metals

Article
T-FSW of Dissimilar Aerospace Grade Aluminium
Alloys: Influence of Second Pass on Weld Defects
Mustufa Haider Abidi 1, * , Nabeel Ali 2 , Hashmatullah Ibrahimi 2 , Saquib Anjum 2 ,
Dhruv Bajaj 2 , Arshad Noor Siddiquee 2 , Mohammed Alkahtani 1,3 and
Ateekh Ur Rehman 3
1 Advanced Manufacturing Institute, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia;
moalkahtani@ksu.edu.sa
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India;
nabeelali22@gmail.com (N.A.); hashmatullahibrahimi.hi@gmail.com (H.I.);
saquibanjum98@gmail.com (S.A.); maildhruv08@gmail.com (D.B.); ansiddiqui@jmi.ac.in (A.N.S.)
3 Industrial Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421,
Saudi Arabia; arehman@ksu.edu.sa
* Correspondence: mabidi@ksu.edu.sa; Tel.: +966-545269756




Received: 28 March 2020; Accepted: 17 April 2020; Published: 18 April 2020


Abstract: The restoration of numerous aircraft structures is achievable with effective repair of welded
joints. T-joints are often utilized in these structures to provide structural stability, keeping minimal
body weight. Multi-pass friction stir welding (FSW) has proved to be useful for improving the
quality of aluminium alloy welds employed in the aerospace sector. However, FSW of these alloys
in T-configuration has not been sufficiently addressed yet. Even rarer is the discussion of efficacy
of second FSW pass, with altered process parameters for improving the weld quality in T-joints.
Hence, two commonly used aerospace grade aluminium alloys, namely, AA2024 and AA7075, were
friction stir welded in T-configuration, varying three process parameters, i.e., tool rotational speed,
welding speed and shoulder diameter. The effect of second FSW pass, performed at an optimum set
of parameters, on kissing bond and tunnelling defect was studied in detail. A substantial reduction
in the detrimental effect of these weld defects was discussed via tensile testing, micro-hardness and
micro-structural observations.

Keywords: friction stir welding; T joints; second pass; defects; light alloys; AA2024; AA7075

1. Introduction
The safety and structural integrity of aircraft structures are largely dependent upon the skin-stringer
joining [1–3]. T-joints in these structures enable a considerable increase in resistance against inertia and
strength without substantial increase in weight, making them a vital component in the aerospace and
transportation sectors [4]. The fabrication of skin-stringer welds using friction stir welding (FSW) not
only eliminates the use of rivets [5], but also adds the benefits associated with this solid state joining
technology, namely, zero porosity welds [6–8], low residual stresses [9], good dimensional stability [10],
improved corrosion resistance [11], etc. Moreover, FSW has proved to be the most effective technology
for joining aerospace grade aluminium alloys, mainly the 2xxx and 7xxx series in both similar and
dissimilar arrangements [12–19]. Specifically, the joining of AA2024-T3 and AA7075-T6 alloys is
commonly useful in the aerospace industry [20,21].
The main challenge faced during the T-section FSW is improper mixing between the skin and
stringer metals. Previous studies have indicated that during the FSW of T-joints, mixing along the skin
and stringer sections plays a key role in the determination of the weld quality [22–24]. Due to the same

Metals 2020, 10, 525; doi:10.3390/met10040525 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2020, 10, 525 2 of 14

reason, various defects like kissing bond, hooking and tunnels occur in the weld zone. A kissing bond
is formed due to oxide layer retention at faying interface, which is caused primarily because of lack
of sufficient heat and plastic deformation. Whereas, a tunnel is formed either due to (1) inadequate
heating of the base metal leading to insufficient material flow, or (2) excessive softening and lack of
consolidation of the metal in the solid phase joint. Zhao et al. [22] demonstrated the disparity in the
effects of kissing bond and tunnelling defect in deterioration of the weld strength along the skin and
stringer, respectively. It was established that an increase in the traverse speed results in larger voids
and the kissing bond shifts towards the stir zone (SZ). However, if the kissing bond or oxide bands are
located near the edges of the fillet zones, the weld strength decreases significantly [25]. Sato et al. [26]
showed that no metallic bonding takes place on either side of the kissing bond line. Investigations with
variation in shape (flat and curved) of the die corners (corners at both sides of the weld throat) and
T-joint configuration, i.e., joint elements in two pieces and three pieces, have also been studied in detail.
In the past, research studies have resulted in an increase in weld properties, by employing
multiple FSW passes at the same parameters [1,27–29]. Studies conducted by Sathari et al. [28] showed
improved hardness, tensile strength and ductility for friction stir welds obtained via double pass, on
comparison with the welds obtained through single pass. He et al. [1] concluded that the stability of
the properties along the weld length improves after the double pass. A decrease in residual stress after
multiple FSW passes has also been reported in the literature [27]. However, the potential for increase
of friction stir weld properties by double pass has scarcely been utilized for dissimilar skin-stringer
joining in general and 7xxx-2xxx combination in particular. Moreover, the effect of double pass in
FSW, along with altered process parameters for the second pass has been accounted even more rarely.
Further, most of the studies on FSW are focussed on welding in butt configuration. The nature of
plasto-mechanics in the material required for successful FSW in T-configuration differs from that of
butt configuration. Since a greater heat dissipation from the weld takes place due to clamping of the
stringer, process parameters required to produce fine weldments are also different from those required
in butt-welding [30,31]. Therefore, in the current study, two alloys vital for the aircraft industry, namely,
AA2024-T3 and AA7075-T6, have been friction stir welded in T-joint configuration. The effect of second
friction stir pass performed with changed process parameters upon the weld defects, micro-structural
and mechanical properties has been addressed in detail.

