

7. ___C2H6 + _O2 CO2 + ____H2O

8. ___AgNO3 + _Al _Al (NO3)3 + ___Ag

9. ___BaCO3 _BaO + ____CO2

10. _Fe + O2 ____Fe3O4

_____ + _ → ___________