Research

Research is a journey of discovery; an approach; an experience; a method of critical thinking; a careful

critical enquiry in seeking facts for principles.

Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using
scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic
inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and
deductive methods.

Types of research

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or
phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why”
of the research subject. The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a
demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it
“describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.

Historical research studies the meaning of past events in an attempt to interpret the facts and explain the
cause of events, and their effect in the present events. In doing so, researchers rely heavily on primary
historical data (direct accounts of events, archival data - official documents, personal records, and records
of eyewitnesses) and less frequently on secondary historical data (information from persons who didn’t
witness the event; e.g., textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias).

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended
questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher
understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research does not usually generate findings
that have immediate applications in a practical level. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the
desire to expand knowledge in specific research area. This type of research makes a specific contribution
to the academic body of knowledge in the research area. Fundamental studies tend to make generalizations
about the phenomenon, and the philosophy of this type of studies can be explained as ‘gathering knowledge
for the sake of knowledge’.

Applied research “aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, or an
industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations
and with the formulation of a theory”. Applied research is considered to be non-systematic inquiry and it is
usually launched by a company, agency or an individual in order to address a specific problem.

Characteristics of research

• The research should focus on priority problems.

• The research should be systematic. It emphasizes that a researcher should employ a structured
procedure.
• The research should be logical. Without manipulating ideas logically, the scientific researcher cannot
make much progress in any investigation.
• The research should be reductive. This means that the findings of one researcher should be made
available to other researchers to prevent them from repeating the same research.
• The research should be replicable. This asserts that there should be scope to confirm the findings of
previous research in a new environment and different settings with a new group of subjects or at a
different point in time.
• The research should be generative. This is one of the valuable characteristics of research because
answering one question leads to generating many other new questions.
• The research should be action-oriented. In other words, it should be aimed at reaching a solution leading
to the implementation of its findings.
• The research should follow an integrated multidisciplinary approach, i.e., research approaches from
more than one discipline are needed.
• The research should be participatory, involving all parties concerned (from policymakers down to
community members) at all stages of the study.
• The research must be relatively simple, timely, and time-bound, employing a comparatively simple
design.
• The research must be as much cost-effective as possible.
• The results of the research should be presented in formats most useful for administrators, decision-
makers, business managers, or the community members.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

Accurate – free of errors and including required details.

Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.

Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.

Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Levels of Measurements

There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of the four scales.
The four types of scales are:

• Nominal Scale
• Ordinal Scale
• Interval Scale
• Ratio Scale
Nominal Scale

A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or “labels” to
classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the non-numeric variables or the numbers
that do not have any value.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

• A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement mechanism,
the answer should fall into either of the classes.
• It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
• The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of numbers in the
nominal scale is “counting.”
Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:

What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female

Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of data without
establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the “order.” Ordinal data is known as
qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named and also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

• The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

• It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
 • Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the rankings of those
variables
• The interval properties are not known
• The surveyors can quickly analyze the degree of agreement concerning the identified order of
variables
Example:

• Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

• Ratings in restaurants
• Evaluating the frequency of occurrences
o Very often
o Often
o Not often
o Not at all
• Assessing the degree of agreement

o Totally agree
o Agree
o Neutral
o Disagree
o Totally disagree

Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative measurement scale in
which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In other words, the variables are measured
in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in which the presence of zero is arbitrary.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

• The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values
• It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
• To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values between the
variables
• The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical values to
arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Example:

• Likert Scale
• Net Promoter Score (NPS)
• Bipolar Matrix Table
Ratio Scale

The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of variable
measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals. The ratio scale has a
unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

• Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

• It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
• It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the ratio scale.
• Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit conversions like
kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.
Example:

An example of a ratio scale is:

What is your weight in Kgs?

• Less than 55 kgs

• 55 – 75 kgs
• 76 – 85 kgs
• 86 – 95 kgs
• More than 95 kgs

Variables
The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your study.

The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable.

Moderating variable: changes the strength of an effect between independent and dependent variables. For
example, psychotherapy may reduce stress levels for women more than men, so sex moderates the effect
between psychotherapy and stress levels.

Extraneous variables are any variables that you are not intentionally studying in your experiment or test.
Extraneous variables are any variables that you are not intentionally studying in your experiment or test.
When you run an experiment, you’re looking to see if one variable (the independent variable) has an effect
on another variable (the dependent variable). In an ideal world you’d run the experiment, check the results,
and voila! Unfortunately…like many things in life.it’s a little more complicated than that. Other variables,
perhaps ones that never crossed your mind, might influence the outcome of an experiment. These
undesirable variables are called extraneous variables.
An intervening variable is a hypothetical variable used to explain causal links between other variables.
Intervening variables cannot be observed in an experiment (that’s why they are hypothetical). For example,
there is an association between being poor and having a shorter life span. Just because someone is poor
doesn’t mean that will lead to an early death, so other hypothetical variables are used to explain the
phenomenon. These intervening variables could include: lack of access to healthcare or poor nutrition.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a logical prediction of certain occurrences without the support of empirical confirmation or
evidence.