2. Materials and Methods

FSW was performed in T-configuration, keeping AA2024-T3 alloy and AA7075-T6 alloy as skin
and stringer materials, respectively. Since most applications of T-joints involve high strength material
used as stringer [4], AA7075 alloy was kept as the stringer material. The dimensions of both the
AA2024 and AA7075 alloy sheets were 200 mm × 50 mm × 2 mm. The chemical composition of these
alloys is shown in Tables 1 and 2. Relevant mechanical and thermal properties are stated in Table 3.
The incipient melting-liquidus temperature, thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity of the
alloys has been obtained from the literature [32–36].

Table 1. Chemical composition of AA2024-T3 alloy (wt.%).

Element Al Cu Mg Si Fe Ni Mn Zn Pb Sn Ti Cr V
Wt.% Balance 4.62 1.10 0.062 0.133 0.014 0.438 0.03 0.004 0.012 0.027 <0.005 0.009

Table 2. Chemical composition of AA7075-T6 alloy (wt.%)

Element Al Cu Mg Si Fe Ni Mn Zn Pb Sn Ti Cr V
Wt.% Balance 1.6 2.74 0.051 0.127 <0.008 0.022 5.5 <0.001 0.005 0.024 0.218 0.008
Metals 2020, 10, 525 3 of 14
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

Table
Table 3. Thermal and Mechanical properties of AA2024-T3 and AA7075-T6 alloys.

Aluminium
Aluminium Alloy
Alloy
Property
Property
AA2024-T3
AA2024-T3 AA7075-T6
AA7075-T6
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) (MPa) 437 437 517
517
Vickers Hardness
Vickers Hardness (HV) (HV) 168 168 225
225
Incipientmelting-liquidus
Incipient melting-liquidus (◦ C) (°C)
Temperature
Temperature ◦C
502–638
502–638 477–635◦ C°C
°C 477–635
Thermal
Thermal Conductivity
Conductivity(W/(m·K))
(W/(m·K)) 121 121 130
130
Specific heat capacity (J/(g·◦ C)) 0.875 0.96
Specific heat capacity (J/(g·°C)) 0.875 0.96

A robust vertical milling machine with an indigenously

indigenously developed fixture and tool adopter were
utilized for
for carrying
carryingoutoutFSW.
FSW.AnAnexperimental
experimental setup,
setup, including
including thethe fixture
fixture usedused for clamping
for clamping the
the skin
skin and stringer
and stringer plates,
plates, is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 1. 1.

Figure 1.
Figure Experimental setup
1. Experimental setup for
for performing
performing friction
friction stir
stir welding
welding (FSW) in T-configuration.

A die
A die corner
corner radius
radius ofof 22mm
mmwas wasused
usedtotoclamp
clampthethestringer.
stringer.The
Thefillet
filletformed
formedininthe T-joint
the due
T-joint to
due
the die corners radius is necessary to avoid stress concentration at these sites [37].
to the die corners radius is necessary to avoid stress concentration at these sites [37]. High chromium High chromium
high carbon
high carbon steel
steel was
was used
used for
for making
making the
the FSW
FSW tool.
tool. Tool
Tool pin
pin failure
failure due
due to to process
process forces
forces is
is another
another
major challenge in the FSW of high strength aluminium alloys [38]. Continuous
major challenge in the FSW of high strength aluminium alloys [38]. Continuous tapered pin profile tapered pin profile
with pin length 1.9 mm, a pin tip diameter 1.8 mm and pin root diameter 5.6
with pin length 1.9 mm, a pin tip diameter 1.8 mm and pin root diameter 5.6 mm was selected after mm was selected after
trial experimentation
trial experimentation to to induce
induce effective
effective material
material flow
flow atat the
the skin/stringer
skin/stringer interface
interface and
and prevent
prevent stress
stress
concentration at the root of the pin. The tool used for performing FSW and the
concentration at the root of the pin. The tool used for performing FSW and the transverse cross- transverse cross-section
of weldof
section geometry is schematically
weld geometry illustrated
is schematically in Figure
illustrated in2.Figure 2.
Three process parameters, namely, tool rotational speed, traverse speed and shoulder diameter,
were varied across three levels. A Taguchi L9 orthogonal array was employed to design the experiments.
Prior trial experimentation was also performed to identify the range of process parameters which
yields sound welds.
Furthermore, to eliminate weld defects and enhance joint strength, second FSW pass was
performed on welds obtained from Exp. Nos. 3 and 5. The type of defects found on advancing side
(AS) and retreating side (RS) differ because of variation in material flow characteristics on the two
sides. Similar flow kinematics during second pass can thus increase the size and detrimental effect of
these defects. Therefore, the AS and RS were switched for the second FSW pass. These experiments
have been termed as Exp. Nos. 3a and 5a, respectively. The parameters for double pass were kept
same as those of Exp. No. 8. Peak tensile strength along stringer was selected as the criterion for
selection of parameters for the second pass. The strategy behind this particular approach for second
Metals 2020, 10, 525 4 of 14

pass has been addressed in detail in Section 3.1. Tool tilt angle was kept constant at 2◦ . Table 4 shows
the experimental
Metals design
2020, 10, x FOR for the current investigation.
PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

Figure2.2. Schematic
Figure Schematic representation
representation for
for (a)
(a) Tool
Tool 3D
3D model
model (b)
(b) Tool
ToolComputer
Computer Aided
Aided Design
Design (CAD)
(CAD)
Drawing (c) Transverse weld cross-section (All dimensions are in mm).
Drawing (c) Transverse weld cross-section (All dimensions are in mm).

Three process parameters, namely, 4. Experimental

Tabletool Design.
rotational speed, traverse speed and shoulder diameter,
were varied across three levels. A Taguchi L9 orthogonal array was employed to design the
Process Parameter Level
Experimental Design
experiments. Experiment
Prior trial Number
experimentation was alsoDiameter
performed Rotational
to identify the range of Speed
process
Shoulder Speed Welding
parameters which yields sound1 welds. 14 710 40
Furthermore, to eliminate2 weld defects and 16 enhance joint strength,
710 second FSW50pass was
performed on welds obtained from 3 Exp. Nos. 3 and125. The type of defects 900 found on advancing
50 side
4 12 560 40
(AS) and retreating
Taguchi L9 side (RS) differ
5 because of variation
16 in material flow560 characteristics on
63 the two
sides. Similar flow kinematics during 6 second pass can 14 thus increase the900size and detrimental63 effect of
these defects. Therefore, the AS7 and RS were switched 14 for the second FSW 560 pass. These experiments
50
8 12 710 63
have been termed as Exp. Nos.9 3a and 5a, respectively. 16 The parameters 900for double pass 40 were kept
same as those of Exp. No. 8. Peak 3a
tensile strength along
12
stringer was selected
710
as the criterion
63
for
Second Pass
selection of parameters for the5asecond pass. The strategy behind this particular approach 63for second
12 710
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
pass has been addressed in detail in Section 3.1. Tool tilt angle was kept constant at 2°. Table 4 shows
the experimental
A sample
sample frictiondesign for the current investigation.
A friction stir
stir welded
welded T-joint
T-joint is
is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 3.
3.
Table 4. Experimental Design.

Process Parameter Level

Experimental Experiment
Shoulder Rotational Welding
Design Number
Diameter Speed Speed
1 14 710 40
2 16 710 50
3 12 900 50
4 12 560 40
Taguchi L9 5 16 560 63
6 14 900 63
7 14 560 50
Figure 8 12 710 63
Figure 3.
3. A
A sample
sample friction
friction stir
stir welded
welded dissimilar
dissimilar T-joint.
T-joint.
9 16 900 40
The test specimens were cut3ausing the CNC wire 12 electric discharge 710machine (WEDM).
63 The
Second Pass
standard metallographic procedure5a was followed for12 710
micro-structural examination. The 63
polished
specimens were etched using 1.5 mL HNO3 + 1 mL HF + 97.5 mL H2O and observed under an optical
microscope (OM). Vickers micro-hardness was measured on the transverse cross section, along the
Metals 2020, 10, 525 5 of 14
Figure 3. A sample friction stir welded dissimilar T-joint.

The specimenswere
The test specimens werecutcut using
using the the
CNCCNCwire wire electric
electric discharge
discharge machine machine
(WEDM). (WEDM). The
The standard
standard metallographic
metallographic procedureprocedure
was followedwas for
followed for micro-structural
micro-structural examination.examination.
The polishedThespecimens
polished
specimens
were etched were etched
using 1.5 mL using
HNO 3+
1.5 mL HNO
1 mL HF3 ++197.5
mLmL HFH + 297.5 mLobserved
O and H2O andunder
observed undermicroscope
an optical an optical
microscope
(OM). Vickers (OM). Vickers micro-hardness
micro-hardness was measuredwas measured
on the transverseon cross
the transverse crossthe
section, along section,
skin andalong the
stringer
skin
of theand stringer
welded of Each
joint. the welded joint. was
indentation Eachmade
indentation was made
at a distance of 0.5 at
mm a distance
with axialofload
0.5 mm
and with
dwellaxial
time
load
of 100and dwell
gram andtime ofrespectively.
15 s, 100 gram andTensile
15 s, respectively. Tensile
strength of the strength
T-joints of the T-joints
was measured was
along themeasured
skin and
along
stringertheusing
skin aand stringer
computer using a Tensometer
controlled computer controlled
with 20 kN Tensometer withparameter
capacity. The 20 kN capacity. The
combination
parameter
which yieldedcombination
optimum which
tensile yielded
strengthoptimum
along the tensile
stringerstrength alongfor
was selected thethe
stringer
secondwas selected
pass. for
Tests were
the second pass.
performed Tests
at room were performed
temperature and at at roomhead
a cross temperature
speed ofand at a cross
2 mm/min. Thehead speedused
fixtures of 2 for
mm/min.
tensile
The fixtures
testing with used for tensile
the firmly fixedtesting
samples with
are the firmly
shown fixed samples
in Figure 4. are shown in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure4.4.Fixtures
Fixturesused
usedfor
fortensile
tensiletesting
testingalong
along(a)
(a)Stringer,
Stringer,(b)
(b)Skin.
Skin.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Tensile Strength

The tensile strength, percentage elongation and fracture location for all the welds along the
skin and stringer have been shown in Table 5. The experiments have been classified according to
their respective tool rotational speeds. The failed tensile specimen tested along the stringer and
skin are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. Apart from SZ, the specimen also failed from the
thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), tunnel and the kissing bond (KB) defect. It can be clearly
observed from Table 5 that a tool rotation speed of 710 rpm yields welds with relatively higher tensile
strength and elongation along the skin and stringer. However, at a constant rotational speed, increase
in tensile strength along the stringer is discernible with increasing welding speed, whereas no such
pattern is visible for tensile strength along the skin. For single pass, a peak tensile strength (along skin)
of 330 MPa was observed for Exp. No. 1 while maximum tensile strength along stringer (155 MPa)
was observed for Exp. No. 8.
 in tensile strength along the stringer is discernible with increasing welding speed, whereas no such
pattern is visible for tensile strength along the skin. For single pass, a peak tensile strength (along
skin) of 330 MPa was observed for Exp. No. 1 while maximum tensile strength along stringer (155
MPa) was observed for Exp. No. 8.
Metals 2020, 10, 525 6 of 14
Table 5. Tensile Properties of welds tested along Skin and Stringer.