In scientific terms, it is a tentative theory or testable statement about the relationship between two or more
variables i.e., independent and dependent variable.

Importance of Hypothesis:

• Guide the direction of the study

• Identify relevant facts
• Suggest most appropriate research design
• Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions

The Scientific Method

• Direct observation
• Clearly defined variables
• Clearly defined methods
• Empirically testable
• Elimination of alternatives
• Statistical justification
• Self-correcting process

Characteristics of Good Hypothesis:

 Conceptual clarity

 specific.

 Testability

 Availability of techniques

 Theoretical relevance

 Consistency

 Objectivity

 Simplicity

Working Hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a specific, clear prediction about the possible outcome of
a scientific research study based on specific factors of the population.
A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the existence, size, form, or distribution of a variable.
Researchers often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis. It encourages researchers to
crystallize their thinking about the likely relationships. It encourages researchers to think about the
implications of a supported or rejected finding. Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing statistical
significance.

1. RELATIONAL HYPOTHESIS
• Describes relationship between two variables
• May be positive or negative or casual
• Example: Families with higher income spend more on recreation High temperatures suppresses the
growth of microbial cells

2. FORMALISED HYPOTHESIS
• Cause and effect relationships between variables
• Change in one variable affects the other variable
• First variable- independent variable
• Second variable- dependent variable
• Example: “If the diffusion rate through a membrane is related to molecular size, then the smaller
the molecule, the faster it will pass through the membrane.

A Null hypothesis is a general statement which states no relationship between two variables or two
phenomena. It is usually denoted by H0.

Example: In clinical trial, there is no significant difference between two

An Alternative hypothesis is a statement which states some statistical significance between two
phenomena. It is usually denoted by H1.

Example: In clinical trial, there is no significant difference between two drugs- null hypothesis In clinical
trials, the new drug is better than the current drug- Alternate hypothesis

1. Directional hypothesis
• Directional hypothesis is those where one can predict the direction (effect of one variable on the
other as Positive or Negative)
• for e.g: Girls perform better than boys (better than shows the direction predicted)

2. Non-directional hypothesis
• Non-Directional hypothesis are those where one does not predict the kind of effect but can state a
relationship between variable 1 and variable 2.
• for e.g. There will be a difference in the performance of girls & boys (Not defining what kind of
difference)
 Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning is the form of valid reasoning, to deduce new information or conclusion from known
related facts and information.

1. Have Theories then Hypotheses

2. Data are Gathered to Test
3. Conformation or testing of hypothesis

 Deductive reasoning follows a top-down approach.

 Deductive reasoning is narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses.
 Theory→hypothesis→observation→confirmation.
 Deductive reasoning reaches from general facts to specific facts.
 It is a downward process of thought and leads to useful results.
 It is a method of verification.
 Theory driven

Inductive Reasoning arrives at a conclusion by the process of generalization using specific facts or data.

1. Observe fact and describe it

2. Offer hypothesis/explanation about event
3. formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and
4. finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

 Inductive reasoning follows a bottom-up approach.

 Observations→patterns→hypothesis→Theory.
 Inductive reasoning reaches from specific facts to general facts.
 It is an upward process of thought and leads to principles.
  It is a method of discovery.

Literature review

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current
knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

Why write a literature review?

The literature review gives you a chance to:

1. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done

2. Discovering important variables relevant to the topic
3. Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective
4. Identifying relationships between ideas and practice
5. Establishing the context of the topic or problem
6. Understanding the significance of the problem
7. Understanding the structure of the subject
8. Relating ideas and theory to applications
9. Identifying methodologies and techniques that have been used
10. Placing the research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments

Purposes of Literature Review

• Determines what is known about a subject, concept or problem

• Determines gaps, consistencies & inconsistencies about a subject, concept or problem
• Discovers unanswered questions about a subject, concept or problem
• Describes strengths & weaknesses of designs, methods of inquiry and instruments used in earlier
works
• Discovers conceptual traditions used to examine problems
• Generates useful research questions or projects/activities for the discipline
• Promotes development of protocols & policies related to nursing practice
• Uncovers a new practice intervention, or gains support for changing a practice intervention

TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEWS

1. Traditional or Narrative literature Review

A narrative or traditional literature review is a comprehensive, critical and objective analysis of the current
knowledge on a topic. They are an essential part of the research process and help to establish a theoretical
framework and focus or context for your research. A literature review will help you to identify patterns and
trends in the literature so that you can identify gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge. This should
lead you to a sufficiently focused research question that justifies your research.