Tensile Properties along

Process Parameters Tensile
Table 5. Tensile Properties Properties
of welds along
tested alongSkin
Skin and Stringer.
Stringer
Exp.
Process Parameters Tensile
Tensile Properties Tensile
No. N D Elongati along Skin
Fracture Tensile Properties along Stringer
Elongati Fracture
v (mm/min) Strength Strength
Exp.(rpm)
No. (mm) Tensile on (%) Location Tensile on (%) Location
N v Elongation Fracture (MPa) Elongation Fracture
D (mm) (MPa)
Strength Strength
(rpm) (mm/min) (%) Location (%) Location
4 560 40 12 197
(MPa) 6.7 SZ (MPa)45 1.4 SZ
7 4 560 560 50 40 14 12 216 197 7.36.7 SZ
SZ 45 83 1.43.1 SZ SZ
5 7 560 560 63 50 16 14 177216 6.87.3 SZ
SZ 83 85 3.12.7 SZ SZ
1 5 710 560 40 63 14 16 330177 8.46.8 SZ
RS-TMAZ 85 71 2.72.8 SZ SZ
1 710 40 14 330 8.4 RS-TMAZ 71 2.8 SZ
2 710 50 16 303 10.9 SZ 108 3.2 SZ
2 710 50 16 303 10.9 SZ 108 3.2 SZ
8 8 710 710 63 63 12 12 258258 10.2
10.2 RS-KB
RS-KB 155155 4.34.3 SZ SZ
9 9 900 900 40 40 16 16 209209 6.96.9 SZ
SZ 42 42 1.81.8 SZ SZ
3 3 900 900 50 50 12 12 150150 6.26.2 Tunnel
Tunnel 53 53 2.22.2 SZ SZ
6 6 900 900 63 63 14 14 265 265 7.07.0 AS-KB
AS-KB 63 63 2.32.3 SZ SZ
3a 3a 710 710 40 40 14 14 307307 13.6
13.6 RS-KB
RS-KB 177177 3.43.4 SZ SZ
5a 5a 710 710 40 40 14 14 273273 7.77.7 RS-KB
RS-KB 165165 5.65.6 SZ SZ

Figure 5.
Figure Fractured tensile
5. Fractured tensile specimen
specimen tested
tested along
along stringer
stringer for
for (a–i)
(a–i) Exp. Nos. 1–9
Exp. Nos. 1–9 (j)
(j) Exp.
Exp. No.
No. 3a
3a (k)
(k)
Exp. No. 5a.
Exp. No. 5a.

The second pass was strategically performed on the parameters which yielded optimum tensile
strength along the stringer, i.e., Exp. No. 8. The effect of tool rotational speed on tensile strength
was found to be dominant amongst the three parameters. Thus, to study the effect of second pass
with altered process parameters from the scheme of first pass, one weld with lower and one weld
with higher initial rotational speed than that of Exp. No. 8 were selected for second pass. At the
rotational speeds of 560 rpm and 900 rpm, the welds with least tensile strength along the skin, i.e.,
Exp. Nos. 3 and 5, were chosen to achieve an overall improvement in the tensile properties of the
welds. For the specimen incurring a tunnel defect, i.e., Exp. No. 3 (as shown in Section 3.2), an increase
of more than 100% and 200% after the second pass was witnessed in the tensile strength along skin
and stringer, respectively. Since Exp. No. 5 at the rotational speed of 560 rpm showed minimum
strength along the skin, the second pass was performed on this weld. In this case, the tensile strength
along skin improved from 177 MPa to 273 MPa, whereas along the stringer, the strength improved
from 85 MPa to 165 MPa. The increase in tensile strength along the stringer for Exp. Nos. 3a and
5a demonstrates that the effect of kissing bond defect has decreased to a considerable degree after
the second pass. A minimum rotational speed of 560 rpm does not generate sufficient heat to induce
effective metallic bonding between the two base alloys. On the other hand, the highest rotational speed
Metals 2020, 10, 525 7 of 14

of 900 rpm excessively softens the base alloy. As a result, the tool is not able to consolidate the material
effectively, which ultimately lowers the tensile strength. Superimposing the optimum tool rotational
speed of 710 rpm on these welds successfully eliminates these shortcomings, leading to the substantial
Metals 2020, 10, xof
enhancement FOR PEER REVIEW
tensile properties. 7 of 15

Figure 6. Fractured
Figure 6. Fractured tensile
tensile specimen
specimen tested
tested along
along skin
skin for
for (a–i)
(a–i)Exp.
Exp. Nos.
Nos. 1–9
1–9 (j)
(j) Exp.
Exp. No. 3a (k)
No. 3a (k) Exp.
Exp.
No. 5a.
No. 5a.

Along the stringer, all the welds failed from the interface of the two base alloys in SZ, as shown in
The second pass was strategically performed on the parameters which yielded optimum tensile
Figure 5. Whereas, along the skin, 7 out of 9 welds from Taguchi L9 experimental design failed from
strength along the stringer, i.e., Exp. No. 8. The effect of tool rotational speed on tensile strength was
SZ, in such a manner that the stringer remained intact with the AS of skin section, as shown in Figure 6.
found to be dominant amongst the three parameters. Thus, to study the effect of second pass with
This is principally due to better intermixing between the two alloys at the AS as compared to the RS.
altered process parameters from the scheme of first pass, one weld with lower and one weld with
Furthermore, Exp. Nos. 3a and 5a can also be observed to adopt the failure location of Exp. No. 8,
higher initial rotational speed than that of Exp. No. 8 were selected for second pass. At the rotational
failing from the RS-KB. This is evident of the effective superimposition of material flow characteristics
speeds of 560 rpm and 900 rpm, the welds with least tensile strength along the skin, i.e., Exp. Nos. 3
which improved the weld structure of Exp. Nos. 3 and 5, in coherence with the weld structure of Exp.
and 5, were chosen to achieve an overall improvement in the tensile properties of the welds. For the
No. 8.
specimen incurring a tunnel defect, i.e., Exp. No. 3 (as shown in Section 3.2), an increase of more than
100%
3.2. and 200% after the second pass was witnessed in the tensile strength along skin and stringer,
Microstructure
respectively. Since Exp. No. 5 at the rotational speed of 560 rpm showed minimum strength along
The macrostructure
the skin, the second pass of was
the weld obtained
performed onfrom
this Exp.
weld.No.In 8this
is shown in Figure
case, the tensile7.strength
Figure 8 along
represents
skin
the corresponding micro-structures as observed under optical microscope.
improved from 177 MPa to 273 MPa, whereas along the stringer, the strength improved from 85 MPa As it is well known for
FSW, the weld structure consists of three different zones, namely, SZ, TMAZ
to 165 MPa. The increase in tensile strength along the stringer for Exp. Nos. 3a and 5a demonstrates and the heat affected
zone (HAZ),
that the effectwhich possess
of kissing bonddifferent
defect hasmechanical
decreasedproperties and grain
to a considerable degreesizes.
afterThese zones pass.
the second can be A
distinctly demarcated in both the skin and stringer material of the welded joint,
minimum rotational speed of 560 rpm does not generate sufficient heat to induce effective metallic as shown in Figure 7.
The interface of skin and stringer metals in the SZ can be observed in Figure
bonding between the two base alloys. On the other hand, the highest rotational speed of 900 rpm 8a. The SZ experiences
highest temperature
excessively and base
softens the degree of plastic
alloy. As adeformation,
result, the toolbecause
is notof the
ablestirring action of the
to consolidate the tool, due
material
to which the material undergoes dynamic recrystallization resulting in very fine,
effectively, which ultimately lowers the tensile strength. Superimposing the optimum tool rotational equi-axed grains.
The
speed TMAZ
of 710experiences
rpm on thesecomparatively smaller heat
welds successfully input andthese
eliminates mainly undergoes induced
shortcomings, leading plastic
to the
deformation. Since partial recrystallization
substantial enhancement of tensile properties. occurs in the TMAZ, grains in this zone can be observed to
be coarser
Alongthan SZ. For both
the stringer, thewelds
all the materials,
failedthe HAZ
from theconsists
interfaceofofgrains
the twowhich
baseare slightly
alloys in SZ,larger than
as shown
the base metal,
in Figure becausealong
5. Whereas, of the prevalent
the skin, 7 outthermal cycle. from
of 9 welds It canTaguchi
be seenLfrom Figure 7 that a broader
9 experimental design failed
SZ
from SZ, in such a manner that the stringer remained intact with the AS of skintosection,
and thinner TMAZ exists for the stringer material as on the AS, in contrast the steeper SZ and
as shown in
broader TMAZ in the RS. This elucidates the fact that a much higher degree of plastic
Figure 6. This is principally due to better intermixing between the two alloys at the AS as compared deformation due
to
to stirring occurs on the Exp.
the RS. Furthermore, AS, in comparison
Nos. 3a and 5awith the RS.
can also be observed to adopt the failure location of Exp.
No. 8, failing from the RS-KB. This is evident of the effective superimposition of material flow
characteristics which improved the weld structure of Exp. Nos. 3 and 5, in coherence with the weld
structure of Exp. No. 8.
The TMAZ experiences comparatively smaller heat input and mainly undergoes induced plastic
deformation. Since
deformation. Since partial
partial recrystallization
recrystallization occurs
occurs in
in the
the TMAZ,
TMAZ, grains
grains in
in this
this zone
zone can
can be
be observed
observed
to be coarser than SZ. For both the materials, the HAZ consists of grains which are
to be coarser than SZ. For both the materials, the HAZ consists of grains which are slightly larger slightly larger
than the
than the base
base metal,
metal, because
because ofof the
the prevalent
prevalent thermal
thermal cycle.
cycle. It
It can
can be
be seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 77 that
that aa broader
broader
SZ and thinner TMAZ exists for the stringer material as on the AS, in contrast to
SZ and thinner TMAZ exists for the stringer material as on the AS, in contrast to the steeper SZthe steeper SZ and
and
broader
Metals 2020,TMAZ
10, 525 in the RS. This elucidates the fact that a much higher degree of plastic deformation
broader TMAZ in the RS. This elucidates the fact that a much higher degree of plastic deformation 8 of 14
due to
due to stirring
stirring occurs
occurs on
on the
the AS,
AS, in
in comparison
comparison with
with the
the RS.
RS.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Macro-structure
Macro-structure of
of weld
weld obtained
obtained from
from Exp.
Exp. No.
No. 8.
8.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Micro-structure
Micro-structure of of weld
weld zones
zones obtained
obtained from
from Exp. No.
No. 88 (a)
(a) Skin-stringer
Skin-stringer interface
interface and
and
Figure 8. Micro-structure of weld zones obtained from Exp. Exp.
No. 8 (a) Skin-stringer interface and various
various
various zones of stringer (b) HAZ-Stringer (c) Base alloy-Stringer (d) SZ-Skin (e) HAZ-Skin (f) Base
zones of zones of (b)
stringer stringer (b) HAZ-Stringer
HAZ-Stringer (c) Base alloy-Stringer
(c) Base alloy-Stringer (d) SZ-Skin(d)
(e)SZ-Skin (e) HAZ-Skin
HAZ-Skin (f) Base
(f) Base alloy-Skin.
alloy-Skin.
alloy-Skin.
Figure 9 represents the presence of kissing bond (KB) defect on both AS and RS of the interface
Figure 99 represents
Figure represents the
the presence
presence of
of kissing
kissing bond
bond (KB)
(KB) defect
defect on
on both
both AS
AS and
and RSRS of the
the interface
between the two alloys. A kissing bond can be seen where the base metals meet in the of
TMAZinterface
regions.
between
between the
the two
two alloys.
alloys. A
A kissing
kissing bond
bond can
can be
be seen
seen where
where the
the base
base metals
metals meet
meet in
in the
the TMAZ
TMAZ regions.
regions.
However, in the SZ, efficient intermixing in AS diminishes the kissing bond as explicit from Figure 9a.
Whereas, the kissing bond remains obtrusive even in the SZ on the RS, due to a lower degree of
plastic deformation.
Weld macro-structures for Exp. Nos. 3, 3a and 5, 5a are shown in Figures 10 and 11, respectively.
A tunnel or void can be clearly seen on the AS of the skin/stringer interface in Figure 10a, which
disappears after second pass. A very high heat input, due to the maximum rotational speed of 900 rpm
in Exp. 3, plasticises a greater amount of material in the SZ. However, the smallest shoulder diameter
of 12 mm appears unable to forge/consolidate this material effectively in the wake of the weld. As a
result, the softened material would flow out of the weld in the form of flash, leading to metal deficiency
and void in the SZ. Pishevar et al. [39] and Chen et al. [40] showed that the heat input during FSW is
dominated by the rotational speed, in comparison with the other parameters, which also supports the
above inference.
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