2. Systematic Literature Review

A systematic literature review (SLR) identifies, selects and critically appraises research in order to answer
a clearly formulated question (Dewey, A. & Drahota, A. 2016). The systematic review should follow a
clearly defined protocol or plan where the criteria is clearly stated before the review is conducted. It is a
comprehensive, transparent search conducted over multiple databases and grey literature that can be
replicated and reproduced by other researchers. It involves planning a well thought out search strategy
which has a specific focus or answers a defined question. The review identifies the type of information
searched, critiqued and reported within known timeframes. The search terms, search strategies (including
database names, platforms, dates of search) and limits all need to be included in the review.

3. Meta-analysis

 A form of systematic review

 Takes findings from several studies on the same subject and analyzes them using standardized statistical
procedures
 Integrates findings from a large body of quantitative findings to enhance under-standing (study=unit of
analysis)
 Draws conclusions and detect patterns and relationships

4. Meta-synthesis

 Non-statistical technique
 Integrates, evaluates and interprets findings of multiple qualitative research studies
 Identifies common core elements and themes
 Involves analyzing and synthesizing key elements
 Goal: transform individual findings into new conceptualizations and interpretations

Pooled data occur when we have a “time series of cross sections,” but the observations in each cross
section do not necessarily refer to the same unit.
Panel data refers to samples of the same cross-sectional units observed at multiple points in time.

• A balanced panel has every observation from 1 to N observable in every period 1 to T.

• An unbalanced panel has missing data.

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory refers to a set of systematic inductive methods for conducting qualitative research aimed
toward theory development. Grounded theory is a general research method (and thus is not owned by any
one school or discipline); which guides you on matters of data collection and details rigorous procedures
for data analysis. You can use quantitative data; or qualitative data of any type e.g. video, images, text,
observations, spoken word etc. Grounded theory is a research tool which enables you to seek out and
conceptualize the latent social patterns and structures of your area of interest through the process of constant
comparison.
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is mainly
used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of the whole population,
probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your
sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that
are based entirely on chance.

Example

You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of Company X. You assign a number to
every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100
numbers.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every
member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals
are chosen at regular intervals.

Example

All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly
select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16,
26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list that might
skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team members are listed
in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a
sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways.
It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the
sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant
characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be sampled from
each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example

The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the sample
reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then
you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative
sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have
similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques
above.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the
sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example

The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of employees in
similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random
sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every individual
has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That means
the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability samples, and your
conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In these types
of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial
understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.

Example
You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after each of your classes,
you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but
as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not
representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of
the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by
responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more
likely to volunteer than others.

Example
You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide to complete it. This
can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those
who have strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are
representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to
select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a
specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and
specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.
Example
You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your university, so you
purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in order to gather a varied range of
data on their experiences with student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.

Example
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all homeless people
in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate in the
research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling

Quota sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling method in which researchers create a sample
involving individuals that represent a population. Researchers choose these individuals according to
specific traits or qualities. They decide and create quotas so that the market research samples can be useful
in collecting data. These samples can be generalized to the entire population. The final subset will be
decided only according to the interviewer’s or researcher’s knowledge of the population.

For example, a cigarette company wants to find out what age group prefers what brand of cigarettes in a
particular city. He/she applies quotas on the age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+. From this
information, the researcher gauges the smoking trend among the population of the city.

6. Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling, also called purposive sampling or authoritative sampling, is a non-probability

sampling technique in which the sample members are chosen only on the basis of the researcher’s
knowledge and judgment. As the researcher’s knowledge is instrumental in creating a sample in this
sampling technique, there are chances that the results obtained will be highly accurate with a minimum
margin of error.

The process of selecting a sample using judgmental sampling involves the researchers carefully picking
and choosing each individual to be a part of the sample. The researcher’s knowledge is primary in this
sampling process as the members of the sample are not randomly chosen.

Consider a scenario where a panel decides to understand what are the factors which lead a person to select
ethical hacking as a profession. Ethical hacking is a skill which has been recently attracting youth. More
and more people are selecting it as a profession. The researchers who understand what ethical hacking is
will be able to decide who should form the sample to learn about it as a profession. That is when judgmental
sampling is implemented. Researchers can easily filter out those participants who can be eligible to be a
part of the research sample.