However, in the SZ, efficient intermixing in AS diminishes the kissing bond as explicit from Figure
9a. Whereas, the kissing bond remains obtrusive even in the SZ on the RS, due to a lower degree
Metals 2020, 10, 525
of
9 of 14
plastic deformation.

Figure 9. Kissing Bond defect at (a) AS and (b) RS at interface of skin and stringer.

Weld macro-structures for Exp. Nos. 3, 3a and 5, 5a are shown in Figures 10 and 11, respectively.
A tunnel or void can be clearly seen on the AS of the skin/stringer interface in Figure 10a, which
disappears after second pass. A very high heat input, due to the maximum rotational speed of 900
rpm in Exp. 3, plasticises a greater amount of material in the SZ. However, the smallest shoulder
diameter of 12 mm appears unable to forge/consolidate this material effectively in the wake of the
weld. As a result, the softened material would flow out of the weld in the form of flash, leading to
metal deficiency and void in the SZ. Pishevar et al. [39] and Chen et al. [40] showed that the heat
input during FSW is dominated by the rotational speed, in comparison with the other parameters,
Figure 9.
Figure
which also supports Kissing
9.the
Kissing
above Bond
Bond defect at
defect
inference. at (a)
(a) AS
AS and
and (b)
(b) RS
RS at
at interface
interface of
of skin
skin and
and stringer.
stringer.

Weld macro-structures for Exp. Nos. 3, 3a and 5, 5a are shown in Figures 10 and 11, respectively.
A tunnel or void can be clearly seen on the AS of the skin/stringer interface in Figure 10a, which
disappears after second pass. A very high heat input, due to the maximum rotational speed of 900
rpm in Exp. 3, plasticises a greater amount of material in the SZ. However, the smallest shoulder
diameter of 12 mm appears unable to forge/consolidate this material effectively in the wake of the
weld. As a result, the softened material would flow out of the weld in the form of flash, leading to
metal deficiency and void in the SZ. Pishevar et al. [39] and Chen et al. [40] showed that the heat
input during FSW is dominated by the rotational speed, in comparison with the other parameters,
which also supports the above inference.

Figure 10.
Figure Macro-structure of
10. Macro-structure of weld
weld obtained
obtained from
from (a)
(a) Exp.
Exp. No.
No. 33 (b)
(b) Exp.
Exp. No.
No.3a.
3a.

Furthermore, a minimum rotational speed of 560 rpm was employed for Exp. No. 5, which results
in lesser softening and the movement of material becomes difficult. As a result, higher flow stress
prevails during welding. Notably and understandably, a tool tilt angle of 2◦ also influences the material
flow dynamics in such a manner that upward extrusion and downward forging of base materials
occurs on the AS and RS, respectively. Thus, the stringer material can be seen to be stretched upwards
and skin material can be seen to be pulled downwards for Exp. No. 5 in Figure 11a. This also elucidates
insufficient metallic bonding between the two materials, due to inadequate heat input. Importantly, an
improvement in the homogenisation of AA2024-AA7075 intermixing is evident after the second pass
for Exp. Nos. Figure
3a and10.5a. This homogenisation occurs due to the superimposition of more suitable
Macro-structure of weld obtained from (a) Exp. No. 3 (b) Exp. No. 3a.
material flow kinematics at optimum value of heat input. Since smaller values of flow stress exist for
AA2024 as compared to AA7075 at identical temperatures, weld fillets have been formed by AA2024 in
Exp. No. 8. However, due to the insufficient softening of AA2024, the AA7075 occupies the weld fillet
in Exp. No. 5.
Metals 2020, 10, 525 10 of 14
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Macro-structure
Macro-structure of
of weld
weld obtained
obtained from
from (a)
(a) Exp.
Exp. No.
No. 5 (b) Exp. No. 5a.

3.3. Micro-Hardness
Furthermore, a minimum rotational speed of 560 rpm was employed for Exp. No. 5, which
results in lesser softening
Micro-hardness and the
distribution movement
along the centreofline
material
of skinbecomes difficult.
and stringer on theAs a result,cross-section
transverse higher flow
stress prevails during welding. Notably and understandably, a tool tilt angle of 2°
for Exp. No. 8 is shown in Figures 12 and 13, respectively. Along the skin, the characteristic “W” plotalso influences the
material
for flow
friction stir dynamics in such ahardenable
welded precipitate manner thatalloysupward
can beextrusion and downward
clearly observed. As foundforging of base
out by various
materials occurs on the AS and RS, respectively. Thus, the stringer material can be
other researchers, the dissolution of strengthening precipitates causes reduction in hardness in the seen to be stretched
upwards
HAZ andand
[41,42] skin material
the can be seen
grain refinement to beits
causes pulled downwards
relative increase infor SZExp.
[43].No.
It is5worth
in Figure 11a. This
noticing that
alsominimum
the elucidatesmicro-hardness
insufficient metallic bonding
of 103.4 between
HV exists the two of
at a distance materials,
8 mm from duethe
to inadequate
weld centreheat input.
on the AS,
Importantly, an improvement in the homogenisation of AA2024-AA7075 intermixing
whereas in the stringer section, a minimum micro-hardness of 124.2 HV occurs at a distance of 9 mm is evident after
the second
from pass
the weld for Exp.
centre. ForNos. 3a and
AA2024, 5a. This homogenisation
a maximum micro-hardnessoccursof 150.4due
HV towas
the observed
superimposition of
in the SZ,
more suitable
which material
is comparable to flow kinematics
that of at optimum
the base alloy, i.e., 168value of heat input.
HV. However, Since smaller values
the micro-hardness valuesofinflow
the
stress exist for AA2024 as compared to AA7075 at identical temperatures,
welded AA7075 section range from 168.9 HV to 124.2 HV, which is considerably less than the base weld fillets have been
formed
alloy by AA2024 in of
micro-hardness Exp.225No.
HV.8.The
However, due to the insufficient
above observation infers thatsoftening
amount ofofsoftening
AA2024, incurred
the AA7075 by
occupies the weld fillet in Exp. No. 5.
AA7075 alloy as stringer is much larger than AA2024 alloy as skin section.
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
3.3. Micro-Hardness
180
Micro-hardness
AS distribution along the centre line of skin and stringer on the transverse cross-
RS
Micro-Hardness (HV)

section for Exp. No. 8 is shown in Figures 12 and160 13, respectively. Along the skin, the characteristic
“W” plot for friction stir welded precipitate hardenable alloys can be clearly observed. As found out
by various other researchers, the dissolution140 of strengthening precipitates causes reduction in
hardness in the HAZ [41,42] and the grain refinement
120 causes its relative increase in SZ [43]. It is worth
noticing that the minimum micro-hardness of 103.4 HV exists at a distance of 8 mm from the weld
100a minimum micro-hardness of 124.2 HV occurs at a
centre on the AS, whereas in the stringer section,
distance of 9 mm from the weld centre. For AA2024, a maximum micro-hardness of 150.4 HV was
80
observed in the SZ, which is comparable to that of the base alloy, i.e., 168 HV. However, the micro-
hardness values in the welded AA7075 section 60 range from 168.9 HV to 124.2 HV, which is
considerably-20
less than-15
the base-10 -5
alloy micro-hardness0 of 225 5HV. The10 15
above observation 20infers that
amount of softening incurred by AA7075 alloy as stringer is much
Distance from weld centre (mm) larger than AA2024 alloy as skin
section.
Figure12.
Figure 12.Micro-hardness
Micro-hardnessdistribution
distribution along
along skin
skinfor
forExp.
Exp.No.
No.8.8.

180
ss (HV)

160

140
 60
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Distance from weld centre (mm)
Metals 2020, 10, 525 11 of 14
Figure 12. Micro-hardness distribution along skin for Exp. No. 8.

180

Micro-Hardness (HV) 160

140

120

100

80

60
0 5 10 15 20
Distance from weld centre (mm)

Figure13.
Figure 13.Micro-hardness
Micro-hardnessdistribution
distribution along
along stringer
stringerfor
forExp.
Exp.No.
No.8.8.

Micro-hardnessdistribution
Micro-hardness distributionalong
along the
the skin
skin section
section for
for Exp.
Exp. Nos.
Nos.3 3and and5,5,before
beforeand
and after
afterthethe
second
second pass
pass isisplotted
plottedininFigures
Figure 1414and
andFigure 15, respectively.
15, respectively. For Exp.
For Exp. No.No. 3, the
3, the hardness
hardness valuesininSZ
values
SZ after the second pass range from 117–126 HV, which is similar to the micro-hardness
after the second pass range from 117–126 HV, which is similar to the micro-hardness in SZ after in SZthe
after
first
the first pass. On the contrary, a significant decrease in micro-hardness values of SZ after the second
pass. On the contrary, a significant decrease in micro-hardness values of SZ after the second pass for
pass for Exp. No. 5 is evident from Figure 15. This can be explained with reference to the rotational
Exp. No. 5 is evident from Figure 15. This can be explained with reference to the rotational speed to
speed to which the welds were subjected in the first FSW pass. For Exp. No. 5, an increase in rotational
which the welds were subjected in the first FSW pass. For Exp. No. 5, an increase in rotational speed
speed occurs, from 560 rpm in the first pass to 710 rpm in the second pass. As discussed in Section
occurs, from 560 rpm in the first pass to 710 rpm in the second pass. As discussed in Section 3.2, such a
3.2, such a change in rotational speed leads to greater heat input in the second pass, which results in
change in rotational speed leads to greater heat input in the second pass, which results in the better
the better softening and higher degree of plastic deformation of SZ. However, this is not the case for
softening
Exp. Nos. and higher
3 and 3a. degree of plastic
Thus, such deformation
an observation has of
notSZ. However,
been this isfor
encountered not theNo.
Exp. case3.for
TheExp. Nos. 3
aberrant
and 3a. Thus,
peaks such an observation
in micro-hardness values inhasthe not been
SZ for encountered
Exp. foroccur
No. 5a likely Exp.due
No.to3.heterogeneous
The aberrantmixing
peaks in
micro-hardness values in the SZ for Exp. No. 5a likely occur due to heterogeneous
with the harder stringer material, which can be observed in Figure 11. Notably, a considerable mixing with the
harder
improvement in micro-hardness values occurs beyond the SZ after the second pass for both Exp. Nos. in
stringer material, which can be observed in Figure 11. Notably, a considerable improvement
micro-hardness
3Metals 5. 10, x values
and2020, occurs beyond the SZ after the second pass for both Exp. Nos. 3 and 5.
FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
The presence of a void in the SZ has also been reflected as a sudden fall of micro-hardness for
Exp. No. 3.
170
AS 160
RS
Micro-hardness (HV)

150
140
130
120
110
Exp. No. 3
100
Exp. No. 3a
90
80
-18 -13 -8 -3 2 7 12 17
Distance from weld centre (mm)

Figure
Figure 14.14.Micro-hardness
Micro-hardnessdistribution
distribution along
along skin
skin for
for Exp.
Exp.Nos.
Nos.3 3and
and3a.3a.

170
AS RS
ess (HV)

160

150
 90
80
-18 -13 -8 -3 2 7 12 17
Distance from weld centre (mm)
Metals 2020, 10, 525 12 of 14
Figure 14. Micro-hardness distribution along skin for Exp. Nos. 3 and 3a.

170
Micro-hardness (HV) AS RS
160

150

140

130

120
Exp. No. 5

110
Exp. No. 5a
100
-17 -12 -7 -2 3 8 13
Distance from weld centre (mm)

Figure
Figure 15.15.
Micro-hardness
Micro-hardnessdistribution
distributionalong
along skin
skin for Exp.
Exp. Nos.
Nos.55and
and5a.
5a.

The presence of a void in the SZ has also been reflected as a sudden fall of micro-hardness for Exp.
4. Conclusions
No. 3.
In the present study, the effect of the second pass with altered process parameters on defects
occurring
4. Conclusions in dissimilar T-friction stir welds was addressed, with reference to the mechanical and
micro-structural features. The following conclusions can be drawn based upon the outcomes of this
In the present study, the effect of the second pass with altered process parameters on defects
study:
occurring in dissimilar
(1) The tunnellingT-friction
defect wasstir welds was
eliminated andaddressed,
a significantwith reference
decrement to the
in the mechanical
obtrusive and
effect of
micro-structural features. by
KB defect was achieved The following
applying second conclusions can at
welding pass beoptimum
drawn based upon which
parameters the outcomes
induced of
thisincreased
study: inter-mixing between the AA2024 and AA7075 alloys. A greater degree of plastic
deformation at AS helps
(1) The tunnelling in overcoming
defect was eliminatedKB defect
and aatsignificant
this side ofdecrement
the weld. in the obtrusive effect of KB
(2) A considerable decrease in micro-hardness of the
defect was achieved by applying second welding pass at optimum parameters SZ occurs when awhich higherinduced
tool rotational
increased
speed of 710
inter-mixing rpm was
between theapplied
AA2024 in the
andsecond
AA7075 pass. Whereas,
alloys. whendegree
A greater a lesserofrotational speed than that
plastic deformation at AS
of first
helps pass is applied,
in overcoming KBadefect
negligible change
at this side inof the
themicro-hardness
weld. of SZ was encountered. The decrease
in (2)
micro-hardness
A considerableof the stringer in
decrease alloy, i.e., AA7075 alloy,
micro-hardness of thewas
SZmuch larger
occurs when thana the decrement
higher in the
tool rotational
speed of 710 rpm was applied in the second pass. Whereas, when a lesser rotational speed than that of
first pass is applied, a negligible change in the micro-hardness of SZ was encountered. The decrease in
micro-hardness of the stringer alloy, i.e., AA7075 alloy, was much larger than the decrement in the
hardness values of the AA2024 alloy. The appearance of aberrant peaks in micro-hardness distribution
in SZ after the second pass indicate improved skin-stringer intermixing.
(3) For the weld exhibiting a void in the SZ in first pass, the ultimate tensile strength along skin
increased from 150 MPa to 307 MPa after the second pass. Tensile strength along stringer also improved
over 100% in comparison with the welds before the second pass. This positive restoration of weld
structures occurs due to enhanced material flow dynamics at ideal heat input.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.H.A., A.N.S., D.B. and M.A.; methodology, A.N.S., M.H.A., A.U.R;
formal analysis, D.B., N.A., H.I., S.A.; investigation, D.B., N.A., H.I., S.A.; resources, A.N.S., and M.H.A.; data
curation, D.B., A.N.S., M.H.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.N.S., D.B., M.A.; writing—review and
editing, A.N.S., M.H.A., A.U.R.; supervision, A.N.S., M.A.; project administration, M.H.A., M.A., A.N.S.; funding
acquisition, M.A., A.U.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University, through research
group number RG-1439-027.
Acknowledgments: The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud
University for funding this work through research group number RG-1439-027.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Metals 2020, 10, 525 13 of 14

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